Sometimes, after nominating the cardinals, the pope adds that he also
appoints a certain number of others, whose names he does not divulge,
but reserves the right of publishing at a later date. These cardinals,
whose names he conceals "in his breast," are for that reason called
cardinals _in pectore_ (Ital. _in petto_). This practice seems to go
back to Martin V., who may have had recourse to this expedient in order
to avoid the necessity of soliciting the votes of the cardinals; but for
a long time past the popes have only resorted to it for quite other
reasons. If the pope dies before making known the cardinals _in petto_,
the promotion is not valid; if he publishes them, the cardinals take
rank from the day on which they were reserved _in pectore_, the
promotion acting retrospectively, even in the matter of emoluments. This
method has sometimes been used by the popes to ensure to certain
prelates who had merit, but were poor, the means of paying the expenses
of their promotion. In March 1875 Pius IX. announced the nomination of
several cardinals _in petto_, whose names would be given in his will. It
was pointed out to the pope that this posthumous publication would not
be a pontifical act, and ran the risk of being contested, or even
declared invalid; Pius IX. gave way before this reasoning, and published
the names in a subsequent consistory (Sept. 17).
Dignity.
The dignity of the cardinals is a participation in that of the sovereign
pontiff, and as such places them above all the other ecclesiastical
dignitaries and prelates. This rank, however, has not always been
assigned to them; but was attributed to the cardinal bishops before it
was to the rest. Their common prerogative was definitively established
when they became the sole electors of the pope, at a period when the
papacy, under pontiffs like Innocent III., shone with its most brilliant
lustre. For example, at the council of Lyons in 1245 all the cardinals
took precedence of the archbishops and bishops. It was in 1245, or
perhaps the year before, that Innocent IV. granted the cardinals the
privilege of wearing the red hat; as to the scarlet robe which still
forms their costume of ceremony, it was already worn by cardinals
performing the functions of legate; and the use was soon extended to
all. As to their civil relations, cardinals were assimilated by the
Catholic kings to the rank of princes of the blood royal, cardinals
being the highest in the Church, after the pope, just as princes of the
blood royal are the first in the kingdom after the king. Of the many
ecclesiastical privileges enjoyed by the cardinals, we will mention only
two: the real, though nowadays restricted, jurisdiction which they
exercise over the churches forming their title or diaconia; and the
official style of address conferred on them by Urban VIII. (10th of June
1630), of Eminence, _Eminentissimo signore_.
Functions.
The most lofty function of the cardinals is the election of the pope
(see CONCLAVE). But this function is necessarily intermittent, and they
have many others to fulfil _sede plena_. On those rare occasions on
which the pope officiates in person, they carry out, according to their
respective orders, their former functions in the ritual. But they are,
above all, the assistants of the pope in the administration of the
Church; they fill certain permanent offices, such as those of
chancellor, penitentiary, &c.; or again, temporary missions, such as
that of legate _a latere_; they have seats in the councils and tribunals
which deal with the affairs of the Church, and the Roman congregations
of cardinals (see CURIA ROMANA).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--All works on canon law contain a treatise on the
cardinals. See particularly, for the history, Thomassin, _Vetus et
nova discipl._, tom. I., lib. ii., cap. 113-115. For history and law,
Phillips, _Kirchenrecht_, vol. vi.; Hinschius, _System des kathol.
Kirchenrechts_, vol. i. p. 312. For the canonical aspect, Ferraris,
_Prompta bibliotheca_, s.v. "Cardinales"; Bouix, _De curia romana_
(Paris, 1859), pp. 5-141; Card. de Luca, _Relatio curiae romanae_,
disc. 5. For details of the ceremonies and costume, Grimaldi, _Les
Congregations romaines_ (Sienna, 1890), p. 99 et seq.; Barbier de
Montault, _Le Costume et les usages ecclesiastiques_ (Paris), s.d. For
a list of the names of the cardinals, according to their titles, see
De Mas-Latrie, _Tresor de chronologie_, col. 2219-2264; and in the
chronological order of their promotion, from St Leo IX. to Benedict
XIV., ibid. 1177-1242; also _Dictionnaire des cardinaux_ (Paris,
1856). (A. Bo.*)
CARDINAL VIRTUES (Lat. _cardo_, a hinge; the fixed point on which
anything turns), a phrase used for the principal virtues on which
conduct in general depends. Socrates and Plato (see _Republic_, iv. 427)
take these to be Prudence, Courage (or Fortitude), Temperance and
Justice. It is noticeable that the virtue of Benevolence, which has
played so important a part in Christian ethics and in modern altruistic
and sociological theories, is omitted by the ancients. Further, against
the Platonic list it may be urged (1) that it is arbitrary, and (2) that
the several virtues are not specifically distinct, that the basis of the
division is unsound, and that there is overlapping. It is said that St
Ambrose was the first to adapt the Platonic classification to Christian
theology. By the Roman Catholic Church these virtues are regarded as
_natural_ as opposed to the _theological_ virtues, Faith, Hope and
Charity. Some authors, combining the two lists, have spoken of the Seven
Cardinal Virtues. In English literature the phrase is found as far back
as the _Cursor Mundi_ (1300) and the _Ayenbite of Inwit_ (1340).
See B. Jowett, _Republic of Plato_ (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1887, Introd.
p. lxiii); Plato, _Protagoras_ (329-330); Aristotle, _Nicomachean
Ethics_, vi. 13. 6; Th. Ziegler, _Gesch. d. chr. Eth._ (2nd ed.); H.
Sidgwick, _History of Ethics_ (5th ed.), pp. 44, 133, 143; and
_Methods of Ethics_, p. 375.
CARDING, the process of using the "card" (Lat. _carduus_, a thistle or
teasel) for combing textile fibrous materials. The practice of carding
is of such great antiquity that its origin cannot be traced. It consists
in combing or brushing fibres until they are straight and placed in
parallel lines; in doing this, imperfect fibres are separated from
perfect ones, all impurities are removed, and the sound fibres are in
condition for further treatment. The teasels once used have long given
place to hand cards, and these in turn to what, in the rudest form, were
known as "stock cards," namely, two wire brushes, each 4 in. broad by 12
in. long, and having teeth bent at a uniform angle. One was nailed upon
a bench with the teeth sloping from the operator, the other was
similarly secured upon a two-handled bar with the teeth sloping towards
the operator. The material to be treated was thinly spread upon the
fixed card, and the movable one drawn by hand to and fro over it. When
sufficiently carded, a rod furnished with parallel projecting needles,
called a "needle stick," was pushed amongst the card teeth to strip the
fibres from the comb. The strip thus procured was rolled into a sliver
and spun. James Hargreaves, the inventor of the spinning jenny,
suspended the movable comb by passing two cords over pulleys fixed in
the ceiling and attached balance weights to opposite ends of the cords.
This enabled him to lengthen the cards, to apply two or three to the
same stock and to manipulate the top one with less labour, as well as to
produce more and better work. In May of 1748, Daniel Bourn, of
Leominster, patented a machine in which four parallel rollers were
covered with cards, and set close together. Fibres were fed to the first
rotating roller, each in turn drew them from the preceding one, and a
grid was employed to remove the carded material from the last roller.
This introduced the principle of carding with revolving cylinders whose
surfaces were clothed with cards working point to point. In December of
the same year Lewis Paul, of Birmingham, the inventor of drawing
rollers, patented two types of carding engines. In one, parallel rows of
spaced cards were nailed upon a cylinder which was revolved by a winch
handle. Beneath the cylinder a concave trough had a card fixed on the
inside, so that as the fibres passed between the two series of teeth
they were combed. This was the origin of "flat-carding," namely, nailing
strips of stationary cards upon transverse pieces of wood and adjusting
the strips or flats by screws to the cylinder. In 1762, the father of
Sir Robert Peel, with the assistance of Hargreaves, erected and used a
cylinder carding engine which differed in some important particulars
from Bourn's invention. But although roller-carding and flat-carding are
the only principles in use at the present time, to Sir Richard Arkwright
belongs the merit of introducing an automatic carding engine, for
between the years 1773 and 1775 he combined the various improvements of
his predecessors, entirely remodelled the machine, and added parts
which made the operation continuous. So successful were these cards that
some of them were in use at the beginning of the present century.
Notwithstanding the numerous and important changes that have been made
since Arkwright's time, carding remains essentially the same as
established by him. (See COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY.) (T. W. F.)
CARDIOID, a curve so named by G.F.M.M. Castillon (1708-1791), on account
of its heart-like form (Gr. [Greek: kardia], heart). It was
mathematically treated by Louis Carre in 1705 and Koersma in 1741. It is
a particular form of the limacon (q.v.) and is generated in the same
way. It may be regarded as an epicycloid in which the rolling and fixed
circles are equal in diameter, as the inverse of a parabola for its
focus, or as the caustic produced by the reflection at a spherical
surface of rays emanating from a point on the circumference. The polar
equation to the cardioid is r = a(1 + cos [theta]). There is symmetry
about the initial line and a cusp at the origin. The area is
{3/2}[pi]a^2, i.e. 1-1/2 times the area of the generating circle; the
length of the curve is 8a. (For a figure see LIMACON.)
CARDONA (perhaps the anc. _Udura_), a town of north-eastern Spain, in
the province of Barcelona; about 55 m. N.W. of Barcelona, on a hill
almost surrounded by the river Cardoner, a branch of the Llobregat. Pop.
(1900) 3855. Cardona is a picturesque and old-fashioned town, with
Moorish walls and citadel, and a 14th-century church. It is celebrated
for the extensive deposit of rock salt in its vicinity. The salt forms a
mountain mass about 300 ft. high and 3 m. in circumference, covered by a
thick bed of a reddish-brown clay, and apparently resting on a
yellowish-grey sandstone. It is generally more or less translucent, and
large masses of it are quite transparent. The hill is worked like a
mine; pieces cut from it are carved by artists in Cardona into images,
crucifixes and many articles of an ornamental kind.
CARDOON, _Cynara cardunculus_ (natural order Compositae), a perennial
plant from the south of Europe and Barbary, a near relation of the
artichoke. The edible part, called the _chard_, is composed of the
blanched and crisp stalks of the inner leaves. Cardoons are found to
prosper on light deep soils. The seed is sown annually about the middle
of May, in shallow trenches, like those for celery, and the plants are
thinned out to 10 or 12 in. from each other in the lines. In Scotland it
is preferable to sow the seed singly in small plots, placing them in a
mild temperature, and transplanting them into the trenches after they
have attained a height of 8 or 10 in. Water must be copiously supplied
in dry weather, both to prevent the formation of flower-stalks and to
increase the succulence of the leaves. In autumn the leaf-stalks are
applied close to each other, and wrapped round with bands of hay or
straw, only the points being left free. Earth is then drawn up around
them to the height of 15 or 18 in. Sometimes cardoons are blanched by a
more thorough earthing up, in the manner of celery, but in this case the
operation must be carried on from the end of summer. During severe frost
the tops of the leaves should be defended with straw or litter. Besides
the common and Spanish cardoons, there are the prickly-leaved Tours
cardoon, the red-stemmed cardoon and the Paris cardoon, all of superior
quality, the Paris being the largest and most tender. The common
artichoke is also used for the production of chard.
CARDS, PLAYING. As is the case with all very ancient pastimes, the
origin of playing-cards is obscure, many nations having been credited
with the invention, but the generally accepted view is that they come
from Asia. In the Chinese dictionary, _Ching-tsze-tung_ (1678), it is
said that cards were invented in the reign of Seun-ho, 1120 A.D., for
the amusement of his concubines. There is a tradition that cards have
existed in India from time immemorial--very ancient ones, round in form,
are preserved in museums--and that they were invented by the Brahmans.
Their invention has also been assigned to the Egyptians, with whom they
were said to have had a religious meaning, and to the Arabs. A very
ingenious theory, founded on numerous singular resemblances to the
ancient game of chess (_chaturanga_, the four _angas_ or members of an
army), has been advanced that they were suggested by chess (see "Essay
on the Indian Game of Chess," by Sir William Jones, in his _Asiatic
Researches_, vol. ii.).
The time and manner of the introduction of cards into Europe are matters
of dispute. The 38th canon of the council of Worcester (1240) is often
quoted as evidence of cards having been known in England in the middle
of the 13th century; but the games _de rege et regina_ there mentioned
are now thought to have been a kind of mumming exhibition (Strutt says
chess). No queen is found in the earliest European cards. In the
wardrobe accounts of Edward I. (1278), Walter Stourton is paid 8s. 3d.
_ad opus regis ad ludendum ad quatuor reges_, a passage which has been
thought to refer to cards, but it is now supposed to mean chess, which
may have been called the "game of four kings," as was the case in India
(_chaturaji_). If cards were generally known in Europe as early as 1278,
it is very remarkable that Petrarch, in his dialogue that treats of
gaming, never once mentions them; and that, though Boccaccio, Chaucer
and other writers of that time notice various games, there is not a
single passage in them that can be fairly construed to refer to cards.
Passages have been quoted from various works, of or relative to this
period, but modern research leads to the supposition that the word
rendered _cards_ has often been mistranslated or interpolated. An early
mention of a distinct series of playing cards is the entry of Charles or
Charbot Poupart, treasurer of the household of Charles VI. of France, in
his book of accounts for 1392 or 1393, which runs thus: _Donne a
Jacquemin Gringonneur, peintre, pour trois jeux de cartes, a or et a
diverses couleurs, ornes de plusieurs devises, pour porter devers le
Seigneur Roi, pour son ebatement, cinquante-six sols parisis_. This, of
course, refers only to the painting of a set or pack of cards, which
were evidently already well known. But, according to various conjectural
interpretations of documents, the earliest date of the mention of cards
has been pushed farther back by different authorities. For instance, in
the account-books of Johanna, duchess of Brabant, and her husband,
Wenceslaus of Luxemburg, there is an entry, under date of the 14th of
May 1379, as follows: "Given to Monsieur and Madame four peters, two
florins, value eight and a half moutons, wherewith to buy a pack of
cards" (_Quartspel met te copen_). This proves their introduction into
the Netherlands at least as early as 1379. In a British Museum MS.
(Egerton, 2, 419) mention is made of a game of cards (_qui ludus
cartarum appellatur_) in Germany in 1377. The safe conclusion with
regard to their introduction is that, though they may possibly have been
known to a few persons in Europe about the middle of the 14th century,
they did not come into general use until about a half-century later.
Whence they came is another question that has not yet been answered
satisfactorily. If we may believe the evidence of Covelluzzo of Viterbo
(15th century) cards were introduced into Italy from Arabia. On the
authority of a chronicle of one of his ancestors he writes: "In the year
1379 was brought into Viterbo the game of cards, which comes from the
country of the Saracens, and is with them called _naib_." The Crusaders,
who were inveterate gamblers, may have been the instruments of their
introduction (see _Istoria della citta di Viterbo_, by F. Bussi, Rome,
1743). According to other authorities, cards came first to Spain from
Africa with the Moors, and it is significant that, to this day, playing
cards are called in Spain _naipes_ (probably a corruption of the Arabic
_Nabi_, prophet). Taken in connexion with the statement of Covelluzzo,
this fact would seem to prove the wide popularity of the game of _naib_,
or cards, among the Arab tribes. The meaning of the word (prophet) has
been suggested to refer to the fortune-telling function of cards, and
the theory has been advanced that they were used by the Moorish gypsies
for that purpose. Gypsies are, however, not known to have appeared in
Spain before the 15th century, at a time when cards were already well
known. In regard to the word _naib_, the Italian language still
preserves the name _naibi_, playing cards.
Towards the end of the 14th century cards seem to have become common,
for in an edict of the provost of Paris, 1397, working-people are
forbidden to play at tennis, bowls, dice, cards or nine-pins on working
days. From an omission of any mention of cards in an ordonnance of
Charles V. in 1369, forbidding certain other games, it may be reasonably
concluded that cards became popular in France between that date and the
end of the century. In Italy it is possible that they were generally
known at a somewhat earlier date. In the 15th century they were often
the object of the attacks of the clergy. In 1423 St Bernardino of Siena
preached a celebrated sermon against them at Bologna, in which, like the
English Puritans after him, he attributed their invention to the devil.
Cards in Germany are referred to in a manuscript of Nuremberg about
1384, which illustrates the rapid spread of the new game throughout
Europe. In form the earliest cards were generally rectangular or square,
though sometimes circular.
Not long after their introduction, cards began to be used for other
purposes than gaming. In 1509 a Franciscan friar, Thomas Murner,
published an exposition of logic in the form of a pack of cards, and a
pack invented in 1651 by Baptist Pendleton purported to convey a
knowledge of grammar. These were soon followed by packs teaching
geography and heraldry, the whole class being called "scientiall cards."
Politics followed, and in England satirical and historical sets
appeared, one of them designed to reveal the plots of the Popish
agitators. The first mention of cards in the New World is found in the
letters of Herrera, a companion of Cortes, who describes the interest
manifested by the Aztecs in the card games of the Spanish soldiers.
Early in the 15th century the making of cards had become a regular trade
in Germany, whence they were sent to other countries. Cards were also
manufactured in Italy at least as early as 1425, and in England before
1463; for by an act of parliament of 3 Edw. IV. the importation of
playing cards is forbidden, in consequence, it is said, of the
complaints of manufacturers that importation obstructed their business.
No cards of undoubted English manufacture of so early a date have been
discovered; and there is reason to believe, notwithstanding the act of
Edward IV., that the chief supplies came from France or the Netherlands.
In the reign of Elizabeth the importation of cards was a monopoly; but
from the time of James I. most of the cards used in this country were of
home manufacture. A duty was first levied on cards in the reign of James
I.; since when they have always been taxed.
It has been much disputed whether the earliest cards were printed from
wood-blocks. If so, it would appear that the art of wood-engraving,
which led to that of printing, may have been developed through the
demand for the multiplication of implements of play. The belief that the
early card-makers or card-painters of Ulm, Nuremberg and Augsburg, from
about 1418-1450, were also wood-engravers, is founded on the assumption
that the cards of that period were printed from wood-blocks. It is,
however, clear that the earliest cards were executed by hand, like those
designed for Charles VI. Many of the earliest wood-cuts were coloured by
means of a stencil, so it would seem that at the time wood-engraving was
first introduced, the art of depicting and colouring figures by means of
stencil plates was well known. There are no playing cards engraved on
wood to which so early a date as 1423 (that of the earliest dated
wood-engraving generally accepted) can be fairly assigned; and as at
this period there were professional card-makers established in Germany,
it is probable that wood-engraving was employed to produce cuts for
sacred subjects before it was applied to cards, and that there were
hand-painted and stencilled cards before there were wood-engravings of
saints. The German _Briefmaler_ or card-painter probably progressed into
the wood-engraver; but there is no proof that the earliest
wood-engravers were the card-makers.
It is undecided whether the earliest cards were of the kind now common,
called _numeral_ cards, or whether they were _tarocchi_ or _tarots_,
which are still used in some parts of France, Germany and Italy, but the
probability is that the tarots were the earlier. A pack of tarots
consists of seventy-eight cards, four suits of numeral cards and
twenty-two emblematic cards, called _atutti_ or _atouts_ (=trumps). Each
suit consists of fourteen cards, ten of which are the pip cards, and
four court (or more properly _coat_ cards), viz. king, queen, chevalier
and valet. The _atouts_ are numbered from 1 to 21; the unnumbered card,
called the _fou_, has no positive value, but augments that of the other
_atouts_ (see _Academie des jeux_, Corbet, Paris, 1814, for an account
of the mode of playing tarocchino or tarots).
The marks of the suits on the earliest cards (German) are hearts, bells,
leaves and acorns. No ace corresponding to the earliest known pack has
been discovered; but other packs of about the same date have aces, and
it seems unlikely that the suits commenced with the deuces.
Next in antiquity to the marks mentioned are swords, batons, cups and
money. These are the most common on Italian cards of the late 15th
century, and are used both in Italy and in Spain. French cards of the
16th century bear the marks now generally used in France and England,
viz. _coeur_ (hearts), _trefle_ (clubs), _pique_ (spades) and _carreau_
(diamonds).
The French _trefle_, though so named from its resemblance to the trefoil
leaf, was in all probability copied from the acorn; and the _pique_
similarly from the leaf (_grun_) of the German suits, while its name is
derived from the sword of the Italian suits. It is not derived from its
resemblance to a pike head, as commonly supposed. In England the French
marks are used, and are named--hearts, clubs (corresponding to _trefle_,
the French symbol being joined to the Italian name, _bastoni_), spades
(corresponding to the French _pique_, but having the Italian name,
_spade_=swords) and diamonds. This confusion of names and symbols is
accounted for by Chatto thus--"If cards were actually known in Italy and
Spain in the latter part of the 14th century, it is not unlikely that
the game was introduced into this country by some of the English
soldiers who had served, under Hawkwood and other free captains, in the
wars of Italy and Spain. However this may be, it seems certain that the
earliest cards commonly used in this country were of the same kind, with
respect to the marks of the suits, as those used in Italy and Spain."
About the last quarter of the 15th century, packs with animals, flowers
and human figures, for marks of the suits, were engraved upon copper;
and later, numerous variations appeared, dictated by the caprice of
individual card-makers; but they never came into general use.
The court cards of the early packs were king, chevalier and knave. The
Italians were probably the first to substitute a queen for the
chevalier, who in French cards is altogether superseded by the queen.
The court cards of French packs received fanciful names, which varied
from time to time.
AUTHORITIES.--Abbe Rive, _Eclaircissements sur l'invention des cartes
a jouer_ (Paris, 1780); J.G.I. Breitkopf, _Versuch den Ursprung der
Spielkarten zu erforschen_ (Leipzig, 1784); Samuel Weller Singer,
_Researches into the History of Playing Cards, with Illustrations of
the Origin of Printing and Engraving on Wood_ (London, 1816); G.
Peignot, _Analyse critique et raisonnee de toutes les recherches
publiees jusqu'a ce jour, sur l'origine des cartes a jouer_ (Dijon,
1826); M.C. Leber, _Etudes historiques sur les cartes a jouer,
principalement sur les cartes francaises_ (Paris, 1842); William
Andrew Chatto, _Facts and Speculations on the Origin and History of
Playing Cards_ (London, 1848); P. Boiteau D'Ambly, _Les Cartes a jouer
et la cartomancie_ (Paris, 1854), translated into English with
additions under the title of _The History of Playing Cards, with
Anecdotes of their use in Conjuring, Fortune-telling, and
Card-sharping_, edited by the Rev. E.S. Taylor, B.A. (London, 1865);
W. Hughes Willshire, M.D., _A Descriptive Catalogue of Playing and
other Cards in the British Museum_, printed by order of the trustees
(London, 1876); _Origine des cartes a jouer_, by R. Merlin (Paris,
1869); _The Devil's Picture Books_, by Mrs J.K. Van Rensselaer (New
York, 1890); _Bibliography of Works in English on Playing Cards and
Gaming_, by F. Jessel (London, 1905); and especially _Les Cartes a
jouer_, by Henri Rene d'Allemagne (Paris, 1906) (an exhaustive
account).
CARDUCCI, BARTOLOMMEO (1560-1610), Italian painter, better known as
CARDUCHO, the Spanish corruption of his Italian patronymic, was born in
Florence, where he studied architecture and sculpture under Ammanati,
and painting under Zuccaero. The latter master he accompanied to Madrid,
where he painted the ceiling of the Escorial library, assisting also in
the production of the frescos that adorn the cloisters of that famous
palace. He was a great favourite with Philip III., and lived and died
in Spain, where most of his works are to be found. The most celebrated
of them is a Descent from the Cross, in the church of San Felipe el
Real, in Madrid.
His younger brother VINCENZO (1568-1638), was born in Florence, and was
trained as a painter by Bartolommeo, whom he followed to Madrid. He
worked a great deal for Philip III. and Philip IV., and his best
pictures are those he executed for the former monarch as decorations in
the Prado. Examples of his work are preserved at Toledo, at Valladolid,
at Segovia, and at several other Spanish cities. For many years he
laboured in Madrid as a teacher of his art, and among his pupils were
Giovanni Ricci, Pedro Obregon, Vela, Francisco Collantes, and other
distinguished representatives of the Spanish school during the 17th
century. He was also author of a treatise or dialogue, _De las
Excelencias de la Pintura_, which was published in 1633.
CARDUCCI, GIOSUE (1836-1907), Italian poet, was born at Val-di-Castello,
in Tuscany, on the 27th of July 1836, his father being Michele Carducci,
a physician, of an old Florentine family, who in his youth had suffered
imprisonment for his share in the revolution of 1831. Carducci received
a good education. He began life as a public teacher, but soon took to
giving private lessons at Florence, where he became connected with a set
of young men, enthusiastic patriots in politics, and in literature bent
on overthrowing the reigning romantic taste by a return to classical
models. These aspirations always constituted the mainsprings of
Carducci's poetry. In 1860 he became professor at Bologna, where, after
in 1865 astonishing the public by a defiant _Hymn to Satan_, he
published in 1868 _Levia Gravia_, a volume of lyrics which not only gave
him an indisputable position at the head of contemporary Italian poets,
but made him the head of a school of which the best Italian men of
letters have been disciples, and which has influenced all. Several other
volumes succeeded, the most important of which were the _Decennalia_
(1871), the _Nuove Poesie_ (1872), and the three series of the _Odi
Barbare_ (1877-1889).
Carducci had been brought into more fraternal contact with the aims of
the younger generation by the efforts of Angelo Sommaruga who became,
about 1880, the publisher of a group of young unknown writers all
destined to some, and a few to great, accomplishment. The period of his
prosperity was a strange one for Italy. The first ten years of the newly
constituted kingdom had passed more in stupor than activity; original
contributions to literature had been scarce, and publishers had
preferred bringing out inferior translations of not always admirable
French authors to encouraging the original work of Italians--work which
it must be confessed was generally mediocre and entirely lifeless.
Sommaruga's creation, a literary review called _La Cronaca Bizantina_,
gathered together such beginners as Giovanni Marradi, Matilde Serao,
Edoardo Scarfoglio, Guido Magnoni and Gabriele d'Annunzio. In order to
obtain the sanction of what he considered an enduring name, the founder
turned to Giosue Carducci, then living in retirement at Bologna,
discontented with his fate, and still not generally known by the public
of his own country. The activity of Sommaruga exercised a great
influence on Giosue Carducci. Within the next few years he published the
three admirable volumes of his _Confessioni e Batlaglie_, the _Ca Ira_
sonnets, the _Nuove Odi Barbare_, and a considerable number of articles,
pamphlets and essays, which in their collected edition form the most
living part of his work. His lyrical production, too, seemed to reach
its perfection in those five years of tense, unrelenting work; for the
_Canzone di Legnano_, the Odes to Rome and to Monte Mario, the Elegy on
the urn of Percy Bysshe Shelley, the ringing rhymes of the _Intermezzo_,
in which he happily blended the satire of Heine with the lyrical form of
his native poetry--all belong to this period, together with the essays
on Leopardi and on Parini, the admirable discussions in defence of his
_Ca Ira_, and the pamphlet called _Eterno Femminino regale_, a kind of
self-defence, undertaken to explain the origin of the Alcaic metre to
the queen of Italy, which marks the beginning of the last evolution in
Carducci's work (1881). The revolutionary spirits of the day, who had
always looked upon Giosue Carducci as their bard and champion, fell
away from him after this poem written in honour of a queen, and the
poet, wounded by the attitude of his party, wrote what he intended to be
his defence and his programme for the future in pages that will remain
amongst the noblest and most powerful of contemporary literature. From
that time Carducci appears in a new form, evolved afterwards in his last
Odes, _Il Piemonte_, _Li Bicocca di San Giacomo_, the Ode to the
daughter of Francesco Crispi on her marriage, and the one to the church
where Dante once prayed, _Alla Chiesetta dei Polenta_, which is like the
withdrawing into itself of a warlike soul weary of its battle.
For a few months in 1876 Carducci had a seat in the Italian Chamber. In
1881 he was appointed a member of the higher council of education. In
1890 he was made a senator. And in 1906 he was awarded the Nobel prize
for literature. He died at Bologna on the 16th of February 1907. By his
marriage in 1859 he had two daughters, who survived him, and one son,
who died in infancy.
The same qualities which placed Carducci among the classics of Italy in
his earlier days remained consistently with him in later life. His
thought flows limpid, serene, sure of itself above an undercurrent of
sane and vigorous if pagan philosophy. Patriotism, the grandeur of work,
the soul-satisfying power of justice, are the poet's dominant ideals.
For many years the national struggle for liberty had forced the best
there was in heart and brain into the atmosphere of political intrigue
and from one battlefield to another; Carducci therefore found a poetry
emasculated by the deviation into other channels of the intellectual
virility of his country. On this mass of patriotic doggerel, of sickly,
languishing sentimentality as insincere as it was inane, he grafted a
poetry not often tender, but always violently felt and thrown into a
mould of majestic form; not always quite expected or appreciated by his
contemporaries, but never commonplace in structure; always high in tone
and free in spirit. The adaptation of various kinds of Latin metres to
the somewhat sinewless language he found at his disposal, whilst it
might have been an effort of mere pedantry in another, was a life-giving
and strengthening inspiration in his case. Another of his
characteristics, which made him peculiarly precious to his countrymen,
is the fact that his poems form a kind of lyric record of the Italian
struggle for independence. The tumultuous vicissitudes of all other
nations, however, and the pageantry of the history of all times, have in
turns touched his particular order of imagination. The more important
part of his critical work which belongs to this later period consists of
his _Conversazioni critiche_, his _Storia filosofica della letteratura
Italiana_, and a masterly edition of Petrarch. That he should have had
the faults of his qualities is not remarkable. Being almost a pioneer in
the world of criticism, his essays on the authors of other countries,
though appearing in the light of discoveries to his own country,
absorbed as it had hitherto been in its own vicissitudes, have little of
value to the general student beyond the attraction of robust style. And
in his unbounded admiration for the sculptural lines of antique Latin
poetry he sometimes relapsed into that fascination by mere sound which
is the snare of his language, and against which his own work in its
great moments is a reaction.
CARDWELL, EDWARD (1787-1861), English theologian, was born at Blackburn
in Lancashire in 1787. He was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford
(B.A. 1809; M.A. 1812; B.D. 1819; D.D. 1831), and after being for
several years tutor and lecturer, was appointed, in 1814, one of the
examiners to the university. In 1825 he was chosen Camden professor of
ancient history; and during his five years' professorship he published
an edition of the _Ethics_ of Aristotle, and a course of his lectures on
_The Coinage of the Greeks and Romans_. In 1831 he succeeded Archbishop
Whately as principal of St Alban's Hall. He published in 1837 a
student's edition of the Greek Testament, and an edition of the Greek
and Latin texts of the _History of the Jewish War_, by Josephus, with
illustrative notes. But his most important labours were in the field of
English church history. He projected an extensive work, which was to
embrace the entire synodical history of the church in England, and was
to be founded on David Wilkins's _Concilia Magnae Britanniae et
Hiberniae_. Of this work he executed some portions only. The first
published was _Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church of England from
1546 to 1716_, which appeared in 1839. It was followed by a _History of
Conferences, &c., connected with the Revision of the Book of Common
Prayer_ (1840). On 1842 appeared _Synodalia, a Collection of Articles of
Religion, Canons, and Proceedings of Convocation from 1547 to 1717_,
completing the series for that period. Closely connected with these
works is the _Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum_ (1850), which treats of
the efforts for reform during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and
Elizabeth. Cardwell also published in 1854 a new edition of Bishop
Gibson's _Synodus Anglicana_. He was one of the best men of business in
the university, and held various important posts, among which were those
of delegate of the press, curator of the university galleries, manager
of the Bible department of the press, and private secretary to
successive chancellors of the university. He established the Wolvercot
paper mill. He died at Oxford on the 23rd of May 1861.
CARDWELL, EDWARD CARDWELL, VISCOUNT (1813-1886), English statesman, was
the son of a merchant of Liverpool, where he was born on the 24th of
July 1813. After a brilliant career at Oxford, where he gained a double
first-class, he entered parliament as member for Clitheroe in 1842, and
in 1845 was made secretary to the treasury. He supported Sir Robert
Peel's free-trade policy, and went out of office with him. In 1847 he
was elected for Liverpool, but lost his seat in 1852 for having
supported the repeal of the navigation laws. He soon found another
constituency at Oxford, and upon the formation of Lord Aberdeen's
coalition ministry became president of the Board of Trade, although
debarred by the jealousy of his Whig colleagues from a seat in the
cabinet. In 1854 he carried, almost without opposition, a most important
and complicated act consolidating all existing shipping laws, but in
1855 resigned, with his Peelite colleagues, upon the appointment of Mr
Roebuck's Sevastopol inquiry committee, declining the offer of the
chancellorship of the Exchequer pressed upon him by Lord Palmerston. In
1858 he moved the famous resolution condemnatory of Lord Ellenborough's
despatch to Lord Canning on the affairs of Oude, which for a time seemed
certain to overthrow the Derby government, but which ultimately
dissolved into nothing. He obtained a seat in Lord Palmerston's cabinet
of 1859, and after filling the uncongenial posts of secretary for
Ireland and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1861), became
secretary for the colonies in 1864. Here he reformed the system of
colonial defence, refusing to keep troops in the colonies during time of
peace unless their expense was defrayed by the colonists; he also laid
the foundation of federation in Canada and, rightly or wrongly, censured
Sir George Grey's conduct in New Zealand. Resigning with his friends in
1866, he again took office in 1868 as secretary for war. In this post he
performed the most memorable actions of his life by the abolition of
purchase and the institution of the short service system and the reserve
in the army, measures which excited more opposition than any of the
numerous reforms effected by the Gladstone government of that period,
but which were entirely justified by their successful working
afterwards. On the resignation of the Gladstone ministry in 1874 he was
raised to the peerage as Viscount Cardwell of Ellerbeck, but took no
further prominent part in politics. His mental faculties, indeed, were
considerably impaired during the last few years of his life, and he died
at Torquay on the 15th of February 1886. He was not a showy, hardly even
a prominent politician, but effected far more than many more conspicuous
men. The great administrator and the bold innovator were united in him
in an exceptional degree, and he allowed neither character to
preponderate unduly.
CARDWELL, a town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia, on
Rockingham Bay, about 800 m. direct N.W. by N. of Brisbane. Pop. of town
and district (1901) 3435. It has one of the best harbours in the state,
easy of access in all weathers, with a depth ranging from 4 to 10
fathoms. Various minerals, including gold and tin, exist in the
district; and there are preserve and sauce factories, and works for
meat extract and tinning. The dugong fishery is carried on, and the oil
is extracted. There are large timber forests in the district, and much
cedar is exported.
CAREW, GEORGE (d. about 1613), English diplomatist and historian, second
son of Sir Wymond Carew of Antony, was educated at Oxford, entered the
Inns of Court, and passed some years in continental travel. At the
recommendation of Queen Elizabeth, who conferred on him the honour of
knighthood, he was appointed secretary to Sir Christopher Hatton, and
afterwards, having been promoted to a mastership in chancery, was sent
as ambassador to the king of Poland. In the reign of James he was
employed in negotiating the treaty of union with Scotland, and for
several years was ambassador to the court of France. On his return he
wrote a _Relation of the State of France_, with sketches of the leading
persons at the court of Henry IV. It is written in the classical style
of the Elizabethan age, and was appended by Dr Birch to his _Historical
View of the Negotiations between the Courts of England, France and
Brussels, from 1592 to 1617_. Much of the information regarding Poland
contained in De Thou's _History of His Own Times_ was furnished by
Carew.
CAREW, RICHARD (1555-1620), English poet and antiquary, was born on the
17th of July 1555, at Antony House, East Antony, Cornwall. At the age of
eleven, he entered Christ Church, Oxford, and when only fourteen was
chosen to carry on an extempore debate with Sir Philip Sidney, in
presence of the earls of Leicester and Warwick and other noblemen. From
Oxford he removed to the Middle Temple, where he spent three years, and
then went abroad. By his marriage with Juliana Arundel in 1577 he added
Coswarth to the estates he had already inherited from his father. In
1586 he was appointed high-sheriff of Cornwall; he entered parliament in
1584; and he served under Sir Walter Raleigh, then lord lieutenant of
Cornwall, as treasurer. He became a member of the Society of Antiquaries
in 1589, and was a friend of William Camden and Sir Henry Spelman. His
great work is the _Survey of Cornwall_, published in 1602, and reprinted
in 1769 and 1811. It still possesses interest, apart from its
antiquarian value, for the picture it gives of the life and interests of
a country gentleman of the days of Elizabeth. Carew's other works
are:--a translation of the first five Cantos of Tasso's _Gerusalemme_
(1594), printed in the first instance without the author's knowledge,
and entitled _Godfrey of Balloigne, or the Recouerie of Hierusalam_;
_The Examination of Men's Wits_ (1594), a translation of an Italian
version of John Huarte's _Examen de Ingenios_; and _An Epistle
concerning the Excellences of the English Tongue_ (1605). Carew died on
the 6th of November 1620.
His son, Sir RICHARD CAREW (d. 1643?), was the author of a _True and
Readie Way to learn the Latine Tongue_, by writers of three nations,
published by Samuel Hartlib in 1654.
CAREW, THOMAS (1595-1645?), English poet, was the son of Sir Matthew
Carew, master in chancery, and his wife, Alice Ingpenny, widow of Sir
John Rivers, lord mayor of London. The poet was probably the third of
the eleven children of his parents, and was born at West Wickham in
Kent, in the early part of 1595, for he was thirteen years of age in
June 1608, when he matriculated at Merton College, Oxford. He took his
degree of B.A. early in 1611, and proceeded to study at the Middle
Temple. Two years later his father complained to Sir Dudley Carleton
that he was doing little at the law. He was in consequence sent to
Italy, as a member of Sir Dudley's household, and when the ambassador
returned from Venice, he seems to have kept Thomas Carew with him, for
he is found in the capacity of secretary to Sir Dudley Carleton, at the
Hague, early in 1616. From this office he was dismissed in the autumn of
that year for levity and slander; he had great difficulty in finding
another situation. In August 1618 his father died, and Carew entered the
service of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, in whose train he started for
France in March 1619, and it is believed that he travelled in Herbert's
company until that nobleman returned to England, at the close of his
diplomatic missions, in April 1624. Carew "followed the court before he
was of it," not receiving the definite appointment of gentleman of the
privy chamber until 1628. While Carew held this office, he displayed
his tact and presence of mind by stumbling and extinguishing the candle
he was holding to light Charles I. into the queen's chamber, because he
saw that Lord St Albans had his arm round her majesty's neck. The king
suspected nothing, and the queen heaped favours on the poet. Probably in
1630, Carew was made "server" or taster-in-ordinary to the king. To this
period may be attributed his close friendship with Sir John Suckling,
Ben Jonson and Clarendon; the latter says that Carew was "a person of
pleasant and facetious wit." Donne, whose celebrity as a court-preacher
lasted until his death in 1631, exercised a powerful if not entirely
healthful influence over the genius of Carew. In February 1633 a masque
by the latter, entitled _Coelum Britanicum_, was acted in the
banqueting-house at Whitehall, and was printed in 1634. The close of
Carew's life is absolutely obscure. It was long supposed that he died in
1639, and this has been thought to be confirmed by the fact that the
first edition of his _Poems_, published in 1640, seems to have a
posthumous character. But Clarendon tells us that "after fifty years of
life spent with less severity and exactness than it ought to have been,
he died with the greatest remorse for that licence." If Carew was more
than fifty years of age, he must have died in or after 1645, and in fact
there were final additions made to his _Poems_ in the third edition of
1651. Walton tells us that Carew in his last illness, being afflicted
with the horrors, sent in great haste to "the ever-memorable" John Hales
(1584-1656); Hales "told him he should have his prayers, but would by no
means give him then either the sacrament or absolution."
Carew's poems, at their best, are brilliant lyrics of the purely
sensuous order. They open to us, in his own phrase, "a mine of rich and
pregnant fancy." His metrical style was influenced by Jonson and his
imagery still more clearly by Donne, for whom he had an almost servile
admiration. His intellectual power was not comparable with Donne's, but
Carew had a lucidity and directness of lyrical utterance unknown to
Donne. It is perhaps his greatest distinction that he is the earliest of
the Cavalier song-writers by profession, of whom Rochester is the
latest, poets who turned the disreputable incidents of an idle
court-life into poetry which was often of the rarest delicacy and the
purest melody and colour. The longest and best of Carew's poems, "A
Rapture," would be more widely appreciated if the rich flow of its
imagination were restrained by greater reticence of taste.
The best edition of Carew's _Poems_ is that prepared by Arthur Vincent
in 1899. (E. G.)
CAREY, HENRY (d. 1743), English poet and musician, reputed to be an
illegitimate son of George Savile, marquess of Halifax, was born towards
the end of the 17th century. His mother is supposed to have been a
schoolmistress, and Carey himself taught music at various schools. He
owed his knowledge of music to Olaus Linnert, and later he studied with
Roseingrave and Geminiani. He wrote the words and the music of _The
Contrivances; or More Ways than One_, a farce produced at Drury Lane in
1715. His _Hanging and Marriage; or The Dead Man's Wedding_ was acted at
Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1722. _Chrononhotonthologos_ (1734), described
as "The most Tragical Tragedy that ever was tragedized by any Company of
Tragedians," was a successful burlesque of the bombast of the
contemporary stage. The best of his other pieces were _A Wonder; or the
Honest Yorkshireman_ (1735), a ballad opera, and the _Dragon of Wantley_
(1737), a burlesque opera, the music of which was by J.F. Lampe. He was
the author of _Namby-Pamby_, a once famous parody of Ambrose Philips's
verses to the infant daughter of the earl of Carteret. Carey is best
remembered by his songs. "Sally in our Alley" (printed in his _Musical
Century_) was a sketch drawn after following a shoemaker's 'prentice and
his sweetheart on a holiday. The present tune set to these words,
however, is not the one written by Carey, but is borrowed from an
earlier song, "The Country Lasse," which is printed in _The Merry
Musician_ (vol. iii., c. 1716). It has been claimed for him that he was
the author of "God save the King" (see NATIONAL ANTHEMS). He died in
London on the 4th of October 1743, and it was asserted, without
justification, that he had committed suicide. Edmund Kean, the
tragedian, was one of his great-grandchildren.
The completest edition of his poems is _Poems on Several Occasions_
(1729). His dramatic works were published by subscription in 1743.
CAREY, HENRY CHARLES (1793-1879), American economist, was born in
Philadelphia on the 15th of December 1793. At the age of twenty-eight he
succeeded his father, Mathew Carey (1760-1839)--an influential
economist, political reformer, editor, and publisher, of Irish birth,
but for many years a resident of Philadelphia--as a member of the
publishing firm of Carey & Lea, which was long the most conspicuous in
America. He died in Philadelphia on the 13th of October 1879.
Among Mathew Carey's many writings had been a collection (1822) of
_Essays on Political Economy_, one of the earliest of American treatises
favouring protection, and Henry C. Carey's life-work was devoted to the
propagation of the same theory. He retired from business in 1838, almost
simultaneously with the appearance (1837-1840) of his _Principles of
Political Economy_. This treatise, which was translated into Italian and
Swedish, soon became the standard representative in the United States of
the school of economic thought which, with some interruptions, has since
dominated the tariff system of that country. Carey's first large work on
political economy was preceded and followed by many smaller volumes on
wages, the credit system, interest, slavery, copyright, &c.; and in
1858-1859 he gathered the fruits of his lifelong labours into _The
Principles of Social Science_, in three volumes. This work is a most
comprehensive as well as mature exposition of his views. In it Carey
sought to show that there exists, independently of human wills, a
natural system of economic laws, which is essentially beneficent, and of
which the increasing prosperity of the whole community, and especially
of the working classes, is the spontaneous result--capable of being
defeated only by the ignorance or perversity of man resisting or
impeding its action. He rejected the Malthusian doctrine of population,
maintaining that numbers regulate themselves sufficiently in every
well-governed society, and that their pressure on subsistence
characterizes the lower, not the more advanced, stages of civilization.
He denied the universal truth, for all stages of cultivation, of the law
of diminishing returns from land.
His fundamental theoretic position relates to the antithesis of wealth
and value. Carey held that land, as we are concerned with it in
industrial life, is really an instrument of production which has been
formed as such by man, and that its value is due to the labour expended
on it in the past--though measured, not by the sum of that labour, but
by the labour necessary under existing conditions to bring new land to
the same stage of productiveness. He studied the occupation and
reclamation of land with peculiar advantage as an American, for whom the
traditions of first settlement were living and fresh, and before whose
eyes the process was indeed still going on. The difficulties of adapting
a primitive soil to the work of yielding organic products for man's use
can be lightly estimated only by an inhabitant of a country long under
cultivation. It is, in Carey's view, the overcoming of these
difficulties by arduous and continued effort that entitles the first
occupier of land to his property in the soil. Its present value forms a
very small proportion of the cost expended on it, because it represents
only what would be required, with the science and appliances of our
time, to bring the land from its primitive into its present state.
Property in land is therefore only a form of invested capital--a
quantity of labour or the fruits of labour permanently incorporated with
the soil; for which, like any other capitalist, the owner is compensated
by a share of the produce. He is not rewarded for what is done by the
powers of nature, and society is in no sense defrauded by his sole
possession. The so-called Ricardian theory of rent is a speculative
fancy, contradicted by all experience. Cultivation does not in fact, as
that theory supposes, begin with the best, and move downwards to the
poorer soils in the order of their inferiority. The light and dry higher
lands are first cultivated; and only when population has become dense
and capital has accumulated, are the low-lying lands, with their greater
fertility, but also with their morasses, inundations, and miasmas,
attacked and brought into occupation. Rent, regarded as a proportion of
the produce, sinks, like all interest on capital, in process of time,
but, as an absolute amount, increases. The share of the labourer
increases, both as a proportion and an absolute amount. And thus the
interests of these different social classes are in harmony. But, Carey
proceeded to say, in order that this harmonious progress may be
realized, what is taken from the land must be given back to it. All the
articles derived from it are really separated parts of it, which must be
restored on pain of its exhaustion. Hence the producer and the consumer
must be close to each other; the products must not be exported to a
foreign country in exchange for its manufactures, and thus go to enrich
as manure a foreign soil. In immediate exchange value the landowner may
gain by such exportation, but the productive powers of the land will
suffer.
Carey, who had set out as an earnest advocate of free trade, accordingly
arrived at the doctrine of protection: the "coordinating power" in
society must intervene to prevent private advantage from working public
mischief. He attributed his conversion on this question to his
observation of the effects of liberal and protective tariffs
respectively on American prosperity. This observation, he says, threw
him back on theory, and led him to see that the intervention referred to
might be necessary to remove (as he phrases it) the obstacles to the
progress of younger communities created by the action of older and
wealthier nations. But it seems probable that the influence of List's
writings, added to his own deep-rooted and hereditary jealousy and
dislike of English predominance, had something to do with his change of
attitude (see PROTECTION).
CAREY, WILLIAM (1761-1834), English Oriental scholar, and the pioneer of
modern missionary enterprise, was born at Paulerspury, Northamptonshire,
on the 17th of August 1761. When a youth he worked as a shoemaker; but
having joined the Baptists when he was about twenty-one, he devoted much
of his time to village preaching. In 1787 he became pastor of a Baptist
church in Leicester, and began those energetic movements among his
fellow religionists which resulted in the formation of the Baptist
Missionary Society, Carey himself being one of the first to go abroad.
On reaching Bengal in 1793, he and his companions lost all their
property in the Hugli; but having received the charge of an indigo
factory at Malda, he was soon able to prosecute the work of translating
the Bible into Bengali. In 1799 he quitted Malda for Serampore, where he
established a church, a school, and a printing-press for the publication
of the Scriptures and philological works. In 1801 Carey was appointed
professor of Oriental languages in a college founded at Fort William by
the marquess of Wellesley. From this time to his death he devoted
himself to the preparation of numerous philological works, consisting of
grammars and dictionaries in the Mahratta, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Telinga,
Bengali and Bhotanta dialects. The Sanskrit dictionary was unfortunately
destroyed by a fire which broke out in the printing establishment. From
the Serampore press there issued in his lifetime over 200,000 Bibles and
portions in nearly forty different languages and dialects, Carey himself
undertaking most of the literary work. He died on the 9th of June 1834.
See _Lives_ by J. Culross (1881) and G. Smith (1884).
CARGILL, DONALD (1610-1681), Scottish Covenanter, was born in 1610. He
was educated at St Andrews, and afterwards attached himself to the
Protesters. After his appointment to one of the churches in Glasgow, he
openly resisted the measures of the government. Compelled to remain at a
distance from his charge, he ventured back to celebrate the Communion,
and was arrested, but was liberated at the instance of some of his
private friends. He was afterwards wounded at the battle of Bothwell
Bridge, and fled to Holland, where he remained a few months. On his
return he joined Richard Cameron in publishing the Sanquhar declaration,
and boldly excommunicated the king and his officials. He was soon
afterwards apprehended, and brought to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded
on the 27th of July 1681.
CARGO (Span. for "loading," from Lat. _carrus_, car), a shipload, or the
goods (or even, less technically, persons) carried on board a ship; and
so, by analogy, a term used for any large amount. The maritime law
affecting the cargo of a ship is dealt with in the articles AVERAGE,
AFFREIGHTMENT, INSURANCE, SALVAGE, BOTTOMRY, LIEN; and the specialities
of cargo-ships under SHIP.
CARIA, an ancient district of Asia Minor, bounded on the N. by Ionia and
Lydia, on the W. and S. by the Aegean Sea, and on the E. by Lycia and a
small part of Phrygia. The coast-line consists of a succession of great
promontories alternating with deep inlets. The most important inlet, the
Ceramic Gulf, or Gulf of Cos, extends inland for 70 m., between the
great mountain promontory terminating at Myndus on the north, and that
which extends to Cnidus and the remarkable headland of Cape Krio on the
south. North of this is the deep bay called in ancient times the Gulf of
Iasus (now known as the Gulf of Mendeliyah), and beyond this again was
the deeper inlet which formerly extended inland between Miletus and
Priene, but of which the outer part has been entirely filled up by the
alluvial deposits of the Maeander, while the innermost arm, the ancient
Latmic Gulf, is now a lake. South of Cape Krio again is the gulf known
as the Gulf of Doris, with several subordinate inlets, bounded on the
south by the rugged promontory of Cynossema (mod. Cape Alupo). Between
this headland and the frontier of Lycia is the sheltered bay of
Marmarice, noted in modern times as one of the finest harbours of the
Mediterranean.
Almost the whole of Caria is mountainous. The two great masses of Cadmus
(Baba-dagh) and Salbacum (Boz-dagh), which are in fact portions of the
great chain of Taurus (see ASIA MINOR), form the nucleus to which the
whole physical framework of the country is attached. From these lofty
ranges there extends a broad tableland (in many parts more than 3000 ft.
high), while it sends down offshoots on the north towards the Maeander,
and on the west towards the Aegean. Of these ranges the summit of Mt
Latmus alone reaches 4500 ft.
The coast is fringed by numerous islands, in some instances separated
only by narrow straits from the mainland. Of these the most celebrated
are Rhodes and Cos. Besides these are Syme, Telos, Nisyros, Calymnos,
Leros and Patmos, all of which have been inhabited, both in ancient and
modern times, and some of which contain excellent harbours. Of these
Nisyros alone is of volcanic origin; the others belong to the same
limestone formation with the rocky headlands of the coast. The country
known as Caria was shared between the Carians proper and the Caunians,
who were a wilder people, inhabiting the district between Caria and
Lycia. They were not considered to be of the same blood as the Carians,
and were, therefore, excluded from the temple of the Carian Zeus at
Mylasa, which was common to the Carians, Lydians and Mysians, though
their language was the same as that of the Carians proper. Herodotus (i.
172) believed the Caunians to have been aborigines, the Carians having
been originally called Leleges, who had been driven from the Aegean
islands by the invading Greeks. This seems to have been a prevalent view
among the Greek writers, for Thucydides (i. 8) states that when Delos
was "purified" more than half the bodies found buried in it were those
of "Carians." Modern archaeological discovery, however, is against this
belief; and the fact that Mysus, Lydus and Car were regarded as brothers
indicates that the three populations who worshipped together in the
temple of Mylasa all belonged to the same stock. Homer (_Il_. x.
428-429) distinguishes the Leleges (_q.v._) from the Carians, to whom is
ascribed the invention of helmet-crests, coats of arms, and shield
handles.
A considerable number of short Carian inscriptions has been found, most
of them in Egypt. They were first noticed by Lepsius at Abu-Simbel,
where he correctly inferred that they were the work of the Carian
mercenaries of Psammetichus. The language, so far as it has been
deciphered, is "Asianic" and not Indo-European.
The excavations of W.R. Paton at Assarlik (_Journ. Hell. Studies_, 1887)
and of F. Winter at Idrias have resulted in the discovery of
Late-Mycenaean and Geometric pottery. Caria, however, figured but little
in history. It was absorbed into the kingdom of Lydia, where Carian
troops formed the bodyguard of the king. Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the
coast were colonized by Dorians. At Halicarnassus (q.v.) the Mausoleum,
the monument erected by Artemisia to her husband Mausolus, about 360
B.C., was excavated by Sir C.T. Newton in 1857-1858. Cnidus (q.v.) was
excavated at the same time, when the "Cnidian Lion," now in the British
Museum, was found crowning a tomb near the site of the old city (C.T.
Newton, _History of Discoveries at Cnidus, Halicarnassus and
Branchidae_). On the border-land between Caria and Lydia lay other Greek
cities, Miletus, Priene, and Magnesia (see articles s.v.), colonized in
early times by the Ionians. Inland was Tralles (mod. Aidin), which also
had an Ionic population, though it never belonged to the Ionic
confederacy (see TRALLES). The excavations of the English in 1868-1869,
of the French under O. Rayet and A. Thomas in 1873, and more recently of
the Germans under Th. Wiegand and Schrader in 1895-1898 have laid bare
the site of the Greek Priene, and the same has been done for the remains
of Magnesia ad Maeandrum by French excavators in 1842-1843 and the
German expedition under K. Humann in 1891-1893. A German expedition
under Th. Wiegand carried on excavations at Miletus (see articles on
these towns).
In the Persian epoch, native dynasts established themselves in Caria and
even extended their rule over the Greek cities. The last of them seems
to have been Pixodarus, after whose death the crown was seized by a
Persian, Orontobates, who offered a vigorous resistance to Alexander the
Great. But his capital, Halicarnassus, was taken after a siege, and the
principality of Caria conferred by Alexander on Ada, a princess of the
native dynasty. Soon afterwards the country was incorporated into the
Syrian empire and then into the kingdom of Pergamum.
See W.M. Ramsay, "Historical Geography of Asia Minor" (_R.G.S._ iv.,
1890); W. Ruge and E. Friedrich, _Archaologische Karte von Kleinasien_
(1899); Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria
and Lycia_ (Eng. trans., 1892); A.H. Sayce, "The Karian Language and
Inscriptions" (_T.S.B.A._ ix. 1, 1887); P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in
die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 376-384 (1896). For the
coinage see NUMISMATICS. (A. H. S.)
CARIACO, or SAN FELIPE DE AUSTRIA, a town on the north coast of
Venezuela, 40 m. east of the city of Cumana at the head of the gulf
bearing the same name. Pop. (1908, estimate) 7000. It stands a short
distance up the Cariaco river and its port immediately on the coast is
known as Puerto Sucre. The surrounding district produces cotton,
tobacco, cacao, cattle and fruit, and there is considerable trade
through Puerto Sucre, although that port has no regular connexion with
foreign ports.
CARIBBEE ISLANDS, a name chiefly of historical importance, sometimes
applied to the whole of the West Indies, but strictly comprehending only
the chain of islands stretching from Porto Rico to the coast of South
America. These are also known as the Lesser Antilles, and the bulk of
them are divided into the two groups of the Leeward and Windward
Islands.
CARIBS, the name, used first by Columbus (from _Cariba_, said to mean "a
valiant man"), of a South American people, who, at the arrival of the
Spanish, occupied parts of Guiana and the lower Orinoco and the Windward
and other islands in what is still known as the Caribbean Sea. They were
believed to have had their original home in North America, spreading
thence through the Antilles southward to Venezuela, the Guianas, and
north-east Brazil. This view has been abandoned, as Carib tribes, the
Bakairi and Nahuquas, using an archaic type of Carib speech and
primitive in habits, have been met by German explorers in the very heart
of Brazil. It may thus be assumed that the cradle of the race was the
centre of South America; their first migrating movements being to Guiana
and the Antilles. A cruel, ferocious and warlike people, they made a
stout resistance to the Spaniards. They were cannibals, and it is to
them that we owe that word, Columbus's _Caribal_ being transformed into
_Cannibal_ in apparent reference to the _canine_ voracity of the Caribs.
They are physically by no means a powerful race, being distinguished by
slight figures with limbs well formed but lacking muscle, and with a
tendency to be pot-bellied, due apparently to their habit of drinking
_paiwari_ (liquor prepared from the cassava plant) in great quantities.
Their colour is a red cinnamon, but varies with different tribes. Their
hair is thick, long, very black, and generally cut to an even edge, at
right angles to the neck, round the head. The features are strikingly
Mongoloid. Among the true Caribs a 2-in. broad belt of cotton is knitted
round each ankle, and just below each knee of the young female children.
All body-hair in both sexes is pulled out, even to the eye-brows. Among
the women the lower lips are often pierced, pins of wood being passed
through and forming a sort of _chevaux de frise_ round the mouth.
Sometimes a bell-shaped ornament is hung by men to a piece of string
passed through the lower lip. The Carib government was patriarchal.
Though the women did most of the hard work, they were kindly treated.
Polygamy prevailed. Very little ceremony attended death. The Caribs of
the West Indies, known as "Red" and "Black," the first pure, the second
mixed with negro blood, after a protracted war with the British were
transported in 1796 to the number of 5000 from Dominica and St Vincent
to the island of Ruatan near the coast of Honduras. A few were
subsequently allowed back to St Vincent, but the majority are settled in
Honduras and Nicaragua.
CARICATURE (Ital. _caricatura, i.e. "ritratto ridicolo,"_ from
_caricare_, to load, to charge; Fr. _charge_), a general term for the
art of applying the grotesque to the purposes of satire, and for
pictorial and plastic ridicule and burlesque. The word, "caricatura" was
first used as English by Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), in his
_Christian Morals_, a posthumous work; it is next found, still in its
Italian form, in No. 537 of the _Spectator_; it was adopted by Johnson
in his dictionary (1757), but does not appear in Bailey's dictionary,
for example, as late as 1773; and it only assumed its modern guise
towards the end of the 18th century, when its use and comprehension
became general.
Little that is not conjectural can be written concerning caricature
among the ancients. Few traces of the comic are discoverable in Egyptian
art--such papyri of a satirical tendency as are known to exist appearing
to belong rather to the class of ithyphallic drolleries than to that of
the ironical grotesque. Among the Greeks, though but few and dubious
data are extant, it seems possible that caricature may not have been
altogether unknown. Their taste for pictorial parody, indeed, has been
sufficiently proved by plentiful discoveries of pottery painted with
burlesque subjects. Aristotle, moreover, who disapproved of grotesque
art, condemns in strong terms the pictures of a certain Pauson, who,
alluded to by Aristophanes, and the subject of one of Lucian's
anecdotes, is hailed by Champfleury as the _doyen_ of caricaturists.
That the grotesque in graphic art conceived in the true spirit of
intentional caricature was practised by the Romans is evident from the
curious frescoes uncovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum; from the mention
in Pliny of certain painters celebrated for burlesque pictures; from the
curious fantasies graven in gems and called Grylli; and from the number
of ithyphallic caprices that have descended to modern times. But in
spite of these evidences of Greek and Roman humour, in spite of the
famous comic statuette of Caracalla, and of the more famous _graffito_
of the Crucifixion, the caricaturists of the old world must be sought
for, not among its painters and sculptors, but among its poets and
dramatists. The comedies of Aristophanes and the epigrams of Martial
were, to the Athens of Pericles and the Rome of Domitian, what the
etchings of Gillray and the lithographs of Daumier were to the London of
George III. and the Paris of the Citizen King.
During the middle ages a vast mass of grotesque material was
accumulated, but selection becomes even more difficult than with the
scarce relics of antiquity. With the building of the cathedrals
originated a new style of art; a strange mixture of memories of paganism
and Christian imaginings was called into being for the adornment of
those great strongholds of urban Catholicism, and in this the coarse and
brutal materialism of the popular humour found its largest and freest
expression. On missal-marge and sign-board, on stall and entablature, in
gargoyle and initial, the grotesque displayed itself in an infinite
variety of forms. The import of this inextricable tangle of imagery,
often obscene and horrible, often quaint and fantastic, is difficult, if
not impossible, to determine. We recognize the prevalence of three great
popular types or figures, each of which may be credited with a satirical
intention--of Reynard the Fox, the hero of the famous medieval romance;
of the Devil, that peculiarly medieval antithesis of God; and of Death,
the sarcastic and irreverent skeleton. The popularity of the last is
evidenced by the fact that no fewer than forty-three towns in England,
France and Germany are enumerated as possessing sets of the Dance of
Death, that grandiose all-levelling series of caprices in the
contemplation of which the middle ages found so much consolation. It was
reserved for Holbein (1498-1554), seizing the idea and resuming all that
his contemporaries thought and felt on the subject, to produce, in his
fifty-three magnificent designs of the Danse Macabre, the first and
perhaps the greatest set of satirical moralities known to the modern
world.
It is in the tumult of the Renaissance, indeed, that caricature in its
modern sense may be said to have been born. The great popular movements
required some such vehicle of comment or censure; the perfection to
which the arts of design were attaining supplied the means; the
invention of printing ensured its dissemination. The earliest genuine
piece of graphic irony that has been discovered is a caricature (1499)
relating to Louis XII. and his Italian war. But it was the Reformation
that produced the first full crop of satirical ephemerae, and the heads
of Luther and Alexander VI. are therefore the direct ancestors of the
masks that smirk and frown from the "cartoons" of _Punch_ and the
_Charivari_. Fairly started by Lucas Cranach, a friend of Luther, in his
_Passionale of Christ and Antichrist_ (1521), caricature was naturalized
in France under the League, but only to pass into the hands of the
Dutch, who supplied the rest of Europe with satirical prints during the
whole of the next century. A curious reaction is visible in the work of
Pieter Breughel (1510-1570) towards the grotesque _diablerie_ and
macaberesque morality of medieval art, the last original and striking
note of which is caught in the compositions of Jacques Callot
(1593-1635), and, in a less degree, in those of his followers, Stefano
della Bella (1610-1664) and Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). On the other
hand, however, Callot, one of the greatest masters of the grotesque that
ever lived, in certain of his _Caprices_, and in his two famous sets of
prints, the _Miseres de la guerre_, may be said to anticipate certain
productions of Hogarth and Goya, and so to have founded the modern
school of ironic _genre_.
In England one of the earliest caricatures extant is that in the margin
of the Forest Roll of Essex, 5, ed. 1, now at the Record Office; it is a
grotesque portrait of "Aaron fil Diabole" (Aaron, son of the devil),
probably representing Cok, son of Aaron. It is dated 1277. Another
caricature, undated, appears on a Roll containing an account of the
tallages and fines paid by Jews, 17. Henry III., belonging to 1233
(Exch. of Receipt, Jews' Roll, No. 8). It is an elaborate satirical
design of Jews and devils, arranged in a pediment. During the 16th
century, caricature can hardly be said to have existed at all,--a
grotesque of Mary Stuart as a mermaid, a pen and ink sketch of which is
yet to be seen in the Rolls Office, being the only example of it known.
The Great Rebellion, however, acted as the Reformation had done in
Germany, and Cavaliers and Roundheads caricatured each other freely. At
this period satirical pictures usually did duty as the title-pages of
scurrilous pamphlets; but one instance is known of the employment during
the war of a grotesque allegory as a banner, while the end of the
Commonwealth produced a satirical pack of playing cards, probably of
Dutch origin. The Dutch, indeed, as already has been stated, were the
great purveyors of pictorial satire at this time and during the early
part of the next century. In England the wit of the victorious party was
rather vocal than pictorial; in France the spirit of caricature was
sternly repressed; and it was from Holland, bold in its republican
freedom, and rich in painters and etchers, that issued the flood of
prints and medals which illustrate, through cumbrous allegories and
elaborate symbolization, the principal political passages of both the
former countries, from the Restoration (1660) to the South Sea Bubble
(1720). The most distinguished of the Dutch artists was Romain de Hooghe
(1638-1720), a follower of Callot, who, without any of the weird power
of his master, possessed a certain skill in grouping and faculty of
grotesque suggestiveness that made his point a most useful weapon to
William of Orange during the long struggle with Louis XIV.
The 18th century, however, may be called emphatically the age of
caricature. The spirit is evident in letters as in art; in the fierce
grotesques of Swift, in the coarser _charges_ of Smollett, in the keen
ironies of Henry Fielding, in the Aristophanic tendency of Foote's
farces, no less than in the masterly moralities of Hogarth and the
truculent satires of Gillray. The first event that called forth
caricatures in any number was the prosecution (1710) of Dr Sacheverell;
most of these, however, were importations from Holland, and only in the
excitement attendant on the South Sea Bubble, some ten years later, can
the English school be said to have begun. Starting into active being
with the ministry of Walpole (1721), it flourished under that statesman
for some twenty years,--the "hieroglyphics," as its prints were named,
graphically enough, often circulating on fans. It continued to increase
in importance and audacity till the reign of Pitt (1757-1761), when its
activity was somewhat abated. It rose, however, to a greater height than
ever during the rule of Bute (1761-1763), and since that time its
influence has extended without a check. The artists whose combinations
amused the public during this earlier period are, with few exceptions,
but little known and not greatly esteemed. Among them were two amateurs,
Dorothy, wife of Richard Boyle, 3rd earl of Burlington, and General
George Townshend (afterwards 1st Marquess Townshend); Goupy, Boitard and
Liotard were Frenchmen; Vandergucht and Vanderbank were Dutchmen. This
period witnessed also the rise of William Hogarth (1697-1764). As a
political caricaturist Hogarth was not successful, save in a few
isolated examples, as in the portraits of Wilkes and Churchill; but as a
moralist and social satirist he has not yet been equalled. The
publication, in 1732, of his _Modern Midnight Conversation_ may be said
to mark an epoch in the history of caricature. Mention must also be made
of Paul Sandby (1725-1809), who was not a professional caricaturist,
though he joined in the pictorial hue-and-cry against Hogarth and Lord
Bute, and who is best remembered as the founder of the English school of
water-colour; and of John Collet (1723-1788), said to have been a pupil
of Hogarth, a kindly and industrious humorist, rarely venturing into the
arena of politics. During the latter half of the century, however,
political caricature began to be somewhat more skilfully handled than of
old by James Sayer, a satirist in the pay of the younger Pitt, while
social grotesques were pleasantly treated by Henry William Bunbury
(1750-1811) and George Moutard Woodward. These personalities, however,
interesting as they are, are dwarfed into insignificance by the great
figure of James Gillray (1757-1815), in whose hands political caricature
became almost epic for grandeur of conception and far-reaching
suggestiveness. It is to the works of this man of genius, indeed, and
(in a less degree) to those of his contemporary, Thomas Rowlandson
(1756-1827), an artist of great and varied powers, that historians must
turn for the popular reflection of all the political notabilia of the
end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries. England may be
said to have been the chosen home of caricature during this period. In
France, timid and futile under the Monarchy, it had assumed an immense
importance under the Revolution, and a cloud of hideous pictorial libels
was the result; but even the Revolution left no such notes through its
own artists, though Fragonard (1732-1806) himself was of the number, as
came from the gravers of Gillray and Rowlandson. In Germany caricature
did not exist. Only in Spain was there to be found an artist capable of
entering into competition with the masters of the satirical grotesque of
whom England could boast. The works of Francesco Goya y Lucientes
(1746-1828) are described by Theophile Gautier as "a mixture of those of
Rembrandt, Watteau, and the comical dreams of Rabelais," and
Champfleury discovers analogies between him and Honore Daumier, the
greatest caricaturist of modern France.
The satirical grotesque of the 18th century had been characterized by a
sort of grandiose brutality, by a certain vigorous obscenity, by a
violence of expression and intention, that appear monstrous in these
days of reserve and restraint, but that doubtless sorted well enough
with the strong party feelings and fierce political passions of the age.
After the downfall of Napoleon (1815), however, when strife was over and
men were weary and satisfied, a change in matter and manner came over
the caricature of the period. In connection with this change, the name
of George Cruikshank (1792-1878), an artist who stretches hands on the
one side towards Hogarth and Gillray, and on the other towards Leech and
Tenniel, deserves honourable mention. Those of Cruikshank's political
caricatures which were designed for the squibs of William Hone
(1779-1842) are, comparatively speaking, uninteresting; his ambition was
that of Hogarth--the production of "moral comedies." Much of his work,
therefore, may be said to form a link in the chain of development
through which has passed that ironical _genre_ to which reference has
already been made. In 1829, however, began to appear the famous series
of lithographs, signed H.B., the work of John Doyle (1798-1868). These
jocularities are interesting otherwise than politically; thin and weakly
as they are, they inaugurated the style of later political caricature.
In France, meanwhile, with the farcical designs of Edme Jean Pigal (b.
1794) and the realistic sketches of Henri Monnier (1805-1872), the
admirable portrait-busts of Jean Pierre Dantan the younger (1800-1869)
and the fine military and low-life drolleries of Nicolas Toussaint
Charlet (1792-1845) were appearing. Up to this date, though journalism
and caricature had sometimes joined hands (as in the case of the
_Craftsman_ and the _Anti-Jacobin_, and particularly in _Les Revolutions
de France et de Brabant_ and _Les Actes des Apotres_), the alliance had
been but brief; it was reserved for Charles Philipon (1802-1862), who
may be called the father of comic journalism, to make it lasting. The
foundation of _La Caricature_, by Philipon in 1831, suppressed in 1835
after a brief but glorious career, was followed by _Le Charivari_
(December 1832), which is perhaps the most renowned of the innumerable
enterprises of this extraordinary man. Among the artists he assembled
round him, the highest place is held by Honore Daumier (1808-1879), a
draughtsman of great skill, and a caricaturist of immense vigour and
audacity. Another of Philipon's band was Sulpice Paul Chevalier
(1801-1866), better known as Gavarni, in whose hands modern social
caricature, advanced by Cruikshank and Charlet, assumed its present
guise and became elegant. Mention must also be made of Grandville
(J.I.I. Gerard) (1803-1847), the illustrator of La Fontaine, and a
modern patron of the medieval skeleton; of Charles Joseph Travies de
Villers, the father of the famous hunchback "Mayeux"; and of Amedee de
Noe, or "Cham," the wittiest and most ephemeral of pictorial satirists.
In 1840 the pleasantries of "H.B." having come to an end, there was
founded, in imitation of this enterprise of Philipon, the comic journal
which, under the title of _Punch, or the London Charivari_, has since
become famous all over the world. Among its early illustrators were John
Leech (1817-1864) and Richard Doyle (1824-1883), whose drawings were
full of the richest grotesque humour.
In 1862 Carlo Pellegrini, in _Vanity Fair_, began a series of portraits
of public men, which may be considered the most remarkable instances of
personal caricature in England.
For the later developments of caricature, it is convenient to take them
by countries in the following sections:--