somewhat loosely used at all times, came gradually to cover almost
every form of humorous art, from the pictorial wit and wisdom of Sir
John Tenniel to the weird grotesques of Mr S.H. Sime, from the gay
pleasantries of Randolph Caldecott to the graceful but sedate fancies
of Mr Walter Crane. It is made to embrace alike the social studies,
satirical and sympathetic, of Du Maurier and Keene, the political
cartoons of Mr Harry Furniss and Sir F.C. Gould, the unextenuating
likenesses of "Ape," and "Spy," and "Max," the subtle conceits of Mr
Linley Sambourne, the whimsicalities of Mr E.T. Reed, the exuberant
burlesques of Mr J.F. Sullivan, the frank buffooneries of W.G. Baxter,
Of these diverse forms of graphic humour, some have no other object
than to amuse, and therefore do not call for serious notice. The work
of Mr Max Beerbohm ("Max") has the note of originality and
extravagance too; while that of "Spy" (Mr Leslie Ward) in _Vanity
Fair_, if it does not rival the occasional brilliancy of his
predecessor "Ape" (Carlo Pellegrini, 1839-1889), maintains a higher
average of merit. The pupil, too, is much more genial than the master,
and he is content if his pencil evokes the comment, "How ridiculously
like!" Caricature of this kind is merely an entertainment. Here we are
concerned rather with those branches of caricature which, merrily or
mordantly, reflect and comment upon the actual life we live. In
treating of recent caricature of this kind, we must give the first
place to _Punch_. Mr Punch's outlook upon life has not changed much
since the 'seventies of the last century. His influence upon the tone
of caricature made itself felt most appreciably in the days of John
Leech and Richard Doyle. Their successors but follow in their steps.
In their work, says a clever German critic, is to be found no vestige
of the "sour bilious temper of John Bull" that pervaded the pictures
of Hogarth and Rowlandson. Charles Keene (1823-1891) and Du Maurier
(1834-1896), he declares, are not caricaturists or satirists, but
amiable and tenderly grave observers of life, friendly optimists. The
characterization is truer of Keene, perhaps, than of Du Maurier.
Charles Keene's sketches are almost always cheerful; almost without
exception they make you smile or laugh. In many of Du Maurier's, on
the other hand, there is an underlying seriousness. While Keene looks
on at life with easy tolerance, an amused spectator, Du Maurier shows
himself sensitive, emotional, sympathetic, taking infinite delight in
what is pretty and gay and charming, but hurt and offended by the
sordid and the ugly. Thus while Keene takes things dispassionately as
they come, seeing only the humorous side of them, we find Du Maurier
ever and anon attacking some new phase of snobbishness or philistinism
or cant. For all his kindliness in depicting congenial scenes, he is
at times as unrelenting a satirist as Rowlandson. The other _Punch_
artists, whose work is in the same field, resemble Keene in this
respect rather than Du Maurier. Mr Leonard Raven-Hill recalls Charles
Keene not merely in temperament but in technique; like Keene, too, he
finds his subjects principally in _bourgeois_ life. Mr J. Bernard
Partridge, though, like Du Maurier, he has an eye for physical beauty,
is a spectator rather than a critic of life, yet he has made his mark
as a "cartoonist." Phil May (d. 1903), a modern Touchstone, is less
easily classified. Though he wears the cap and bells, he is alive to
the pity of things; he sees the pathos no less than the humour of his
street-boys and "gutter-snipes." He is, however, a jester primarily:
an artist, too, of high achievement. Two others stand out as masters
of the art of social caricature--Frederick Barnard and Mr J.F.
Sullivan. Barnard's illustrations to Dickens, like his original
sketches, have a lively humour--the humour of irrepressible high
spirits--and endless invention. High spirits and invention are
characteristics also of Mr Sullivan. It is at the British artisan and
petty tradesman--at the grocer given to adulteration and the plumber
who outstays his welcome--that he aims his most boisterous fun. He
rebels, too, delightfully, against red tape and all the petty
tyrannies of officialdom. In political caricature Sir John Tenniel
(_q.v._) remained the leading artist of his day. The death of Abraham
Lincoln, Bismarck's fall from power, the tragedy of Khartum--to
subjects such as these, worthy of a great painter, Tenniel has brought
a classic simplicity and a sense of dignity unknown previously to
caricature. It is hard to say in which field Tenniel most
excels--whether in those ingenious parables in which the British Lion
and the Russian Bear, John Chinaman, Jacques Bonhomme and Uncle Sam
play their part--or in the ever-changing scenes of the great
parliamentary Comedy--or in sombre dramas of Anarchy, Famine or
Crime--or in those London extravaganzas in which the symbolic
personalities of Gog and Magog, Father Thames and the Fog Fiend, the
duke of Mudford and Mr Punch himself, have become familiar. Subjects
similar to these have been treated also for many years by Mr Linley
Sambourne in his fanciful and often beautiful designs. In the field of
humorous portraiture also, as in cartoon-designing, Mr Sambourne has
made his mark, and he may be said almost to have originated, in a
small way, that practice of illustrating the doings of parliament with
comic sketches in which Mr Furniss, Mr E.T. Reed and Sir F.C. Gould
were his most notable successors. Mr Furniss satirized the Royal
Academy as effectively as the Houses of Parliament, but he has been
above all the illustrator of parliament--the creator of Mr Gladstone's
collars, the thief of Lord Randolph Churchill's inches, the
immortalizer of so many otherwise obscure politicians who has worked
the House of Commons and its doings into so many hundreds of eccentric
designs. But Mr Furniss was never, like Sir F.C. Gould (of the
_Westminster Gazette_), a politician first and a caricaturist
afterwards. Gould is an avowed partisan, and his caricatures became
the most formidable weapons of the Radical party. Caustic, witty and
telling, not specially well drawn, but drawn well enough--the
likenesses unfailingly caught and recognizable at a glance--his
"Picture Politics" won him a place unique in the ranks of
caricaturists. There is no evidence of such strenuousness in the work
of Mr E.T. Read (of _Punch_). In his parliamentary sketches, as in
his "Animal Land" and "Prehistoric Peeps," Mr Reed is a wholly
irresponsible humorist and parodist. One finds keen satire, however,
in those "Ready-made Coats of Arms," in which he turned at once his
heraldic lore and his insight into character to excellent account. In
his more serious picture in which he has drawn a parallel between the
_tricoteuses_ awaiting with grim enjoyment the fall of the guillotine
and those modern English gentlewomen who flock to the Old Bailey as to
the play, we have the true Hogarthian touch. Mr Gunning King, Mr F.H.
Townshend, Mr C.E. Brock, Mr Tom Browne, are among the younger
humorists who have advanced to the front rank. Though there have been
some notable competitors with _Punch_, there has never been a really
"good second." In Matt Morgan the _Tomahawk_ (1865-1867) could boast
an original cartoonist after Tenniel's style, but without Tenniel's
power and humour. Morgan's _Tomahawk_ cartoons gained in effect from
an ingenious method of printing in two colours. In Fred Barnard, W.G.
Baxter, and Mr J.F. Sullivan, _Judy_ (founded in 1867) possessed a
trio of pictorial humorists of the first rank, and in W. Bowcher a
political cartoonist thoroughly to the taste of those hot and strong
Conservatives to whom _Punch's_ faint Whiggery was but Radicalism in
disguise. His successor, Mr William Parkinson, was not less loyal to
Tory ideas, though more urbane in his methods. _Fun_ has had
cartoonists of high merit in Mr Gordon Thomson and in Mr John Proctor,
who worked also for _Moonshine_ (founded in 1879, now extinct).
_Moonshine_ afterwards enlisted the services of Alfred Bryan, to whose
clever pencil the Christmas number of the _World_ was indebted for
many years. _Ally Sloper_, founded in 1884, is notable only as the
widely circulated medium for W.G. Baxter's wild humours, kept up in
the same spirit by Mr W.F. Thomas, his successor. _Pick-me-up_ could
once count a staff which rivalled at least the social side of _Punch_;
Mr Raven-Hill, Phil May, Mr Maurice Greiffenhagen and Mr Dudley Hardy
all contributed in their time to its sprightly pages, while Mr S.H.
Sime made it the vehicle for his "squint-brained" imaginings. The
_Will o' the Wisp_, the _Butterfly_ and the _Unicorn_, kindred
ventures, though on different lines, all met with an early death.
_Lika Joko_, founded in 1894 by Mr Harry Furniss, who in that year
abandoned _Punch_, and afterwards _Fair Game_, were also short-lived.
To this brief list of purely comic or satirical journals should be
added the names of several daily and weekly publications--and among
monthlies the _Idler_, with its caricatures by Mr Scott Rankin, Mr
Sime and Mr Beerbohm--which have made a special feature of humorous
art. Among these are the _Graphic_, whose Christmas numbers were first
brightened by Randolph Caldecott; the _Daily Graphic_, enlivened
sometimes by Phil May and Mr A.S. Boyd; _Vanity Fair_, with its
grotesque portraits; _Truth_, to whose Christmas numbers Sir F.C.
Gould contributed some of his best and most ambitious work, printed in
colours; the _Sketch_, with Phil May and others; _Black and White_,
with Mr Henry Meyer; the _Pall Mall Gazette_, first with Sir F.C.
Gould, and later with Mr G.R. Halkett. The _St Stephen's Review_,
whose crudely powerful cartoons, the work of Tom Merry, were so
popular, ceased publication in 1892. A tribute should be paid in
conclusion to the coloured cartoons of the _Weekly Freeman_ and other
Irish papers, often remarkable for their humour and talent. (See also
CARTOON and ILLUSTRATION.)
_France_.--In that peculiar branch of art which is based on irony,
fun, oddity and wit, and in which Honore Daumier (1808-1879), next to
"Gavarni" (1804-1866), remains the undisputed master, France--as has
already been shown--can produce an unbroken series of draughtsmen of
strong individuality. Though "Cham" died in 1879, Eugene Giraud in
1881, "Randon" in 1884, "Andre Gill" in 1885, "Marcelin" in 1887,
Edouard de Beaumont in 1888, Lami in 1891, Alfred Grevin in 1892, and
"Stop" in 1899, a new group arose under the leadership of "Nadar" (b.
1820) and Etienne Carjat (b. 1828). Mirthful or satirical, and less
philosophical than of yore, neglecting history for incident, and
humanity for the puppets of the day, their drawings, which illustrate
daily events, will perpetuate the manner and anecdotes of the time,
though the illustrations to newspapers, or prints which need a
paragraph of explanation, show nothing to compare with the _Propos de
Thomas Virelocque_ by "Gavarni." Quantity perhaps makes up for
quality, and some of these artists deserve special mention. "Draner"
(b. 1833) and "Henriot" (b. 1857) are journalists, carrying on the
method first introduced by "Cham" in the _Univers Illustre_: realistic
sketches, with no purpose beyond the droll illustration of facts,
amusing at the time, but of no value to the print-collector. M. J.L.
Forain, born at Reims in 1852, studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts
under Jean Leon Gerome and J.B. Carpeaux. He first worked for the
_Courrier Francais_ in 1887, and afterwards for _Figaro_; he was then
drawn into the polemical work of politics. Though he has created some
great types of flunkeydom, the explanatory story is more to him than
the picture, which is often too sketchy, though masterly. Reduced
reproductions of his work have been issued in volumes, a common form
of popularity never attempted with Daumier's fine lithographs. M. A.L.
Willette, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1857, a son of Colonel
Willette, the aide-de-camp to Marshal Bazaine, worked for four years
in Alexandre Cabanel's studio, and so gained an artistic training
which alone would have distinguished him from his fellows, even
without the delightful poetical fancy and Watteau-like grace which are
somewhat unexpected amid the ugliness of modern life. His work has
the value, no doubt, of deep and various meaning, but it has also
intrinsic artistic worth. M. Willette is, in fact, the ideal
delineator of the more voluptuous and highly spiced aspects of
contemporary life. "Caran d'Ache," a native of Moscow, born in 1858,
borrowed from the German caricaturists--mainly from W. Busch--his
methods of illustrating "a story without words." He makes fun even of
animals, and is a master of canine physiognomy. His simple and
unerring outline is a method peculiarly his own; now and again his wit
rises to grandiloquence, as in his _Bellona_, rushing on an automobile
through massacre and conflagrations, and in his _Epopee_ (Epic) of
shadows thrown on a sheet. Among his followers may be included A.
Guillaume and Gerbault. M.C.L. Leandre, born at Champsecret (Orne), in
1862, is, like "Andre Gill," a draughtsman of monstrosities; he can
get a perfect likeness of a face while exaggerating some particular
feature, gives his figure a hump-back, as Dantan did in his
statuettes, and has a facial dexterity which sometimes does scant
justice to his very original wit. At the same time he has a true sense
of beauty. M. Theophile A. Steinlen, born at Lausanne in 1859, went to
Paris in 1881. He should be studied in his illustrations to _Bruant_.
He knows the inmost core of the Butte-Montmartre, and depicts it with
realistic and brutal relish. M. Albert Robida, born at Compiegne in
1848, collaborated with Decaux in 1871 to found _La Caricature_; he is
a paradoxical seer of the possible future and a curiosity-hunter of
the past. Old Paris has no secrets from him; he knows all the old
stones and costumes of the middle ages, and has illustrated Rabelais;
and for fertility of fancy he reminds us of Gustave Dore, but with a
sense of movement so vibrant as to be almost distressing. "Bac," born
at Vienna in 1859, has infused a strain of the Austrian woman into the
Parisienne; representing her merely as a pleasure- and love-seeking
creature, as the toy of an evening, he has recorded her peccadilloes,
her witcheries and her vices. Others who have shot folly as it flies
are M. Albert Guillaume, who illustrated the Exhibition of 1900 in a
series of remarkable silhouettes; "Mars"; "Henri Somm"; Gerbault; and
Grun. M. Huard depicts to perfection the country townsfolk in their
elementary psychology. M. Hermann Paul, M. Forain's not unworthy
successor on the _Figaro_, is a cruel satirist, who in a single face
can epitomize a whole class of society, and could catalogue the actors
of the _comedie humaine_ in a series of drawings. M. Jean Veber loves
fantastic subjects, the gnomes of fairy-tales and myths; but he has a
biting irony for contemporary history, as in the _Butcher's Shop_,
where Bismarck is the blood-stained butcher. M. Abel Faivre, a refined
and charming painter, is a whimiscal humorist with the pencil. He
shows us monstrous women, fabulously hideous, drawing them with a sort
of realism which is droll by sheer ugliness. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
startles us by extraordinary dislocations, scrawled limbs and
inexplicable anatomy; he has left an inimitable series of sketches of
Mme Yvette Guilbert when she was at her thinnest. M. Felix Vallotton
reproduces crows in blots of black with a Japanese use of the brush.
M. G. Jeanniot, a notable illustrator, sometimes amuses himself by
contributing to _Le Rire, Le Sourire, Le Pompon, L'Assiette au
Beurre_, &c., drawing the two types he most affects: the fashionable
world and soldiers. M. Ibels, Capiello and many more might be
enumerated, but it is impossible to chronicle all the clever humorous
artists of the illustrated papers.
It is the frequent habit of French caricaturists to employ a
_nom-de-guerre_. We therefore give here a list of the genuine names
represented by the pseudonyms used above, together with others
familiar to the public:--
"Andre Gill" = L.A. Gosset de Guine (1840-1885).
"Bac" ("Cab" and
"Saro") = Ferdinand Bach (b. 1859).
"Caran d'Ache" = Emmanuel Poire.
"Cham" = Comte Amedee de Noe (b. 1818).
"Crafty" = Victor Gerusez (b. 1840).
"Draner" (and "Paf") = Jules Renard (b. 1833).
"Faustin" = Faustin Betbeder (b. 1847).
"Gavarni" = S.G. Chevalier (1804-1866).
"Gedeon" = Gedeon Baril (b. 1832).
"Grandville" = J.I.I. Gerard (1803-1847).
"Henriot" (and "Piff") = Henri Maigrot (b. 1857).
"Henri Somm" = Henri Sommier (b. 1844).
"Job" = J.O. de Breville (b. 1858).
"Marcelin" = Emile Planat (1825-1887).
"Mars" = Maurice Bonvoisin (b. 1849).
"Moloch" = Colomb (b. 1849).
"Montbard" = C.A. Loye (1841-1905).
"Nadar" = Felix Tournachon (b. 1820).
"Pasquin" = Georges Coutan (b. 1853).
"Pepin" = Ed. Guillaume (b. 1842).
"Randon" = Gilbert (1814-1845).
"Sahib" = L.E. Lesage (b. 1847).
"Said" = Alphonse Levy (b. 1845).
"Sem" = George Goursat.
"Stop" = L.P. Morel-Retz (b. 1825).
_Germany_.--During the later 19th century German caricature flourished
principally in the comic papers _Kladderadatsch_ of Berlin and
_Fliegende Blatter_ of Munich; the former a political paper with
little artistic value, in which the ideas alone are clever, whilst
the illustrations are merely a more or less clumsy adjunct to the
text, while the _Fliegende Blatter_, on the contrary, has artistic
merit as well as wit. Wilhelm Busch (b. 1832), the most brilliant
German draughtsman of the last generation, made his _debut_ with an
illustrated poem "The Peasant and the Miller," and won a world-wide
reputation with the following works: _Pater Filucius, Die Fromme
Helene, Max und Moritz, Der heilige Antonius, Maler Kleksel, Balduin
Bahlamm, Die Erlebnisse Knopps des Junggesellen_. Busch stands alone
among the caricaturists of his nation, inasmuch as he is both the
author and the illustrator of these works, his witty doggerel
supplying Germany with household words. The drawings that accompany
the text are amazing for the skill and directness with which he hits
the vital mark. A flourish or two and a few touches are enough to set
before us figures of intensely comical aspect. This distinguishes
Busch from Adolf Oberlander (1845), who became the chief draughtsman
on _Fliegende Blatter_. Busch's drawings would have no meaning apart
from the humorous words. Oberlander works with the pencil only. Men,
animals, trees, objects, are endowed by him with a mysterious life of
their own. Without the help of any verbal joke, he achieves the
funniest results simply by seeing and accentuating the comical side of
everything. His drawings are caricature in the strict sense of the
word, its principle being the exaggeration of some natural
characteristic. The new generation of contributors to _Fliegende
Blatter_ do not work on these lines. Busch and Oberlander were both
offshoots of the romantic school; they made fun of modern novelties.
Hermann Schlittgen, Meggendorfer, H. Vogel-Plauen, Rene Reinicke,
Adolf Hengeler and Fritz Wahle are the sons of a self-satisfied time,
triumphing in its own _chic_, elegance and grace; hence they do not
parody what they see, but simply depict it. The wit lies exclusively
in the text; the illustrations aim merely at a direct representation
of street or drawing-room scenes. It is this which gives to _Fliegende
Blatter_ its value as a pictorial record of the history of German
manners. Its pages are a permanent authority on the subject for those
who desire to see the social aspects of Germany during the last
quarter of the 19th century onwards. At the same time a falling-off in
the brilliancy of this periodical was perceptible. Its fun became
domestic and homely; it has faithfully adhered to the old technique of
wood-engraving, and made no effort to keep pace with the modern
methods of reproduction. German caricature, to live and flourish, was
not keeping pace with the development of the art; it had to take into
its service the gay effects of colour, and derive fresh inspiration
from the sweeping lines of the ornamental draughtsman. This led to the
appearance of three new weekly papers: _Jugend, Das Narrenschiff_ and
_Simplicissimus_. _Jugend_, started in 1896 by Georg Hirth in Munich,
collected from the first a group of gifted young artists, more
especially Thony, Bernhard Pankok and Julius Diez, who based their
style on old German wood-engraving; Fidus, who lavished the utmost
beauty of line in unshaded pen-and-ink work; Rudolf Wilke, whose
grotesques have much in common with Forain's clever drawings; Angelo
Jank and R.M. Eichler, who work with a delightful _bonhomie_. Among
the draughtsmen on the _Narrenschiff_ (The Ship of Fools), Hans
Baluschek is worthy of mention as having made the types of Berlin life
all his own; and while this paper gives us for the most part
inoffensive satire on society, _Simplicissimus_, first printed at
Munich and then at Zurich, under the editorship of Albert Langen,
shows a marked Socialist and indeed Anarchist tendency, subjecting to
ridicule and mockery everything that has hitherto been held as
unassailable by such weapons; it reminds us of the scathing satire of
Honore Daumier in _La Caricature_ at the time of Louis Philippe.
Thomas Theodor Heine (1867) is unsurpassed in this style for his power
of expression and variety of technique. We must admire his delicate
draughtsmanship, or again, his drawing of the figure with the heavy
line of heraldic ornament, and his broad and monumental grasp of the
grotesque. His laughter is often insolent, but he is more often the
preacher, scourge in hand, who ruthlessly unveils all the dark side of
life. Next to him come Paul, an incomparable limner of student life
and the manners and customs of the Bavarian populace; E. Thony, a
wonderfully clever caricaturist of the airs and assumption of the
Prussian _Junker_ and the Prussian subaltern; J.C. Eugh and F. von
Regnieck, who make fun of the townsman and political spouter in biting
and searching satire. The standard of caricature is at the present
time a high one in Germany; indeed, the modern adoption of the
pen-line, which has arisen since the impressionists in oil-painting
repudiated line, had its origin in the influence of caricature.
_United States._--The proverbial irreverence of the American mind even
towards its most cherished personages and ideals has made it
particularly responsive to the appeal of caricature. At first an
importation, it developed but slowly; then it burst into luxuriant
growth, sometimes exceeding the limits of wise and careful
cultivation. In the early period of American caricature, almost the
only native is F.O.C. Darley (1822-1888), an illustrator of some
importance; the other names include the engraver Paul Revere (chiefly
famous for a picturesque exploit in the War of Independence); a
Scotsman, William Charles; the Englishmen, Matt Morgan and E.P.
Bellew; and the Germans, Thomas Nast and Joseph Keppler.
The name of Thomas Nast overshadows and sums up American political
caricature. Nast, who was born in Bavaria in 1840, was brought to
America at the age of six; and his training and all his interests were
strongly American. At fourteen he was an illustrator on _Leslie's
Weekly_, and was sent at twenty to England to illustrate the famous
Sayers-Heenan prize-fight. He then went as recorder of Garibaldi's
campaign of 1860. He returned to America known only as an illustrator.
The Civil War did not awaken his latent genius till 1864, when he
published a cartoon of fierce irony against the political party which
opposed Lincoln's re-election and advocated peace measures with the
Southern confederacy. This cartoon not only made Nast famous, but may
be said to contain the germ of American caricature; for all that had
gone before was too crude in technique to pass muster even as good
caricature.
The magnificent corruption of Tammany Hall under the leadership of
William M. Tweed, the first of the great municipal "bosses," gave Nast
a subject worth attacking. Siegfried, earnest but light-hearted, armed
with the mightier sword of the pen of ridicule, assailed the monster
ensconced in his treasure-cave, and after a long battle won a
brilliant victory. Nast did not always rely on a mere picture to carry
his thrust; often his cartoon consisted of only a minor figure or two
looking at a large placard on which a long and poignantly-worded
attack was delivered in cold type. At other times the most ingenious
pictorial subtlety was displayed. This long series sounds almost the
whole gamut of caricature, from downright ridicule to the most lofty
denunciation. A very happy device was the representation of Tweed's
face by a money-bag with only dollar marks for features, a device
which, strangely enough, made a curiously faithful likeness of the
"boodle"-loving despot. When, finally, Tweed took to flight, to escape
imprisonment, he was recognized and caught, it is said, entirely
through the wide familiarity given to his image in Nast's cartoons.
When Nast retired from _Harper's Weekly_, he was succeeded by Charles
Green Bush (born 1842; died 1909). With even greater technical
resources, he poured forth a series of cartoons of remarkable evenness
of skill and interest; he soon left weekly for daily journalism. He
never won, single-handed, such a battle as Nast's, but his drawings
have a more general, perhaps a more lasting interest. When he left
_Harper's Weekly_ he was succeeded by W.A. Rogers, who composed many
ingenious and telling cartoons.
The vogue which, through Nast, _Harper's Weekly_ gave to caricature,
prepared the way for the first purely comic weekly paper, _Puck_,
founded by two Germans, and for long published in a German as well as
an English edition--a journal which has cast its influence generally
in favour of the Democratic party. It is worth noting that not only
the founders but the spirit of American caricature have been rather
German than English, the American comic papers more closely resembling
_Fliegende Blatter_, for example, than _Punch._ One of the founders of
_Puck_ was Joseph Keppler (1838-1894), long its chief caricaturist.
The Republican party soon found a champion in _Judge_, a weekly
satirical paper which resembles _Puck_ closely in its crudely coloured
pages, though somewhat broader and less ambitious in the spirit and
execution of its black-and-white illustrations. These two papers have
kept rather strictly to permanent staffs, and have furnished the
opening for many popular draughtsmen, such as Bernhard Gillam (d.
1896), and his brother, Victor; J.A. Wales (d. 1886); E. Zimmerman,
whose extremely plebeian and broadly treated types often obscure the
observation and Falstaffian humour displayed in them; Grant Hamilton;
Frederick Opper, for many years devoted to the trials of suburban
existence, and later concerned in combating the trusts; C.J. Taylor, a
graceful technician; H. Smith; Frank A. Nankivell, whose pretty
athletic girls are prone to attitudinizing; J. Mortimer Flagg; F.M.
Howarth; Mrs Frances O'Neill Latham, whose personages are singularly
well modelled and alive; and Miss Baker Baker, a skilful draughtswoman
of animals.
A stimulus to genuine art in caricature was given by the establishment
(1883) of the weekly _Life_, edited by J.A. Mitchell, a clever
draughtsman as well as an original writer. It is to this paper that
America owes the discovery and encouragement of its most remarkable
artist humorist, Charles Dana Gibson, whose technique has developed
through many interesting phases from exceeding delicacy to a
sculpturesque boldness of line without losing its rich texture, and
without becoming monotonous. Mr Gibson is chiefly beloved by his
public for his almost idolatrous realizations of the beautiful
American woman of various types, ages and environments. His works are,
however, full of the most subtle character-observations, and American
men of all walks of life, and foreigners of every type, impart as much
importance and humour to his pages as his "Gibson girls" give
radiance. His admitted devotion to Du Maurier, in reverence for the
beautiful woman beautifully attired, has led some critics to set him
down as a mere disciple, while his powerful individuality has led
others to accuse him of monotony; but a serious examination of his
work has seemed to reveal that he has gone beyond the genius of Du
Maurier in sophistication, if not in variety, of subjects and
treatment. As much as any other artist Mr Gibson has studiously tried
new experiments in the new fields opened by modernized processes of
photo-engraving, and has been an important influence in both English
and American line-illustration.
Among other students of society, particular success has been achieved
by C.S. Reinhart (1844-1896), Charles Howard Johnson (d. 1895), H.W.
M'Vickar, S.W. van Schaick, A.E. Sterner, W.H. Hyde, W.T. Smedley and
A.B. Wenzell, each of them strongly individual in manner and often
full of _verve_ and truth.
_Life_, and other comic papers, including for many years _Truth_, also
brought forward caricaturists of distinct worth and a marked tendency
to specialization. F.E. Atwood (d. 1900) was ingenious in cartoons
lightly allegorical; Oliver Herford has shown a fascination elusive of
analysis in his drawings as in his verse; T.S. Sullivant has made a
quaintly intellectual application of the old-world devices of large
heads, small bodies, and the like; Peter Newell has developed
individuality both in treatment and in humour; E.W. Kemble is
noteworthy among the exploiters of negro life; and H.B. Eddy, Augustus
Dirk, Robert L. Wagner, A. Anderson, F. Sarka and J. Swinnerton have
all displayed marked individuality.
In distinction from the earlier period, the modern school of American
caricature is strongly national, not only in subject, but in origin,
training and in mental attitude, exception being made of a few notable
figures, such as Michael Angelo Woolf, born in England, and of a
somewhat Cruikshankian technique. He came to America while young, and
contributed a long series of what may be called slum-fantasies,
instinct alike with laughter and sorrow, at times strangely combining
extravagant melodrama with a most plausible and convincing
impossibility. His drawings must always lie very close to the
affections of the large audience that welcomed them. American also by
adoption is Henry Mayer, a German by birth, who has contributed to
many of the chief comic papers of France, England, Germany and
America.
Entirely native in every way is the art of A.B. Frost (b. 1851), a
prominent humorist who deals with the life of the common people. His
caricature (he is also an illustrator of versatility and importance)
is distinguished by its anatomical knowledge, or, rather, anatomical
imagination. Violent as the action of his figures frequently is, it is
always convincing. Such triumphs as the tragedy of the kind-hearted
man and the ungrateful bull-calf; the spinster's cat that ate rat
poison, and many others, force the most serious to laughter by their
amazing velocity of action and their unctuousness of expression. Frost
is to American caricature what "Artemus Ward" has been to American
humour, and his field of publication has been chiefly the monthly
magazine.
The influence of the weekly periodicals has been briefly traced. A
later development was the entrance of the omnivorous daily newspaper
into the field of both the magazine and the weekly. For many years
almost every newspaper has printed its daily cartoon, generally of a
political nature. Few of the cartoonists have been able to keep up the
pace of a daily inspiration, but C.G. Bush has been unusually
successful in the attempt. Yet an occasional success atones for many
slips, and the cartoonists are known and eagerly watched. The most
influential has doubtless been Homer C. Davenport, whose slender
artistic resources have been eked out by a vigour and mercilessness of
assault rare even in American annals. He has a Rabelaisian complacency
and skill in making a portrait magnificently repulsive, and his
caricatures are a vivid example of the school of cartoonists who
believe in slashing rather than merely prodding or tickling the object
of attack. Charles Nelan (1859-1904) frequently scored, and in the
wide extent of the United States one finds keen wits busily assailing
the manifold evils of life. Noteworthy among them are: Thos. E.
Powers, H.R. Heaton, Albert Levering, Clare Angell and R.C. Swayne.
_Scandinavia._--Caricature flourishes also in the Scandinavian
countries, but few names are known beyond their borders. Professor
Hans Tegner of Denmark is an exception; his illustrations to Hans
Andersen (English edition, 1900) have carried his name wherever that
author is appreciated, yet his reputation was made in the Danish
_Punch_, which was founded after the year 1870 but has long ceased to
exist. Alfred Schmidt and Axel Thiess have contributed notable
sketches to _Puk_ and its successor _Klockhaus_, but in point of style
they scarcely carry on the tradition of their predecessor, Fritz
Jurgensen. Among humorous artists of Norway, Th. Kittelsen perhaps
holds the leading place, and in Sweden, Bruno Liljefors, best known as
a brilliant painter of bird life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Rules for Drawing Caricature, with an Essay on Comic
Painting_, by Francis Grose (8vo, London, 1788); _Historical Sketch of
the Art of Caricaturing_, by J. Peller Malcolm (4to, London, 1813);
_History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art_, by Thomas
Wright (8vo, London, 1865); _Musee de la caricature_, by Jaime; (a)
_Histoire de la caricature antique_; (b) _Histoire de la caricature au
moyen age et sous la renaissance_; (c) _Histoire de la caricature sous
la reforme et la ligue_; (d) _Histoire de la caricature sous la
republique, l'empire, et la restauration_; (e) _Histoire de la
caricature moderne_ (5 vols.), by Champfleury (i.e. Jules Fleury),
(8vo, Paris); _Le Musee secret de la caricature_, by Champfleury (i.e.
Jules Fleury), (8vo, Paris); _L'Art du rire et de la caricature_, by
Arsene Alexandre (8vo, Paris); _Caricature and other Comic Art_, by
James Parton (sm. 4to, New York, 1878); _Le Miroir de la vie: la
Caricature_, by Robert de la Sizeranne (8vo, Paris, 1902), (tracing
the aesthetic development of the art and spirit of caricature); _La
Caricature a travers les siecles_, by Georges Veyrat (4to, Paris); _La
Caricature et les caricaturistes_, by Emile Bagaud (with a preface by
Ch. Leandre), (fo., Paris); _Le Rire et la caricature_, by Paul
Gaultier (with a preface by Sully Prudhomme), (8vo, Paris, 1906), (a
work of originality, dwelling not only on the aesthetic but on the
essentially pessimistic side of satiric art); _English Caricaturists
and Graphic Humorists of the Nineteenth Century_, by Graham Everitt
(i.e. William Rodgers Richardson), (4to, London, 1886), (a careful and
interesting survey); _La Caricature en Angleterre_, by Augustin Filva
(8vo, Paris, 1902), (an able criticism from the point of view of
psycho-sociology); _The History of Punch_, by M.H. Spielmann (8vo,
London, 1895), (dealing with caricature art of England during the
half-century covered by the book); _Magazine of Art_, passim, for
biographies of English caricaturists--"Our Graphic Humorists"; _Social
Pictorial Satire_, by George du Maurier (12mo, London, 1898); _Les
Moeurs et la caricature en France_, by J. Grand-Carteret (8vo, Paris,
1885); _La Caricature et l'humeur francais au XIXe siecle_, by Raoul
Deberdt (8vo, Paris); _Les Maitres de la caricature francaise en XIXe
siecle_, by Armand Dayot (Paris); _Nos humoristes_, by Ad. Brisson
(4to, Paris, 1900); _Les Moeurs et la caricature en Allemagne, &c._,
by J. Grand-Carteret (8vo, Paris, 1885). See also biographies of
Charles Keene, H. Daumier, John Leech, &c., indicated under those
names. (M. H. S.)
CARIGARA, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine
Islands, on Carigara Bay, 22 m. W. of Tacloban, the capital. Pop. (1903)
19,488, including that of Capoocan (3106), annexed to Carigara in the
same year. Carigara is open to coast trade, exports large quantities of
hemp, raises much rice, and manufactures cotton and abaca fabrics. It
also has important fisheries.
CARIGNANO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin, 11 m. S.
by steam tramway from the town of Turin. Pop. (1901) town, 4672,
commune, 7104. It has a handsome church (S. Giovanni Battista) erected
in 1756-1766 by the architect Benedetto Alfieri di Sostegno (1700-1767),
uncle of the poet Alfieri. S. Maria delle Grazie contains the tomb of
Bianca Palaeologus, wife of Duke Charles I. of Savoy, at whose court
Bayard was brought up. The town passed into the hands of the counts of
Savoy in 1418.
Carignano was erected by Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy into a
principality as an appanage for his third son, Thomas Francis
(1596-1656), whose descendant, Charles Albert, prince of Carignano,
became king of Sardinia on the extinction of the elder line of the house
of Savoy with the death of Charles Felix in 1831. The house of Carignano
developed two junior branches, those of Soissons and Villafranca. The
first of these, which became extinct in 1734, was founded by Eugene
Maurice, second son of Thomas, by his wife Marie de Conde, countess of
Soissons, who received his mother's countship as his appanage. In 1662
the town of Yvois in the Ardennes was raised by Louis XIV. into a duchy
in his favour, its name being changed at the same time to Carignan. The
famous Prince Eugene was the second son of the first duke of Carignan.
The branch of Villafranca started with Eugene Marie Louis (d. 1785),
second son of Louis Victor of Carignano, whose grandson Eugene
(1816-1888), afterwards an admiral in the Italian navy, was created
prince of Savoy-Carignano, by King Charles Albert in 1834. He had
contracted a morganatic marriage, and in 1888, on the occasion of his
silver wedding, the title of countess of Villafranca was bestowed upon
his wife, his eldest son, Filiberto, being at the same time created
count of Villafranca, and his younger son, Vittorio, count of Soissons.
CARILLON, an arrangement for playing tunes upon a set of bells by
mechanical means. The word is said to be a Fr. form of Late Lat. or
Ital. _quadriglio_, a simple dance measure on four notes or for four
persons (Lat. _quattuor_); and is used sometimes for the tune played,
sometimes (and more commonly in England) for the set of bells used in
playing it. The earliest medieval attempts at bell music, as distinct
from mere noise, seem to have consisted in striking a row of small bells
by hand with a hammer, and illustrations in MSS. of the 12th and 13th
centuries show this process on three, four or even eight bells. The
introduction of mechanism in the form either of a barrel (see
BARREL-ORGAN) set with pegs or studs and revolving in connexion with the
machinery of a clock, or of a keyboard struck by hand (_carillon a
clavier_), made it possible largely to increase the number of bells and
the range of harmonies. In Belgium, the home of the _carillon_ the art
of the _carillonneur_ was at one time brought to great perfection and
held in high esteem (see BELL); but even there it is gradually giving
way to mechanism. In England manual skill has never been much employed,
though keyboards on the continental model have been introduced, e.g. at
the Manchester town hall, at Eaton Hall, and elsewhere; carillon music
being mainly confined to hymn tunes at regular intervals (generally
three hours), or chimes at the hours and intervening quarters. The
"Cambridge" and "Westminster" chimes are very familiar; and more
recently chimes have been composed by Sir John Stainer for Freshwater in
the Isle of Wight ("Tennyson" Chimes), and by Sir Charles Stanford for
"Bow Bells" in London.
CARINI, a town in the province of Palermo, Sicily, 13 m. by rail W.N.W.
of Palermo. Pop. (1901) 13,931. On the coast are some ruins of the
ancient _Hyccara_, the only Sican settlement (probably a fishing
village) on the coast. It was stormed and taken by the Athenians in 415
B.C., and the inhabitants, among them the famous courtesan Lais, sold as
slaves. At La Grazia Christian catacombs have been found (_Not. degli
Scavi_, 1899, 362).
CARINTHIA (Ger. _Karnten_), a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E.
by Styria, N. by Styria and Salzburg, W. by Tirol, and S. by Italy, Gorz
and Gradisca and Carniola. It has an area of 4005 sq. m. Carinthia is
for the most part a mountainous region, divided by the Drave, which
traverses it from west to east into two parts. To the north of the
valley of the Drave the duchy is occupied by the Hohe Tauern and the
primitive Alps of Carinthia and Styria, which belong to the central zone
of the Eastern Alps. The Hohe Tauern contains the massifs of the Gross
Glockner (12,455 ft.); the Hochnarr (10,670 ft.) and the Ankogel (11,006
ft.), and is traversed by the saddles of the Hochthor and the Malnitzer
Tauern, which separates these groups from one another. To the east of
the Hohe Tauern stretches the group of the primitive Alps of Carinthia
and Styria, namely the Pollaer Alps with the glacier-covered peak of the
Hafner Eck (10,041 ft.); the Stang Alps with the highest peak the
Eisenhut (8007 ft.); the Saualpe with the highest peak the Grosse
Saualpe (6825 ft.); and finally the Koralpen chain or the Stainzer Alps
(7023 ft.) separated from the preceding group by the Lavant valley. The
country south of the Drave is occupied by several groups of the southern
limestone zone, namely the Carnic Alps, the Julian Alps, the Karawankas
and the Steiner Alps. The Carnic Alps are divided by the Gail valley
into the South Carnic group and the northern Gailthal Alps. They are
traversed by the Pontebba or Pontafel Pass, through which passes one of
the principal Alpine roads from Italy to Austria. The road is covered by
the fortress of Malborgeth, where Captain Hensel with a handful of men
met with a heroic death defending the place against an overwhelming
French force in the campaign of 1809. A similar fate overtook, on the
same day, the 18th of May 1809, Captain Hermann von Hermannsdorf and his
small garrison, who were defending the Predil fort. This fort covers the
road which traverses the Predil Pass in the Julian Alps and is the
principal road leading from Carinthia to the Coastland. Commemorative
monuments have been erected in both places. The Gailthal Alps end with
the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107 ft.), situated to the south-west of
Villach (q.v.), which is celebrated as one of the finest views in the
whole eastern Alps. South of Hermagor, the principal place of the Gail
valley, is the chain of mountains which is famous as being the only
place where the beautiful _Wulfenia Carinthiaca_ is found. The highest
peaks in the Karawankas are the Grosse Mittagskogel (7033 ft.), the Och
Obir (7023 ft.) and the Petzen (6934 ft.). The Ursula Berg (5563 ft.)
ends the group of the Karawankas, which are continued by the Steiner
Alps.
The principal river is the Drave, which flows from west to east through
the length of the duchy, and receives in its course the waters of all
the other streams, except the Fella, which reaches the Adriatic by its
junction with the Tagliamento. Its principal tributaries are the Gail on
the right, and the Moll, the Lieser, the Gurk with the Glan, and the
Lavant on the left. Carinthia possesses a great number of Alpine lakes,
which, unlike the other Alpine lakes, lie in the longitudinal valleys.
The principal lakes are: the Millstatter-see (8-1/2 sq. m. in extent,
908 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1902 ft.), the Worther-see (17 sq. m. in
extent, 212 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1438 ft.), the Ossiach-see
(10-1/2 sq. m. in extent, 150 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1599 ft.),
and the elongated Weissen-see (4-1/2 m. long, 309 ft. deep, at an
altitude of 3037 ft.).
The climate is severe in the north and north-west parts, but the south
and south-east districts are milder, while the most favoured part is the
Lavant valley. Of the total area only 13.71% is arable land, 10.50% is
occupied by meadows and gardens, 5.18% by pastures, while 44.24% is
covered by forests, almost exclusively pine-forests. Cattle-rearing is
well developed, and the horses bred in Carinthia enjoy a good
reputation. The mineral wealth of Carinthia is great, and consists in
lead, iron, zinc and coal. Iron ore is extracted in the region of the
Saualpe, and is worked in the foundries of St Leonhard, St Gertraud,
Pravali, Hirt, Treibach and Eberstein. About two-thirds of the total
production of lead in Austria is extracted in Carinthia, the principal
places being Bleiberg and Raibl. The metallurgic industries are well
developed, and consist in the production of iron, steel, machinery,
small-arms, lead articles, wire-cables and rails. The principal
manufacturing places are Pravali, Bruckl, Klagenfurt, Lippitzbach,
Wolfsberg, St Veit and Buchscheiden near Feldkirchen. The manufacture of
small-arms is concentrated at Ferlach. Other trades are the manufacture
of paper, leather, cement and the exploitation of forests.
The population of Carinthia in 1900 was 367,344, which corresponds to 91
inhabitants per sq. m. According to nationality, 71.54% were Germans,
and 28.39% Slovenes, mostly settled in the districts adjoining the
Slovene province of Carniola. Over 94% of the population were Roman
Catholics. The local diet, of which the bishop of Gurk is a member _ex
officio_, is composed of 37 members, and Carinthia sends 10 deputies to
the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is
divided into seven districts, and an autonomous municipality, Klagenfurt
(pop. 24,314), the capital. Other principal places are: Villach (9690),
Wolfsberg (4852), St Veit (4667), an old town, the former capital of
Carinthia up to 1518, Pravali (4047), Travis (3640), a favourite
summer-resort and tourist place, Bleiberg (3435), Volkermarkt (2606) and
Spittal (2564).
Carinthia is so called from the Carni, a Celtic people, and in the time
of Augustus it formed part of Noricum. After the fall of the Roman
empire, it was the nucleus of the kingdom of Carentania, which was
founded by Samo, a Frankish adventurer, but soon fell to pieces after
his death. Under Charlemagne it constituted a margravate, which in 843
passed into the hands of Louis the German, whose grandson Arnulf was the
first to bear the title of duke of Carinthia. The duchy was held by
various families during the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, and at length
in 1335 was bestowed by Louis the Bavarian on the dukes of Austria. It
was divided into Upper or Western Carinthia and Lower or Eastern; of
these the former fell to France in 1809, but was reconquered in 1813. It
was created a separate crownland in 1849.
See Aelschker. _Geschichte Karntens_ (Klagenfurt, 1885).
CARINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, A.D. 283-284, was the elder son
of the emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor of
the western portion of the empire. He fought with success against the
German tribes, but soon left the defence of the Upper Rhine to his
legates and returned to Rome, where he abandoned himself to all kinds of
debauchery and excess. He also celebrated the _ludi Romani_ on a scale
of unexampled magnificence. After the death of Carus, the army in the
East demanded to be led back to Europe, and Numerianus, the younger son
of Carus, was forced to comply. During a halt at Chalcedon, Numerianus
was murdered, and Diocletian, commander of the body-guards, was
proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. Carinus at once left Rome and set
out for the East to meet Diocletian. On his way through Pannonia he put
down the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, and encountered the army of
Diocletian in Moesia. Carinus was successful in several engagements, and
at the battle on the Margus (Morava), according to one account, the
valour of his troops had gained the day, when he was assassinated by a
tribune whose wife he had seduced. In another account, the battle is
represented as having resulted in a complete victory for Diocletian.
Carinus has the reputation of having been one of the worst of the
emperors.
Vopiscus, _Carinus_ (mainly the recital of his crimes); Aurelius
Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 38, Epit. 38; Eutropius ix. 18-20; Zonaras
xii. 30; Orosius vii. 25; Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 24
ff. (Henze).
CARIPE, a small town of Venezuela in the state of Bermudez, about 53 m.
E.S.E. of Cumana. It is the chief station of the Capuchin missions to
the Chayma Indians, founded toward the close of the 17th century, and
stands 2635 ft. above sea-level, in a fertile valley of the Sierra
Bergantin, long celebrated for its cool, invigorating climate. The
locality is also celebrated for the extensive system of caves in the
limestone rocks found in its vicinity, which were described by Humboldt
in his _Personal Narrative_. The principal cave, known as the Cueva del
Guacharo, extends inward a distance of 2800 ft. with a height of 70-80
ft. These caves are frequented by a species of night-hawk, called
_guacharo_, which nests in the recesses of the rocks. The young are
killed in great numbers for their oil. Caripe itself has a population of
only 580, but the valley and neighbouring stations have about ten times
that number. Caripe should not be confounded with Rio Caribe, a town and
port on the Caribbean coast a short distance east of Carupano, which has
a population of about 6000.
CARISBROOKE, a town in the Isle of Wight, England, 1 m. S. of Newport.
Pop. (1901) 3993. The valley of the Lugley brook separates the village
from the steep conical hill crowned by the castle, the existence of
which has given Carisbrooke its chief fame. There are remains of a Roman
villa in the valley, but no reliable mention of Carisbrooke occurs in
Saxon times, though it has commonly been identified with the Saxon
_Wihtgaraburh_ captured by Cerdic in 530. Carisbrooke is not mentioned
by name in the Domesday Survey, but Bowcombe, its principal manor, was a
dependency of the royal manor of Amesbury, and was obtained from the
king by William Fitz Osbern in exchange for three Wiltshire manors. The
castle is mentioned in the Survey under Alvington, and was probably
raised by William Fitz Osbern, who was made first lord of the Isle of
Wight. From this date lordship of the Isle of Wight was always
associated with ownership of the castle, which thus became the seat of
government of the island. Henry I. bestowed it on Richard de Redvers, in
whose family it continued until Isabella de Fortibus sold it to Edward
I., after which the government was entrusted to wardens as
representatives of the crown. The keep was added to the castle in the
reign of Henry I., and in the reign of Elizabeth, when the Spanish
Armada was expected, it was surrounded by an elaborate pentagonal
fortification. The castle was garrisoned by Baldwin de Redvers for the
empress Maud in 1136, but was captured by Stephen. In the reign of
Richard II. it was unsuccessfully attacked by the French; Charles I. was
imprisoned here for fourteen months before his execution. Afterwards his
two youngest children were confined in the castle, and the Princess
Elizabeth died there. In 1904 the chapel of St Nicholas in the castle
was reopened and reconsecrated, having been rebuilt as a national
memorial of Charles I. The remains of the castle are extensive and
imposing, and the keeper's house and other parts are inhabited, but the
king's apartments are in ruins. Within the walls is a well 200 ft. deep;
and another in the centre of the keep is reputed to have been still
deeper. The church of St Mary, Carisbrooke, has a beautiful
Perpendicular tower, and contains transitional Norman portions. Only the
site can be traced of the Cistercian priory to which it belonged. This
was founded shortly after the Conquest and originated from the endowment
which the monks of Lyre near Evreux held in Bowcombe, including the
church, mill, houses, land and tithes of the manor. Richard II. bestowed
it on the abbey of Mountgrace in Yorkshire. It was restored by Henry
IV., but was dissolved by act of parliament in the reign of Henry V.,
who bestowed it on his newly-founded charter-house at Sheen. Carisbrooke
formerly had a considerable market, several mills, and valuable
fisheries, but it never acquired municipal or representative rights, and
was important only as the site of the castle.
See _Victoria County History--Hampshire_; William Westall, _History of
Carisbrooke Castle_ (1850).
CARISSIMI, GIACOMO (c. 1604-1674), one of the most celebrated masters of
the Italian, or, more accurately, the Roman school of music, was born
about 1604 in Marino (near Rome). Of his life almost nothing is known.
At the age of twenty he became chapel-master at Assisi, and in 1628 he
obtained the same position at the church of St Apollinaris belonging to
the Collegium Germanicum in Rome, which he held till his death on the
12th of January 1674, at Rome. He seems never to have left Italy. The
two great achievements generally ascribed to him are the further
development of the recitative, lately introduced by Monteverde, and of
infinite importance in the history of dramatic music; and the invention
of the chamber-cantata, by which Carissimi superseded the madrigals
formerly in use. His position in the history of church music and vocal
chamber music is somewhat similar to that of Cavalli in the history of
opera. It is impossible to say who was really the inventor of the
chamber-cantata; but Carissimi and Luigi Rossi were the composers who
first made this form the vehicle for the most intellectual style of
chamber-music, a function which it continued to perform until the death
of Alessandro Scarlatti, Astorga and Marcello. Of his oratorios
_Jephthah_ has been published by Novello & Co., and is well known; this
work and others are important as definitely establishing the form of
oratorio unaccompanied by dramatic action, which has maintained its hold
to the present day. He also may claim the merit of having given greater
variety and interest to the instrumental accompaniments of vocal
compositions. Dr Burney and Sir John Hawkins published specimens of his
compositions in their works on the history of music; and Dr Aldrich
collected an almost complete set of his compositions, at present in the
library of Christ Church, Oxford. The British Museum also possesses
numerous valuable works by this great Italian master. Most of his
oratorios are in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris.
CARLETON, WILLIAM (1794-1869), Irish novelist, was born at Prillisk,
Clogher, Co. Tyrone, on the 4th of March 1794. His father was a tenant
farmer, who supported a family of fourteen children on as many acres,
and young Carleton passed his early life among scenes precisely similar
to those he afterwards delineated with so much power and truthfulness.
His father was remarkable for his extraordinary memory, and had a
thorough acquaintance with Irish folklore; the mother was noted
throughout the district for the sweetness of her voice. The beautiful
character of Honor, the miser's wife, in _Fardorougha_, is said to have
been drawn from her.
The education received by Carleton was of a very humble description. As
his father removed from one small farm to another, he attended at
various places the hedge-schools, which used to be a notable feature of
Irish life. The admirable little picture of one of these schools is
given in the sketch called "The Hedge School" included in _Traits and
Stories of Irish Peasantry_. Most of his learning was gained from a
curate named Keenan, who taught a classical school at Donagh (Co.
Monaghan), which Carleton attended from 1814 to 1816. Before this
Carleton had resolved to prosecute his education as a poor scholar at
Munster, with a view to entering the church; but in obedience to a
warning dream, the story of which is told in the _Poor Scholar_, he
returned home, where he received the unbounded veneration of the
neighbouring peasantry for his supposed wonderful learning. An amusing
account of this phase of his existence is given in the little sketch,
"Denis O'Shaughnessy." About the age of nineteen he undertook one of the
religious pilgrimages then common in Ireland. His experiences as a
pilgrim, narrated in "The Lough Derg Pilgrim," made him resign for ever
the thought of entering the church, and he eventually became a
Protestant. His vacillating ideas as to a mode of life were determined
in a definite direction by the reading of _Gil Blas_. He resolved to
cast himself boldly upon the world, and try what fortune had in store
for him. He went to Killanny, Co Louth, and for six months acted as
tutor in the family of a farmer named Piers Murphy, and after some other
experiments he set out for Dublin, and arrived in the metropolis with 2s
9d. in his pocket. He first sought occupation as a bird-stuffer, but a
proposal to use potatoes and meal as stuffing failed to recommend him.
He then determined to become a soldier, but the colonel of the regiment
in which he desired to enlist persuaded him--Carleton had applied in
Latin--to give up the idea. He obtained some teaching and a clerkship in
a Sunday School office, began to contribute to the journals, and his
paper "The Pilgrimage to Lough Derg," which was published in the
_Christian Examiner_, excited great attention. In 1830 appeared the
first series of _Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry_ (2 vols.),
which at once placed the author in the first rank of Irish novelists. A
second series (3 vols.), containing, among other stories, "Tubber Derg,
or the Red Well," appeared in 1833, and _Tales of Ireland_ in 1834. From
that time till within a few years of his death Carleton's literary
activity was incessant. "Fardorougha the Miser, or the Convicts of
Lisnamona" appeared in 1837-1838 in the _Dublin University Magazine_.
Among his other famous novels are: _Valentine McClutchy, the Irish
Agent, or Chronicles of the Castle Cumber Property_ (3 vols., 1845);
_The Black Prophet, a Tale of the Famine_, in the _Dublin University
Magazine_ (1846), printed separately in the next year; _The Emigrants of
Ahadarra_ (1847); _Willy Reilly and his dear Colleen Bawn_ (in _The
Independent_, London, 1850); and _The Tithe Proctor_ (1849), the
violence of which did his reputation harm among his own countrymen. Some
of his later stories, _The Squanders of Castle Squander_ (1852) for
instance, are defaced by the mass of political matter with which they
are overloaded. In spite of his very considerable literary production
Carleton remained poor, but his necessities were relieved in 1848 by a
pension of L200 a year granted by Lord John Russell in response to a
memorial on Carleton's behalf signed by numbers of distinguished persons
in Ireland. He died at Sandford, Co. Dublin, on the 30th of January
1869.
Carleton's best work is contained in the _Traits and Stories of the
Irish Peasantry_. He wrote from intimate acquaintance with the scenes he
described; and he drew with a sure hand a series of pictures of peasant
life, unsurpassed for their appreciation of the passionate tenderness of
Irish home life, of the buoyant humour and the domestic virtues which
would, under better circumstances, bring prosperity and happiness. He
alienated the sympathies of many Irishmen, however, by his unsparing
criticism and occasional exaggeration of the darker side of Irish
character. He was in his own words the "historian of their habits and
manners, their feelings, their prejudices, their superstitions and their
crimes." (Preface to _Tales of Ireland_.)
During the last months of his life Carleton began an autobiography
which he brought down to the beginning of his literary career. This
forms the first part of _The Life of William Carleton_ ... (2 vols.,
1896), by D.J. O'Donoghue, which contains full information about lis
life, and a list of his scattered writings. A selection from his
stories (1889), in the "Camelot Series," has an introduction by Mr
W.B. Yeats. He must not be confused with Will Carleton (b. 1845), the
American author of _Farm Ballads_ (1873).
CARLETON PLACE, a town and port of entry of Lanark county, Ontario,
Canada, 28 m. S.W. of Ottawa, on the Mississippi river, and at the
junction of the main line and Brockville branch of the Canadian Pacific
railway. It has abundant water-power privileges, and extensive
railway-repair shops and woollen mills. Pop. (1901) 4059.
CARLILE, RICHARD (1790-1843), English freethinker, was born on the 8th
of December 1790, at Ashburton, Devonshire, the son of a shoemaker.
Educated in the village school, he was apprenticed to a tinman against
whose harsh treatment he frequently rebelled. Having finished his
apprenticeship, he obtained occupation in London as a journeyman tinman.
Influenced by reading Paine's _Rights of Man_, he became an
uncompromising radical, and in 1817 started pushing the sale of the
_Black Dwarf_, a new weekly paper, edited by Jonathan Wooler, all over
London, and in his zeal to secure the dissemination of its doctrines
frequently walked 30 m. a day. In the same year he also printed and sold
25,000 copies of Southey's _Wat Tyler_, reprinted the suppressed
_Parodies_ of Hone, and wrote himself, in imitation of them, the
_Political Litany_. This work cost him eighteen weeks imprisonment. In
1818 he published Paine's works, for which and for other publications
of a like character he was fined L1500, and sentenced to three years'
imprisonment in Dorchester gaol. Here he published the first twelve
volumes of his periodical the _Republican_. The publication was
continued by his wife, who was accordingly sentenced to two years'
imprisonment in 1821. A public subscription, headed by the duke of
Wellington, was now raised to prosecute Carlile's assistants. At the
same time Carlile's furniture and stock-in-trade in London were seized,
three years were added to his imprisonment in lieu of payment of his
fine, his sister was fined L500 and imprisoned for a year for publishing
an address by him, and nine of his shopmen received terms of
imprisonment varying from six months to three years. In 1825 the
government decided to discontinue the prosecutions. After his release in
that year Carlile edited the _Gorgon_, a weekly paper, and conducted
free discussions in the London Rotunda. For refusing to give sureties
for good behaviour after a prosecution arising out of a refusal to pay
church rates, he was again imprisoned for three years, and a similar
resistance cost him ten weeks' more imprisonment in 1834-1835. He died
on the 10th of February 1843, after having spent in all nine years and
four months in prison.
CARLINGFORD, CHICHESTER SAMUEL FORTESCUE, BARON (1823-1898), British
statesman, son of Chichester Fortescue (d. 1826), M.P. for Louth in the
Irish parliament, was born in January 1823. He came of an old family
settled in Ireland since the days of Sir Faithful Fortescue (1581-1666),
whose uncle, Lord Chichester, was lord deputy. The history of the family
was written by his elder brother Thomas (1815-1887), who in 1852 was
created Baron Clermont. The future Lord Carlingford, then Mr Chichester
Fortescue, went to Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first in
classics (1844) and won the chancellor's English essay (1846); and in
1847 he was elected to parliament for Louth as a Liberal. He became a
junior lord of the treasury in 1854, and subsequently held minor offices
in the Liberal administrations till in 1865 he was made chief secretary
for Ireland under Lord Russell, a post which he again occupied under
Gladstone in 1868-1870; he then became president of the Board of Trade
(1871-1874), and later lord privy seal (1881-1885) and president of the
council (1883-1885). He was raised to the peerage in 1874. He parted
from Gladstone on the question of Irish Home Rule, but in earlier years
he was his active supporter on Irish questions. His influence in society
was due largely to his wife, Frances (1821-1879), previously the wife of
the 7th Earl Waldegrave, whom he married in 1863. In 1887 his brother,
Lord Clermont, died, and Carlingford inherited his peerage; but on his
own death without issue on the 30th of January 1898 both titles became
extinct.
CARLINGFORD, a small market town and port of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division. Pop. (1901) 606. It is beautifully
situated on the western shore of Carlingford Lough, at the foot of
Carlingford Mountain (1935 ft.), facing the fine heights of the Mourne
Mountains across the lough in Co. Down. It has a station on the railway
connecting Greenore and Newry, owned by the London & North-Western
railway of England. It was formerly a place of great importance, as
attested by numerous remains. King John's Castle (1210) commands the
lough from an isolated rock. There are other remains of the castellated
houses erected during the Elizabethan and previous wars. A Dominican
monastery was founded in 1305, and combines ecclesiastical and military
remains. The town received several charters between the reigns of Edward
II. and James II., was represented in the Irish parliament until the
Union, and possessed a mint from 1467. The lough is a typical rock-basin
hollowed out by glacial action, about 4 fathoms deep at its entrance,
but increasing to four times that depth within. The oyster-beds are
valuable.
CARLI-RUBBI, GIOVANNI RINALDO, COUNT OF (1720-1795), Italian economist
and antiquarian, was born at Capo d'Istria, in 1720. At the age of
twenty-four he was appointed by the senate of Venice to the newly
established professorship of astronomy and navigation in the university
of Padua, and entrusted with the superintendence of the Venetian marine.
After filling these offices for seven years with great credit, he
resigned them, in order to devote himself to the study of antiquities
and political economy. His principal economic works are his _Delle
monete, e della instituzione delle zecche d' Italia_; his _Ragionamento
sopra i bilanci economici delle nazioni_ (1759), in which he maintained
that what is termed the balance of trade between two nations is no
criterion of the prosperity of either, since both may be gainers by
their reciprocal transactions; and his _Sul libero commercio dei grani_
(1771), in which he argues that free trade in grain is not always
advisable. Count Carli's merits were appreciated by Leopold of Tuscany,
afterwards emperor, who in 1765 placed him at the head of the council of
public economy and of the board of public instruction. In 1769 he became
privy councillor, in 1771 president of the new council of finances. He
died at Milan in February 1795. During his leisure he completed and
published his _Antichita Italiche_, in which the literature and arts of
his country are ably discussed. Besides the above, he published many
works on antiquarian, economic and other subjects, including _L' Uomo
libero_, in confutation of Rousseau's _Contrat Social_; an attack upon
the abbe Tartarotti's assertion of the existence of magicians;
_Observazioni sulla musica antica e moderna_; and several poems.
CARLISLE, EARLS OF. This English title has been held by two families,
being created for James Hay in 1622, and being extinct in that line on
the death of his son in 1660, and then being given in 1661 to Charles
Howard, and descending to the present day in the Howard family.
JAMES HAY, 1st earl of Carlisle (d. 1636), was the son of Sir James Hay
of Kingask (a member of a younger branch of the Erroll family), and of
Margaret Murray, cousin of George Hay, afterwards 1st earl of Kinnoull.
He was knighted and taken into favour by James VI. of Scotland, brought
into England in 1603, treated as a "prime favourite" and made a
gentleman of the bedchamber. In 1604 he was sent on a mission to France
and pleaded for the Huguenots, which annoyed Henry IV. and caused a
substantial reduction of the present made to the English envoy. On the
21st of June 1606 he was created by patent a baron for life, with
precedence next to the barons, but without a place or voice in
parliament, no doubt to render his advancement less unpalatable to the
English lords. The king bestowed on him numerous grants, paid his debts,
and secured for him a rich bride in the person of Honora, only daughter
and heir of Edward, Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich. In 1610 he
was made a knight of the Bath, and in 1613 master of the wardrobe, while
in 1615 he was created Lord Hay of Sawley, and took his seat in the
House of Lords. He was sent to France next year to negotiate the
marriage of Princess Christina with Prince Charles, and on his return,
being now a widower, married in 1617 Lady Lucy Percy (1599-1660),
daughter of the 9th earl of Northumberland, and was made a privy
councillor. In 1618 he resigned the mastership of the wardrobe for a
large sum in compensation. He was created Viscount Doncaster, and in
February 1619 was despatched on a mission to Germany, where he
identified himself with the cause of the elector palatine and urged
James to make war in his support. In 1621 and 1622 he was sent to France
to obtain peace for the Huguenots from Louis XIII., in which he was
unsuccessful, and in September 1622 was created earl of Carlisle. Next
year he went to Paris on the occasion of Prince Charles's journey to
Madrid, and again in 1624 to join Henry Rich, afterwards Lord Holland,
in negotiating the prince's marriage with Henrietta Maria, when he
advised James without success to resist Richelieu's demands on the
subject of religious toleration. On the 2nd of July 1627 Lord Carlisle
obtained from the king a grant of all the Caribbean Islands, including
Barbados, this being a confirmation of a former concession given by
James I. He was also a patentee and councillor of the plantation of New
England, and showed great zeal and interest in the colonies. He became
gentleman of the bedchamber to King Charles I. after his accession. In
1628, after the failure of the expedition to Rhe, he was sent to make a
diversion against Richelieu in Lorraine and Piedmont; he counselled
peace with Spain and the vigorous prosecution of the war with France,
but on his return home found his advice neglected. He took no further
part in public life, and died in March 1636. Carlisle was a man of good
sense and of accommodating temper, with some diplomatic ability. His
extravagance and lavish expenditure, his "double suppers" and costly
entertainments, were the theme of satirists and wonder of society, and
his debts were said at his death to amount to more than L80,000. "He
left behind him," says Clarendon, "a reputation of a very fine gentleman
and a most accomplished courtier, and after having spent, in a very
jovial life, above L400,000, which upon a strict computation he received
from the crown, he left not a house or acre of land to be remembered
by."
The charms and wit of his second wife, Lucy, countess of Carlisle, which
were celebrated in verse by all the poets of the day, including Carew,
Cartwright, Herrick and Suckling, and by Sir Toby Matthew in prose, made
her a conspicuous figure at the court of Charles I. There appears no
foundation for the scandal which made her the mistress successively of
Strafford and of Pym. Strafford valued highly her sincerity and
services, but after his death, possibly in consequence of a revulsion of
feeling at his abandonment by the court, she devoted herself to Pym and
to the interests of the parliamentary leaders, to whom she communicated
the king's most secret plans and counsels. Her greatest achievement was
the timely disclosure to Lord Essex of the king's intended arrest of the
five members, which enabled them to escape. But she appears to have
served both parties simultaneously, betraying communications on both
sides, and doing considerable mischief in inflaming political
animosities. In 1647 she attached herself to the interests of the
moderate Presbyterian party, which assembled at her house, and in the
second Civil War showed great zeal and activity in the royal cause,
pawned her pearl necklace for L1500 to raise money for Lord Holland's
troops, established communications with Prince Charles during his
blockade of the Thames, and made herself the intermediary between the
scattered bands of royalists and the queen. In consequence her arrest
was ordered on the 21st of March 1649, and she was imprisoned in the
Tower, whence she maintained a correspondence in cipher with the king
through her brother, Lord Percy, till Charles went to Scotland.
According to a royalist newsletter, while in the Tower she was
threatened with the rack to extort information. She was released on bail
on the 25th of September 1650, but appears never to have regained her
former influence in the royalist counsels, and died soon after the
Restoration, on the 5th of November 1660.
The first earl was succeeded by JAMES, his only surviving son by his
first wife, at whose death in 1660 without issue, the peerage became
extinct in the Hay family.
CHARLES HOWARD, 1st earl of Carlisle in the Howard line (1629-1685), was
the son and heir of Sir William Howard, of Naworth in Cumberland, by
Mary, daughter of William, Lord Eure, and great-grandson of Lord William
Howard, "Belted Will" (1563-1640), and was born in 1629. In 1645 he
became a Protestant and supported the government of the commonwealth,
being appointed high sheriff of Cumberland in 1650. He bought Carlisle
Castle and became governor of the town. He distinguished himself at the
battle of Worcester on Cromwell's side, was made a member of the council
of state in 1653, chosen captain of the protector's body-guard and
selected to carry out various public duties. In 1655 he was given a
regiment, was appointed a commissioner to try the northern rebels, and a
deputy major-general of Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland. In
the parliament of 1653 he sat for Westmorland, in those of 1654 and 1656
for Cumberland. In 1657 he was included in Cromwell's House of Lords and
voted for the protector's assumption of the royal title the same year.
In 1659 he urged Richard Cromwell to defend his government by force
against the army leaders, but his advice being refused he used his
influence in favour of a restoration of the monarchy, and after
Richard's fall he was imprisoned. In April 1660 he sat again in
parliament for Cumberland, and at the Restoration was made _custos
rotulorum_ of Essex and lord-lieutenant of Cumberland and Westmorland.
On the 20th of April 1661 he was created Baron Dacre of Gillesland,
Viscount Howard of Morpeth, and earl of Carlisle; the same year he was
made vice-admiral of Northumberland, Cumberland and Durham, and in 1662
joint commissioner for the office of earl marshal. In 1663 he was
appointed ambassador to Russia, Sweden and Denmark, and in 1668 he
carried the Garter to Charles XI. of Sweden. In 1667 he was made
lieutenant-general of the forces and joint commander-in-chief of the
four northernmost counties. In 1672 he became lord-lieutenant of Durham,
and in 1673 deputy earl marshal. In 1678 he was appointed governor of
Jamaica, and reappointed governor of Carlisle. He died on the 24th of
February 1685, and was buried in York Minster. He married Anne (d.
1696), daughter of Edward, 1st Lord Howard of Escrick; his eldest son
EDWARD (c. 1646-1692) succeeded him as 2nd earl of Carlisle, the title
descending to his son CHARLES (1674-1738) and grandson HENRY
(1694-1758).
FREDERICK HOWARD, 5th earl (1748-1825), son of the 4th earl, was born in
1748. During his youth he was chiefly known as a man of pleasure and
fashion; and after he had reached thirty years of age, his appointment
on a commission sent out by Lord North to attempt a reconciliation with
the American colonies was received with sneers by the opposition. The
failure of the embassy was not due to any incapacity on the part of the
earl, but to the unpopularity of the government from which it received
its authority. He was, indeed, considered to have displayed so much
ability that he was entrusted with the vice-royalty of Ireland in 1780.
The time was one of the greatest difficulty; for while the calm of the
country was disturbed by the American rebellion, it was drained of
regular troops, and large bands of volunteers not under the control of
the government had been formed. Nevertheless, the two years of
Carlisle's rule passed in quietness and prosperity, and the institution
of a national bank and other measures which he effected left permanently
beneficial results upon the commerce of the island. In 1789, in the
discussions as to the regency, Carlisle took a prominent part on the
side of the prince of Wales. In 1791 he opposed Pitt's policy of
resistance to the dismemberment of Turkey by Russia; but on the outbreak
of the French Revolution he left the opposition and vigorously
maintained the cause of war. In 1815 he opposed the enactment of the
Corn Laws; but from this time till his death, in 1825, he took no
important part in public life. Carlisle was the author of some political
tracts, a number of poems, and two tragedies, _The Father's Revenge_ and
_The Stepmother_, which received high praise from his contemporaries.
His mother was a daughter of the 4th Lord Byron, and in 1798 he was
appointed guardian to Lord Byron, the poet, who lampooned him in
_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_.
GEORGE HOWARD, 6th earl (1773-1848), eldest son of the 5th earl, entered
parliament as Lord Morpeth in 1795 as a Whig. He was appointed to the
Indian board in 1806, when the "Ministry of all the Talents" took
office, but resigned in 1807, though he remained prominent in the House
of Commons. After his elevation to the House of Lords (1825), he held
various cabinet offices under Canning and Grey. He made some minor
contributions to literature and left the reputation of an amiable
scholar.
GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK HOWARD, 7th earl (1802-1864), was born in
London on the 18th of April 1802. He was the eldest son of the 6th earl
by his wife Lady Georgiana Cavendish, eldest daughter of the duke of
Devonshire. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where (as
Lord Morpeth) he earned a reputation as a scholar and writer of graceful
verse, obtaining in 1821 both the chancellor's and the Newdigate prizes
for a Latin and an English poem. In 1826 he accompanied his uncle, the
duke of Devonshire, to Russia, to attend the coronation of the tsar
Nicholas, and became a great favourite in society at St Petersburg. At
the general election of the same year he was returned to parliament as
member for the family borough of Morpeth. In one of his earliest
speeches he undertook, at the risk of forfeiting the good opinion of
the Liberal party, the defence of the Russian emperor against severe
attacks made on him in reference to the suppression of the Polish
insurrection of 1830. In the agitation for parliamentary reform he took
the side of Earl Grey; and after the dissolution of parliament, which
took place about that time, he was elected member for Yorkshire. This
seat he held till after the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. He was
then returned for the West Riding; and in 1835 he was appointed by Lord
Melbourne chief secretary for Ireland, a position at that time of great
difficulty, O'Connell being then at the height of his reputation. This
post he held for about six years (being included in the cabinet in
1839), winning great popularity by his amiable manners and kindly
disposition. Losing his seat at the election of 1841, he visited the
United States, but in 1846 he was again returned for the West Riding,
and was made chief commissioner of woods and forests in Lord John
Russell's cabinet. Succeeding to the peerage in 1848, he became
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1850. The great event of his
life, however, was his appointment by Lord Palmerston to the
lord-lieutenancy of Ireland in 1855. This office he continued to hold
till February 1858, and again from June 1859 till within a few months of
his death. His literary tastes and culture were displayed in various
popular lectures and in several published works. Among these may be
mentioned a lecture on _The Life and Writings of Pope_ (1851); _The Last
of the Greeks_, a tragedy (1828); a _Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters_
(1854), the fruit of travels in the East in 1853 and 1854; and a volume
of _Poems_, published after his death. In 1866 appeared his _Viceregal
Speeches_, collected and edited by J. Gaskin. He took warm interest in
the reformation of juvenile criminals, and established on his own estate
one of the best conducted reformatories in the country. Lord Carlisle
died at Castle Howard on the 5th of December 1864. He was never married,
and was succeeded in the peerage by his brother, the REV. WILLIAM GEORGE
HOWARD (d. 1889), as 8th earl.
GEORGE JAMES HOWARD, 9th earl, born in 1843, was the son of Charles,
fourth son of the 6th earl. He was educated at Eton and Trinity,
Cambridge, and, then being only Mr Howard, married in 1864 Rosalind,
daughter of the 2nd Lord Stanley of Alderley. He sat in parliament as a
Liberal in 1879-1880, and again from 1881 to 1885; and succeeded his
uncle in the peerage in 1889. His wife, a more active Liberal politician
than himself, took a prominent part in the temperance movement and other
advanced causes; and Lord Carlisle became best known as an art patron
and an artist of considerable ability, whose landscape painting had
considerable affinity to the work of Giovanni Costa. His position as a
connoisseur was recognized by his being made one of the trustees of the
National Gallery. His son, Viscount Morpeth (b. 1867), had a
distinguished career at Oxford, and after various defeats in other
constituencies was returned to parliament for South Birmingham as a
Unionist supporter of Mr Chamberlain in 1904.
CARLISLE, a city, municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county
town of Cumberland, England, 299 m. N.N.W. of London, and 8 m. S. of the
Scottish border. Pop. (1901) 45,480. It lies on the south bank of the
river Eden, a little below the point where it debouches upon the Solway
Plain, 8 m. above its mouth in the Solway Firth, at the junction of two
tributaries from the south, the Caldew and the Petteril. The city grew
up originally on and about the two slight eminences of the peninsula
enclosed between these three streams. To the north of the Eden lies the
suburb of Stanwix, connected with the city by a handsome bridge
(1812-1815). The rivers are not navigable, and a canal opened in 1823,
connecting the city with Port Carlisle on the Solway Firth, was
unsuccessful, and was converted into a railway. Silloth, on the Irish
Sea, is the nearest port of importance (21 m.). Carlisle, however, is
one of the principal railway centres in Great Britain. The London &
North-Western and the Midland railways of England, and the Caledonian,
North British and Glasgow & South-Western of Scotland, here make a
junction for through traffic between England and Scotland; and the city
is further served by the North Eastern (from Newcastle) and the
Maryport & Carlisle railways.
Carlisle is the seat of a bishop. Bede, in his life of St Cuthbert,
alludes to a monastery here, and the saint was also believed to have
founded a convent and school. But all was swept away by the Northmen,
and though William Rufus, who rehabilitated the town, doubtless made
provision for an ecclesiastical foundation, it was left for Henry I., in
1133, to create a bishopric out of the house of Augustinian canons,
founded in 1102. This was the sole episcopal chapter of regular canons
of St Augustine in England. It was dissolved in 1540. Between 1156 and
1204 the bishop's throne was unoccupied, but thereafter there was a
continuous succession. The diocese covers the whole of Westmorland, and
practically of Cumberland, with Furness and the adjacent district in the
north of Lancashire. The cathedral as it stands is a fine cruciform
building with a central tower, but it is incomplete. Of the Norman nave,
built by Aethelwold, the first prior and bishop, only two bays are
standing, the remainder having been destroyed by the Parliamentarians in
1646. The south transept, and the lower part of the tower piers, are
also of this period. Remarkable distortion is seen in the nave arches,
owing to the sinking of the foundations. The thinness of the aisle
walls, and the rude masonry of the foundations of the original apse
which have been discovered, point to native, not Norman, workmanship.
The choir is ornate and beautiful, and the huge Decorated east window,
with its wonderful elaborate tracery, is perhaps the finest of its kind
extant. The reconstruction of the Norman choir was begun in the middle
of the 13th century, but the work was almost wholly destroyed by fire in
1292. The north transept and the tower also suffered. Building began
again c. 1352, and the present tower, erected with some difficulty on
the weak foundations of the Norman period, dates from 1400-1419. The
conventual buildings are scanty, including little more than a
Perpendicular gateway and refectory. A stone inscribed with runes, and a
well, are among the objects of interest within the cathedral. Among the
numerous memorials is one to Archdeacon Paley; and a stained-glass
window commemorates the five children of Archibald Campbell Tait, dean
of the cathedral, and afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. Of the two
eminences within the three rivers, the cathedral occupies one, the
castle the other. It was moated and very strong; but has been so far
altered that only the keep is of special interest. A tower in which
Mary, queen of Scots, was imprisoned was taken down in 1835. The castle
serves as barracks. Fragments of the old city walls are seen on the
western side over against the river Caldew. At Carlisle are the county
gaol and the Cumberland infirmary, in connexion with which there is a
seaside convalescent institution at Silloth. Other notable public
buildings are the city hall, the court-houses, museum and art gallery.
The grammar school, of very early foundation, received endowment from
Henry VIII. Industries include the manufacture of cotton and woollen
goods, and there are iron foundries, breweries, tanneries and large
railway works. There is also a considerable agricultural trade. The
parliamentary borough returns one member. The municipal borough is under
a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 2025 acres.
This was the Romano-British _Luguvallium_, probably rather a town than a
fort, being one of the few towns as distinct from forts in the north of
Britain. It lay a mile south of Hadrian's wall. There are no traces
above ground _in situ_; but many inscriptions, potsherds, coins and
other such-like relics have been discovered.
Carlisle (_Caer Luel, Karliol_) is first mentioned in 685, when under
the name of Luel it was bestowed by Ecgfrith on St Cuthbert to form part
of his see of Lindisfarne. It was then a thriving and populous city, and
when St Cuthbert visited it in 686 he was shown with pride the ancient
walls and a Roman fountain of marvellous construction. Nennius, writing
in the 9th century, mentions it in a list of British cities under the
name of Caer Luadiit, Caer Ligualid or Caer Lualid, but about this time
it was either wholly or in part destroyed by the Danes, and vanishes
completely from history until in 1092 it was re-established as the
political centre of the district by William Rufus, who built the castle
and sent husbandmen to dwell there and till the land. During the
centuries of border-strife which followed, the history of Carlisle
centres round that of the castle, which formed the chief bulwark against
the Scots on the western border, and played an important part in the
history of the country down to the rebellion of the young Pretender in
1745. In 1292 a great fire destroyed nearly all the buildings and
muniments of the city, so that no original charter is extant before that
date. A charter from Edward I., dated 1293, however, exemplifies two
earlier grants. The first, from Henry II., confirmed the liberties and
customs which the city had theretofore enjoyed, granting in addition a
free gild merchant, with other privileges. This grant is exemplified in
the second charter, from Henry III., dated 1251. By a writ dated 5 Henry
III. the citizens were allowed to hold the city direct from the king,
paying a fee-farm rent of L60, instead of the former rent of L50, paid
by the medium of the sheriff. A charter from Edward II., dated 1316,
grants to the citizens the city, the king's mills in the city, and the
fishery in the Eden, at a fee-farm rent of L80 a year. A charter from
Edward III. in 1352 enumerates the privileges and liberties hitherto
enjoyed by the citizens, including a market twice a week, on Wednesday
and Saturday; a fair for sixteen days at the feast of the Assumption of
the Virgin (15th of August); free election of a mayor, bailiffs and two
coroners; and the right to hold their markets in the place called
"Battailholm." It also mentions that the city was greatly impoverished
by reason of the devastations of the Scots and by pestilence.
Confirmations of former privileges were issued by Richard II., Henry IV.
and Henry VI. A charter from Edward IV. in 1461, after reciting the
damage sustained by the city through fire, reduced the fee-farm rent
from L80 to L40, and granted to the citizens the fishery called the
sheriff's net, free of rent. Further confirmations were granted by later
sovereigns. Although the city had been under the jurisdiction of a mayor
and bailiffs at least as early as 1290, the first charter of
incorporation was granted by Elizabeth in 1566; it established a
corporation under the style of "a mayor, eleven worshipful persons, and
twenty-four able persons." A charter of James I. confirmed former
liberties, and in 1638 Charles I. granted a charter under which the town
continued to be governed until 1835. It declared Carlisle a city by
itself, and established a corporation consisting of a mayor, 11
aldermen, 24 capital citizens, 2 bailiffs, 2 coroners and a recorder;
the mayor, the recorder and 2 senior aldermen to be justices of the
peace, and the mayor to be clerk of the market; other officers were a
common clerk, a sword-bearer and three serjeants-at-mace. Two charters
from Charles II. in 1664 and 1684 were never accepted. The latter
granted a three days' fair or market on the first Wednesday in June.
Much valuable information relating to the early history and customs of
Carlisle is furnished both by the Dormont Book, which contains an
elaborate set of bye-laws dated 1561, and by the records of the eight
craft gilds--weavers, smiths, tailors, tanners, shoemakers, skinners,
butchers and merchants. The defensive and offensive warfare in which the
citizens were constantly engaged until the union of the crowns of
England and Scotland left little time for the development of commercial
pursuits, and Fuller, writing in the 17th century, says that the sole
manufacture, that of fustian, though established shortly after the
Restoration, had met with scant encouragement. In 1750 the manufacture
of coarse linen cloth was established, and was followed in a few years
by the introduction of calico stamperies. The commercial prosperity of
Carlisle, however, began with the railway development of the 19th
century. In 1283 the citizens of Carlisle were summoned to send two
representatives to parliament, but no return is recorded. From 1295
Carlisle continued to return two members until the Redistribution Act of
1885. At the time of the Scottish wars Edward I. held two parliaments at
Carlisle--in 1300 and in 1307.
See _Victoria County History, Cumberland_; R.S. Ferguson, _Some
Municipal Records of the City of Carlisle_ (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq.
and Archaeol. Soc., Carlisle and London, 1887), and _Royal Charters of
Carlisle_ (ditto, Carlisle, &c., 1894); Mandell Creighton, _Carlisle_
in "Historic Towns" series (London, 1889).
CARLISLE, a borough and the county-seat of Cumberland county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 18 m. W. by S. of Harrisburg and 118 m. W. by N.
of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 7620; (1900) 9626 (1148 being negroes);
(1910) 10,303. It is served by the Cumberland Valley (controlled by the
Pennsylvania railway) and the Gettysburg & Harrisburg railways. The
borough is pleasantly situated in the central part of the fertile
Cumberland Valley, which is here 12 m. wide. Mount Holly Springs and
Boiling Springs are near, and are important summer attractions. In
Carlisle is Dickinson College, founded in 1783 by Presbyterians, and
named in honour of John Dickinson (_q.v._), a benefactor of the college;
it was reorganized in 1833 as a Methodist Episcopal College, and is now
divided into the college, the school of law (founded in 1834) and Conway
Hall, the preparatory department. President James Buchanan and Chief
Justice R.B. Taney were graduates. Here are also Metzger College for
young ladies, and a well-known United States Indian industrial school,
established in 1879 through the efforts of Lieutenant (later
Brigadier-General) Richard Henry Pratt (b. 1840), its superintendent
until 1904; the school pays especial attention to industrial and
agricultural training, and its athletic organizations are famous. A
great effort is made to preserve and develop Indian arts and crafts; the
instruction given by Mrs Angel Decora Dietz, a Winnebago, in colour work
and design, decorating leather, making beadwork and weaving rugs, is
particularly noteworthy. On the initiative of the pupils the Leupp
Indian Art School was built on the campus in 1906-1907, all materials
being purchased with the funds of the athletic association and all work
being done by the students. The building is named in honour of Francis
Ellington Leupp (b. 1849), U.S. commissioner of Indian affairs in 1905.
Carlisle is prominent for the manufacture of boots and shoes, and has
machine shops and manufactories of carriages, ribbons, railway frogs and
switches, carpets and paper boxes. In 1905 the value of all the factory
products was $1,985,743, of which $1,078,401 was the value of boots and
shoes. The place was laid out as a town in 1751, was named from
Carlisle, Cumberland, England, and was incorporated as a borough in
1872. In 1753 Benjamin Franklin, with two other commissioners,
negotiated a treaty with the Ohio Indians here. During the War of
Independence the Americans kept here for secure confinement a number of
British prisoners, among them Major John Andre, and in 1794 Carlisle was
the headquarters of George Washington during the Whisky Rebellion. On
the night of the 1st of July 1863 Carlisle was bombarded by Confederate
troops.
CARLOFORTE, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Cagliari, the capital
of the small island (6 by 5 m.) of San Pietro (anc. _Accipitrum_ or
[Greek: Ierakouuaesos]) off the west coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1901)
7693. It lies on the east coast of the island, 6 m. west by sea from
Portoscuso, which is 47 m. west by rail from Cagliari. It was founded in
1737 by Charles Emmanuel III. of Savoy, who planted a colony of Genoese,
whose dialect and costume still prevail. In 1798 it was attacked by the
Tunisians and 933 inhabitants taken away as slaves. They were ransomed
after five years and the place fortified. It is now a centre of the
tunny fishery, and there are manganese mines also. The coral banks,
which were once important, are now exhausted. Three m. to the south-east
is the island of S. Antioco.
CARLOMAN (828-880), king of Bavaria and Italy, was the eldest son of
Louis the German, king of the East Franks. In 856 he undertook the
defence of the eastern frontier of Bavaria against the Bohemians and
Moravians, and won considerable fame in various campaigns. He married a
daughter of Ernest, count of the Bohemian mark, and in conjunction with
his father-in-law resisted the authority of his father in 861. For some
years he alternated between rebellion and submission to his father, but
in 865 an arrangement was made by which he became possessed of Bavaria
and Carinthia as his expectant share of the kingdom of Louis. During the
troubles between Louis and his two younger sons Carloman remained
faithful to his father, and carried on the war with the Moravians so
successfully that in 870 their territory was completely under the power
of the Franks; and when peace was made at Forchheim in 874, they
recognized the Frankish supremacy. In 875 the emperor Louis II. died,
having named his cousin Carloman as his successor in Italy. Carloman
crossed the Alps to claim his inheritance, but was cajoled into
returning by the king of the West Franks, Charles the Bald. In 876, on
his father's death, Carloman became actually king of Bavaria, and after
a short campaign against the Moravians he went again to Italy in 877 and
was crowned king of the Lombards at Pavia; but his negotiations with
Pope John VIII. for the imperial crown were fruitless, and personal
illness added to the outbreak of an epidemic in his army compelled him
to return to Bavaria. Stricken with paralysis, Carloman was unable to
prevent his brother Louis from seizing Bavaria; so making a virtue of
necessity, he bequeathed the whole of his lands to Louis. He died on the
22nd of September 880 at Ottingen, where he was buried, leaving an
illegitimate son, afterwards the emperor Arnulf.
See "Annales Fuldenses," "Annales Bertiniani," Reginovon Prum,
"Chronicon," all in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_,
Bandi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); E. Muhlbacher, _Die Regesten
des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); and E.
Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888).
CARLOMAN, the name of three Frankish princes.
CARLOMAN (d. 754), mayor of the palace under the Merovingian kings, was
a son of Charles Martel, and, together with his brother, Pippin the
Short, became mayor on his father's death in 741, administering the
eastern part of the Frankish kingdom. He was successful in extending the
power of the Franks in various wars with his troublesome neighbours, and
was not less zealous in seeking to strengthen and reform the church in
the lands under his rule. In 747 Carloman laid down his office and
retired to a monastery which he founded on Monte Soracte, but troubled
by the number of his visitors, he subsequently entered a monastery on
Monte Casino. He died at Vienne on the 17th of August 754.
CARLOMAN (751-771), king of the Franks, was a son of King Pippin the
Short, and consequently a brother of Charlemagne. The brothers became
joint kings of the Franks on Pippin's death in 768, and some trouble
which broke out between them over the conduct of the war in Aquitaine
was followed by Carloman's death at Samoussy on the 4th of December 771.
He married Gerberga, a daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards,
who, together with her children, vanished from history soon after her
husband's death.
CARLOMAN (d. 884), king of France, was the eldest son of King Louis II.,
the Stammerer, and became king, together with his brother Louis III., on
his father's death in 879. Although some doubts were cast upon their
legitimacy, the brothers obtained recognition and in 880 made a division
of the kingdom, Carloman receiving Burgundy and the southern part of
France. In 882 he became sole king owing to his brother's death, but the
kingdom was in a very deplorable condition, and his power was very
circumscribed. Carloman met his death while hunting on the 12th of
December 884.
See E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).