Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouche lent himself to

the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyes for their overthrow. His activity in

furthering the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire 18-19 (November 9-10), 1799,

procured him the favour of Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v.

Napoleon I.). In the ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouche

behaved with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and

extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouche was

careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of the new

master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted himself with so

much skill as to earn at times the gratitude even of the royalists.

Thus, while countermining a foolish intrigue of theirs in which the

duchesse de Guiche was the chief agent, Fouche took care that she should

escape. Equally skilful was his action in the affair of the so-called

Arena-Ceracchi plot, in which the _agents provocateurs_ of the police

were believed to have played a sinister part. The chief "conspirators"

were easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivose

(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This far more

serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded a bomb near the

First Consul's carriage with results disastrous to the bystanders) was

soon seen by Fouche to be the work of royalists; and when the First

Consul, eager to entrap the still formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten

the blame on them, Fouche firmly declared that he would not only assert

but would prove that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his

efforts, however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was

resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters

(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the spring of

1802) Fouche was thought to have secured the Jacobins concerned from the

vengeance of the First Consul. In any case the latter resolved to rid

himself of a man who had too much power and too much skill in intrigue

to be desirable as a subordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as

First Consul for life (August 1, 1802) Fouche was deprived of his

office; but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of

police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended

ministry of justice. Fouche also became a senator and received half of

the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated during his tenure

of office. He continued, however, to intrigue through his spies, whose

information was so superior to that of the new minister of police as to

render great services to Napoleon at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru

conspiracy (February-March 1804).

As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouche to the

re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also later on

entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no less important

than at the time of the Consulate. His police agents were ubiquitous,

and the terror which Napoleon and Fouche inspired, owing to their proven

ability to benefit by plots, partly accounts for the absence of

conspiracies after 1804. After Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouche uttered

the _mot_ of the occasion: "Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old

aristocracy; the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires."

That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of fear, of

Fouche was proved by his conduct in the early days of 1808. While

engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor heard rumours that Fouche

and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies, were having interviews at Paris in

which Murat, king of Naples, was concerned. At once the sensitive

autocrat hurried to Paris, but found nothing to incriminate Fouche. In

that year Fouche received the title of duke of Otranto. During the

absence of Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British

Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of Antwerp.

Fouche thereupon issued an order to the prefects of the northern

departments of the empire for the mobilization of 60,000 National

Guards. He added to the order a statement in which occurred the words:

"Let us prove to Europe that although the genius of Napoleon can throw

lustre on France, his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse

the enemy." The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked

than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months brought

further causes of friction between emperor and minister. The latter,

knowing the desire of his master for peace at the close of the year

1809, undertook on his own account to make secret overtures to the

British ministry. A little later Napoleon opened negotiations and found

that Fouche had forestalled him. His rage against his minister was

extreme, and on the 3rd of June 1810 he dismissed him from his office.

However, as it was not the emperor's custom completely to disgrace a man

who might again be useful, Fouche received the governorship of Rome. He

went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving the

emperor's order to give up certain important documents of his former

ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that the rest were

destroyed. At this the emperor's anger burst forth again, and Fouche on

learning, after his arrival at Florence, that the storm was still raging

at Paris, prepared to sail to the United States. Compelled, however, by

stress of weather and sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in

Elisa Bonaparte, grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed

to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point Carre. In

1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the projected invasion of

Russia; and on the return of the emperor in haste from Smorgoni to Paris

at the close of that year, the ex-minister of police was suspected of

complicity in the conspiracy of General Malet, which came so strangely

near to success. From this suspicion Fouche cleared himself and gave the

emperor useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic

situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the

arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the Illyrian

provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system in Germany in

October 1813 Fouche was ordered to repair to Rome and thence to Naples,

in order to watch the movements of Murat. Before Fouche arrived at

Naples Murat threw off the mask and invaded the Roman territory,

whereupon Fouche received orders to return to France. He arrived at

Paris on the 10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being

constrained by his marshals to abdicate.

The conduct of Fouche at this crisis was characteristic. As senator he

advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte d'Artois, brother

of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation between the monarchy

and the nation. A little later he addressed to Napoleon, then at Elba, a

letter begging him in the interests of peace and of France to withdraw

to the United States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an

appeal in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures

which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but Fouche

remained unmolested.

This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that there were no

hopes of advancement, he entered into relations with conspirators who

sought the overthrow of the Bourbons. Lafayette and Davout were

concerned in the affair, but their refusal to take the course desired by

Fouche and other bold spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon

escaped from Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before

his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to Fouche an

offer of the ministry of police, which he declined, saying, "It is too

late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat." He then foiled an attempt

of the royalists to arrest him, and on the arrival of Napoleon he

received for the third time the portfolio of police. That, however, did

not prevent him from entering into secret relations with Metternich at

Vienna, his aim being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities.

Meanwhile he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his

rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words "The

sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of power" in the

declaration of the council of state. But the autocratic tendencies of

Napoleon could scarcely be held in check, and Fouche seeing the fall of

the emperor to be imminent, took measures to expedite it and secure his

own interests. On the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second

time, and Fouche was next day elected president of the commission which

provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with Louis

XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the overtures of his

agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for the recognition of Napoleon

II., he facilitated the success of the Bourbon cause, and thus procured

for himself a place in the ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill,

however, was unequal to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists

who remembered his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He

resigned office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at

Dresden, he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he

died on the 25th of December 1820. He had accumulated great wealth.

Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was at least

conscientious, Fouche's character deteriorated in and after the year

1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition represented all

that was worst in the life of France during the period of the Revolution

and Empire. In Fouche the enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a

cold, selfish and remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the

period 1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest

instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking to the

level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were marked by a certain

aloofness. He multiplied the means of resistance even to that

irresistible autocrat, so that though removed from office, he was never

wholly disgraced. Despised by all for his tergiversations, he

nevertheless was sought by all on account of his cleverness. He repaid

the contempt of his superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a

mask of impenetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected

no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success appeared

to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the servant of the victors,

present or prospective, he never gave himself to any one party. In this

versatility he resembles Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica.

Both professed, under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of

serving France. Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy;

Fouche may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fouche wrote some political pamphlets and reports, the

chief of which are _Reflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet_ (1793);

_Reflexions sur l'education publique_ (1793); _Rapport et projet de

loi relatif aux colleges_ (1793); _Rapport sur la situation de

Commune-Affranchie_ [_Lyons_] (1794); _Lettre aux prefets concernant

les pretres_, &c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a

_Lettre au duc de Wellington_ (1817). The best life of Fouche is that

by L. Madelin, _Fouche_ (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called _Fouche

Memoirs_ are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least

in part, from notes written by Fouche, and are often valuable, though

their account of events (e.g. of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is not

seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle, _Napoleon

et l'Angleterre_ (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904). For the

plots with which Fouche had to deal see E. Daudet, _La Police et les

Chouans sous le Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1895); P.M.C. Desmarest,

_Temoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute police_ (Paris, 1833,

2nd ed., 1900); E. Picard, _Bonaparte et Moreau_ (Paris, 1905); G.A.

Thierry, _Conspirateurs et gens de police_; _le complot de libelles_

(Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H. Welschinger, _Le Duc

d'Enghien_ (Paris, 1888); E. Guillon, _Les Complots militaires sous le

Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1894). (J. Hl. R.)

FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696), French philosopher, was born at Dijon on the

1st of March 1644. He was the son of a merchant, and appears to have

taken orders at a very early age. For some years he held the position of

honorary canon at Dijon, but this he resigned in order to take up his

residence in Paris. He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the

remainder of his life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the

27th of April 1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a

keen opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was one of

scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived the old

arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with much ingenuity against

Malebranche's doctrine. Otherwise his scepticism is subordinate to

orthodox belief, the fundamental dogmas of the church seeming to him

intuitively evident. His object was to reconcile his religious with his

philosophical creed, and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an

academician. His writings against Malebranche were collected under the

title _Dissertations sur la recherche de la verite_, 1693.

See F. Rabbe, _L'Abbe Simon Foucher_ (1867); C. Jourdain in

_Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_ (1875), pp. 557-559.

FOUCQUET, JEAN, or JEHAN (c. 1415-1485), French painter, born at Tours,

is the most representative and national French painter of the 15th

century. Of his life little is known, but it is certain that he was in

Italy about 1437, where he executed the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV.,

and that upon his return to France, whilst retaining his purely French

sentiment, he grafted the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had

acquired during his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks,

which was the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became

the founder of an important new school. He was court painter to Louis

XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator and miniaturist, of

exquisite precision in the rendering of the finest detail, and his power

of clear characterization in work on this minute scale, have long since

procured him an eminent position in the art of his country, his

importance as a painter was only realized when his portraits and

altarpieces were for the first time brought together from various parts

of Europe in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at

the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet's most important

paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame de Melun, of which one

wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum

and the other in the Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of

Charles VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a

portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from his brush

is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous are his

illuminated books and miniatures that have come down to us. The

Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains forty miniatures from

a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed

by Foucquet on the Berlin wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet's

hand again are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a

translation of Josephus at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The second volume

of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen

miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry Yates Thompson

at a London sale, and restored by him to France.

See _Oeuvres de Jehan Foucquet_ (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867); A. de

Champeaux and P. Gauchery, _Oeuvres d'art executees pour le duc de

Berry_; "Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet" from vols. i.

and ii. of the _Anciennetes des Juifs_ (London, 1902); Charles Blanc,

_Histoire des peintres de toutes les ecoles_ (introduction); and

Georges Lafenestre, _Jehan Fouquet_ (Paris, 1902).

FOUGERES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m. N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop.

(1906) 21,847. Fougeres is built on the summit and slopes of a hill on

the left bank of the Nancon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was

formerly one of the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy,

and it still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications,

notably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St Sulpice. The

castle, which is situated in the lower part of the town, directly

overlooking the Nancon, is now a picturesque ruin, but gives abundant

evidence in its towers and outworks of its former strength and

magnificence. The finest of the towers was erected in 1242 by Hugues of

Lusignan, and named after Melusine, the mythical foundress of the

family. The churches of St Leonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in

part, from the 15th century. An hotel de ville and a belfry, both of the

15th century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses many

curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de Lari Coisiere (d.

1812), born in the town. Fougeres is the seat of a subprefect, and has a

tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce and a communal

college. It is the chief industrial town of its department, being a

centre for the manufacture of boots and shoes; tanning and

leather-dressing and the manufacture of sail-cloth and other fabrics

are also important industries. Trade is in dairy produce and in the

granite of the neighbouring quarries. Fougeres frequently figures in

Breton history from the 11th to the 15th century. It was taken by the

English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne, the captor

on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the towers of the

castle. In 1488 it was taken by the troops of Charles VIII. under la

Tremoille. In the middle ages Fougeres was a lordship of some

importance, which in the 13th century passed into the possession of the

family of Lusignan, and in 1307 was confiscated by the crown and

afterwards changed hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the

Vendee, it was occupied by the insurgents.

FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE (1838- ), French philosopher, was born at

La Poueze on the 18th of October 1838. He held several minor

philosophical lectureships, and from 1864 was professor of philosophy at

the lycees of Douai, Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and

1868 he was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work on

Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of conferences at the

Ecole Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his

two treatises, _Platonis Hippias Minor sive Socratica contra liberum

arbitrium argumenta_ and _La Liberte et le determinisme_. The strain of

the next three years' continuous work undermined his health and his

eyesight, and he was compelled to retire from his professorship. During

these years he had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history

of philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed his

philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through which he

endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with the naturalistic and

mechanical standpoint of science. In _L'Evolutionnisme des idees-forces_

(1890), _La Psychologie des idees-forces_ (1893), and _La Morale des

idees-forces_ (1907), is elaborated his doctrine of _idees-forces_, or

of mind as efficient cause through the tendency of ideas to realize

themselves in appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological

developments of this theory succeed its physical and psychological

treatment, the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially

important. Fouillee's wife, who by a previous marriage was the mother of

the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-1888), is well known,

under the pseudonym of "G. Bruno," as the author of educational books

for children.

His other chief works are: _L'Idee moderne du droit en Allemagne, en

Angleterre et en France_ (Paris, 1878); _La Science sociale

contemporaine_ (1880); _La Propriete sociale et la democratie_ (1884);

_Critique des systemes de morale contemporains_ (1883); _La Morale,

l'art et la religion d'apres Guyau_ (1889); _L'Avenir de la

metaphysique fondee sur l'experience_ (1889); _L'Enseignement au point

de vue national_ (1891); _Descartes_ (1893); _Temperament et

caractere_ (2nd ed., 1895); _Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception

sociologique du monde_ (1896); _Le Mouvement idealiste et la reaction

contre la science positive_ (1896); _La Psychologie du peuple

francais_ (2nd ed., 1898); _La France au point de vue moral_ (1900);

_L'Esquisse psychologique des peuples europeens_ (1903); _Nietzsche et

l' "immoralisme"_ (1903); _Le Moralisme de Kant_ (1905).

FOULD, ACHILLE (1800-1867), French financier and politician, was born at

Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of a rich Jewish banker, he

was associated with and afterwards succeeded his father in the

management of the business. As early as 1842 he entered political life,

having been elected in that year as a deputy for the department of the

Hautes Pyrenees. From that time to his death he actively busied himself

with the affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution

of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence in

financial matters on the provisional government then formed. He shortly

afterwards published two pamphlets against the use of paper money,

entitled, _Pas d'Assignats!_ and _Observations sur la question

financiere_. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon he was four times

minister of finance, and took a leading part in the economical reforms

then made in France. His strong conservative tendencies led him to

oppose the doctrine of free trade, and disposed him to hail the _coup

d'etat_ and the new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence

of the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family, he

resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the same day

appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the government as minister of

state and of the imperial household. In this capacity he directed the

Paris exhibition of 1855. The events of November 1860 led once more to

his resignation, but he was recalled to the ministry of finance in

November of the following year, and retained office until the

publication of the imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when

Emile Ollivier became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last

tenure of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican war

had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan of 300 millions

of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon financial abilities, had a

taste for the fine arts, which he developed and refined during his youth

by visiting Italy and the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857

he was made a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes

on the 5th of October 1867.

FOULIS, ANDREW (1712-1775) and ROBERT (1707-1776), Scottish printers and

publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow maltman. Robert was apprenticed

to a barber; but his ability attracted the attention of Dr Francis

Hutcheson, who strongly recommended him to establish a printing press.

After spending 1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his

brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had received a

better education, he started business in 1741 in Glasgow, and in 1743

was appointed printer to the university. In this same year he brought

out _Demetrius Phalereus de elocutione_, in Greek and Latin, the first

Greek book ever printed in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the

famous 12mo edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to

be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in the

university and a reward offered for the discovery of any inaccuracy, six

errors at least, according to T.F. Dibdin, escaped detection. Soon

afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, and they continued for

about thirty years to issue carefully corrected and beautifully printed

editions of classical works in Latin, Greek, English, French and

Italian. They printed more than five hundred separate publications,

among them the small editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos,

Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful

edition of the Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol.,

1756-1758); Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. 12mo, 1761); Xenophon,

Greek and Latin (12 vols. 12mo, 1762-1767); Gray's Poems; Pope's Works;

Milton's Poems. The Homer, for which Flaxman's designs were executed, is

perhaps the most famous production of the Foulis press. The brothers

spared no pains, and Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the

classics, and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer.

Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution for

the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their chief

patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to "print for posterity

and prosper," they spent their money in collecting pictures, pieces of

sculpture and models, in paying for the education and travelling of

youthful artists, and in copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their

countrymen were not ripe for such an attempt, and the "Academy" not only

proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew died on the

18th of September 1775, and his brother went to London, hoping to

realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. They were sold for much

less than he anticipated, and Robert returned broken-hearted to

Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was

the author of a _Catalogue of Paintings with Critical Remarks_. The

business was afterwards carried on under the same name by Robert's son

Andrew.

See W.J. Duncan, _Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary

History of Glasgow_, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which

_inter alia_ contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis

press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of

Paris produced at the "Academy" in the university of Glasgow.

FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1717-1789), French administrator, was born at

Saumur. During the Seven Years' War he was intendant-general of the

armies, and intendant of the army and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle.

In 1771 he was appointed intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker

was dismissed, Foullon was appointed minister of the king's household,

and was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But he was

unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested him on account of

his severity, the Parisians on account of his wealth accumulated in

utter indifference to the sufferings of the poor; he was reported,

probably quite without foundation, to have said, "If the people cannot

get bread, let them eat hay." After the taking of the Bastille on the

14th of July, he withdrew to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread

the news of his death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried

off with a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hotel de ville, and, in

spite of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace

and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789.

See Eugene Bonnemere, _Histoire des paysans_ (4th ed., 1887), tome

iii.; C.L. Chassin, _Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789_.

(Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv.

FOUNDATION (Lat. _fundatio_, from _fundare_, to found), the act of

building, constituting or instituting on a permanent basis; especially

the establishing of any institution by endowing or providing it with

funds for its continual maintenance. The word is thus applied also to

the institutions so established, such as a college, monastery or

hospital; and the terms "on the foundation," or "foundationer," are used

of members of such a college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars,

&c., the benefits of the endowment. Formerly "foundation" also meant the

charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and it is

still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such institutions.

The terms "old foundation" and "new foundation" used in connexion with

the organizing of English cathedral chapters have no reference to the

age of the cathedrals. At the time of the Reformation under Henry VIII.

the old college chapters were left unchanged, and are referred to as the

"old foundations," but the monastic chapters were all suppressed,

consequently new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and

these constitute the "new foundations."

"Foundation" also means the base (natural or artificial) on which any

erection is built up; generally made below the level of the ground (see

FOUNDATIONS below). A foundation-stone is one of the stones at the base

of a building, generally a corner-stone, frequently laid with a public

ceremony to celebrate the commencement of the building. The term is also

applied to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making,

the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material used for

stiffening purposes, as "foundation muslin or net." In knitting or

crochet the first stitches onto which all the rest are worked are called

the "foundation chain." In gem-cutting the "foundation-square" is the

first of eight squares round the edges of a brilliant made in bevel

planes and from which the angles are all removed to form three-corner

facets.

FOUNDATIONS, in building. The object of foundations is to distribute the

weight of a structure equally over the ground. In the construction of a

building the weights are concentrated at given points on piers, columns,

&c., and these foundations require to be spread so as to reduce the

weight to an average. In the preparation of a foundation care must be

taken to prevent the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed

upon sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any

damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with in ordinary

practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand, vary as to their

capabilities of bearing weight. There is no provision in any English

building acts as to the load that may be placed on any of these soils,

but under the New York Building Code it is provided that, where no test

of the sustaining power of the soil is made, different soils, excluding

mud, at the bottom of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the

following loads to the superficial foot:

per sq. ft.

Soft clay 1 ton.

Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers,

wet and springy 2 tons.

Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry 3 tons.

Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay 4 tons.

Load on foundation.

A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary foundation by the

walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided for by the London

Building Act of 1894, and a comparison of a few of the principal

authorities, will be found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision

as to what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a wall of the

warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base for a height of

27 ft. is 2-1/2 bricks thick (or 22-1/2 in.), and for the same distance

in height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the remainder to the top

being 1-1/2 bricks thick (or 14 in.). The weight of brickwork per foot

run of such a wall is 4.05 tons on any area of 3.75 ft. super. of

brickwork. According to the act the concrete is to project 4 in. on each

side; we have then an additional area of .66 ft. super. to add, thus

making the total foundation area of each foot run of wall 4.41 ft.

super. to take a weight of 4.05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super.

(viz. .9 ton.)

Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration, viz. the

weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the roof. In this case

there would be at least six floors, and the entire weight could hardly

be taken at less than 6 tons, which would give a total weight of 10.05

tons on an area of 4.41 ft. super. or a load of 2.28 tons per foot

super. This is on the assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on

the foundations by openings or piers, or by girders, &c., in which case,

in addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations should

be increased in area. Piers always involve a great increase of weight on

the foundations, and in very many instances this increased weight,

instead of being provided for by increasing the area of the foundations

and so reducing the weight per foot super., is only partly met by the

improper method of merely increasing the depth of the concrete, while

keeping the same projection of concrete round the footings as for the

walls. As an example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80

tons, standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by a

brick pier 22-1/2 in. square. In this case we should have, after allowing

for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of 4 ft. 5 in.

square, or 19.6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure of 4.1 tons

per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much as in the previous

example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead of increasing the depth of

the concrete, it would be necessary to increase its width; if it were

made 6 ft. square, we should have an area of 36 ft. super. to take the

80 tons, and thus the pressure would only be 2.2 tons per foot, and the

cost of the foundation be much the same.

If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class, as

prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a wall 50

ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22-1/2 in. as for the

warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall weighing 3.75

tons per foot super. on an area of 4.41 feet super., or .85 ton per foot

without weight of floors and roof as against the .9 ton in the warehouse

example. To this must be added the weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at

a total of 3 tons per foot run of wall, and we then have an aggregate of

6.75 tons per foot run and 1.50 tons per foot super. as against 2.28

tons in the warehouse class.

If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel Seddon in the

_Aide Memoir_ gives the load which ordinary foundations will bear as a

safe load per foot super. as follows:

tons.

Rock, moderately hard 9

Rock of strength of good concrete 3

Rock, very soft 1.8

Firm earth 1 to 1-1/2

Hard clay 1 to 1-1/2

Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from

spreading sideways 1 to 1-1/2

Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the latter heads,

and according to this table we have, when we erect walls in accordance

with the building act, to overload our foundations.

As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an example the

chimney at Adkin's Soap Works in Birmingham, 312 ft. high, so arranged

that its pressure on the foundations is only 1-1/2 tons per foot super.;

also the great St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, which has a pressure of

1-3/4 tons; the weight of the Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over

4 bases, each 130 ft. square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or

2-1/3 cwt., per foot super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per

foot on the granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by

spreading to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The

piers under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2-1/4 tons only, those of

the Imperial Institute 2-1/4 tons, and those of the destructor cells and

chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6-3/4 cwt. per foot super. From

these various examples it would appear that on sound clay or gravel

foundation a load of from 2-1/4 to 4 tons may be employed with safety.

Trial borings.

One of the first and most important requirements in preparing drawings

for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the subsoil and

strata at different levels over the proposed site, so as to be able to

arrange the footings accordingly at the various depths and to decide as

to the various forms and methods to be employed. For this purpose trial

holes or borings are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon

which the concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom

is found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations must

be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile foundations,

&c., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples of the

varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will be noticed

the great depths dug before getting through the made ground: At the Bank

of England there were 22 ft. of made ground resting on 4 ft. of gravel.

Some of the made ground was of ancient date, and preserved relics of

Roman occupation. In some parts the subsoils have been excavated for

ballast or gravel, as at Kensington, or for brick earth, as at Highbury,

and the pits filled in with rubbish. Rock, which forms an excellent and

unchanging foundation in one situation, may prove a dangerous foundation

in another. Thus chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain

positions, but when it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop

of the gault or underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for

any building, as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the

Dorsetshire coast bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the

Thames embankment, showed: (1) 18 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in.

greensand, wet and dirty; (3) 2 ft. peat clay; (4) 6 in. greensand; (5)

5-1/2 ft. peaty bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean

ballast, resting at a depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue

clay. A boring at Highbury New Park gave: (1) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18

ft. loam, (3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand.

These examples show that while trial holes should always be made before

designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil, care

must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block 2 of

the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial holes

upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay to be

about 29-1/2 ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual

excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution

of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west

corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground.

The foundations of block 1 of the new admiralty buildings are placed in

a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in solid

concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland Avenue

(London), the various subsoils are as follows: (1) 38-1/2 ft. made

ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3) 6 ft.

rising sand; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue clay.

At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north end 37 ft.

The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft. wide. The site

was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about 6 ft. wide, forming a

species of boxes, and the whole was covered with a depth of 6 ft. of

concrete upon which the walls were raised. The foundation for 53

Parliament Street, where running sand was encountered, was constructed

with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and 6 in. diam., pointed and placed as

close together as possible over the whole foundation, the tops were then

sawn off level, and a concrete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over

the whole area. At the Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George

Street, Westminster, the foundations to the two party walls upon each

side of the building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement

level, that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side

24 ft.

Construction.

The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the erection of

buildings on sites that have been used as "shoots" for faecal matter

or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the objectionable material must

be removed prior to the commencement of building operations, and the

holes from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other

rubbish well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or

navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level

pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow,

rammer or punner, &c. In digging the ordinary trenches and

excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have

to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides of

the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts; this work

is done by navvies. Figs. 1 and 2 show the general forms of planking

and strutting for the different soils.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is used

for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket with a

cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the excavation,

and on being withdrawn cuts off a portion of soil which is hoisted and

deposited in carts for removal to any desired position within the

radius commanded by the crane. The work of trimming the excavation to

a regular shape must always be done by manual labour.

Concrete for filling into the foundations is usually mixed by navvies;

for large works it is sometimes mixed by machinery.

In order that the work of excavating and constructing the foundations

may proceed in a water-logged site, pumps have to be employed, and

where the inrush of water is great it is usual to sink a sump hole

lower than the depth required for the foundations, and to use a steam

pump kept going day and night.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance

with the London Building and Amendment Acts: "The projection of the

bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall shall be

at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base,

unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may

be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the footings

of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the height from

the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least

equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its base." (See

BRICKWORK.) The base of a wall is the thickness above the footing; the

footing is the brickwork built directly on the top of the concrete and

diminishing in width in every course. Thus: "The projection of the

bottom footing to be equal to one-half the thickness of wall on both

sides" means that a 13-1/2-in. wall would require to have three courses

of footings, the bottom one being 27 in. wide. "The height from the

bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least equal

to two-thirds the thickness of wall at its base" means that in the

case of a 13-1/2-in. wall the height of footings would have to be 9 in.,

or three courses of brickwork, each measuring 3 in.

The New York Building Code enters more fully into the requirements for

the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use in London.

Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except buildings

erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the water front,

shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete laid not less

then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid ground or

level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers when solid

earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a wall, pier or

post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than 20 in. on

centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practicable, and

their number must be sufficient to support the superstructure

proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than 5 in. at the

small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles 20 ft. or

less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding 40,000

lb. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining power

shall be determined by the following formula: twice the weight of the

hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall in feet divided by

the least penetration of pile under the last blow in inches plus one.

There are also further requirements as to piles, &c., and the

commissioner of buildings must be notified when the piles are to be

driven.

The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that foundation

walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers built below

the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to serve as

supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or beams.

Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland cement

concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland cement

concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall above

them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every

additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4

in. in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in.

thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the

curb level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper,

they shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course

shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up

brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight

to be imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete,

the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the

stones shall not be less than 2 X 3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness

for walls, and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers,

columns or posts. The footing or base course, whether formed of

concrete or stone, shall be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom

width of walls, and at least 12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom

width of said piers, columns or posts. If the superimposed load is

such as to cause undue transverse strain on a footing projecting 12

in., the thickness of such footing is to be increased so as to carry

the load with safety. For small structures and for small piers

sustaining light loads the commissioner of buildings having

jurisdiction may, in his discretion, allow a reduction in the

thickness and projection specified for footing or base courses. All

base stones shall be bedded and laid crosswise, edge to edge. If

stepped-up footing of brick is used in place of stone above the

concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall each not exceed

1-1/2 in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall not exceed 3

in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half the

thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the load

to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that the

American acts are far more extensive than in London. The London

Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest upon the

solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure. The

building act amendment says: "The foundations of the walls of every

house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete not less

than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side of the

lowest course of footings."

_Various Types of Foundations._--The most natural foundations for

walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly upon

the ground; this is only possible where the ground is very hard or

consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply

levelled and the building commenced.

The next and most universally recognized method, which might safely be

said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the system of

placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches where the

walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and in these laying

the concrete. The London Building Act requires this concrete bed to be

at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of footings on each side

of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider on each side and in

general circumstances the depth of the concrete is varied according to

the weight placed upon it.

Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course,

&c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies low,

naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is soft. It

is here that special foundations are required.

Concrete piers, legs, or stilts.

In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These

are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building,

and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may require

according to the nature of the ground; and on the tops of these stilts

concrete arches or lintels are turned over (fig. 3). As an example of

the stilt principle, mention may be made of some premises at Stratford

and a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers were

sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 4-1/2 ft. square, in pot holes dug

out of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the

intervening untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of 18 in. or

the piers were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in which

steel joists were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Embankment,

London, the foundations were formed with cement concrete stilts or

piers 8 ft. square, and going down to the London clay; from the tops

of these stilts brick arches were turned, spanning the spaces between

the piers, and upon these arches the walls were built.

Pile foundations.

Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works,

consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6

in. to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom

ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to be

easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have an

iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in the

band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of driving

these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a temporary

structure, upon one side of which is a guide path faced with

sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up and down this guide path a

heavy iron weight, called a monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted

to the top of the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or

steam, and when released descends with a good force, and so drives the

piles into the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10

cwt. and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or

under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In

the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles,

each with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of

52-1/2 ft. and loaded with a dead load of 50.7 tons per pile for a

period of two weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile

was adopted as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads

used in practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles

50 ft. in length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y.,

piles 20 ft. in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2

tons; Schiller building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case

the building settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of

all piles should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped

with concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks

of granite.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

Concrete piles.

Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement concrete

blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land, &c. In

some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and the centres are

filled with blocks of concrete and grouted in. The Yarmouth destructor

cells and chimney shaft were built in this way; the cylinders were

constructed of 9 in. brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4

ft. being encased in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the

gravel and sand at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of

a grab, the bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a

diver. Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement

concrete having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron

shoes and head for driving (fig. 6).

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist

of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the

lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary from 9

in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of the

projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the shaft.

For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 ft. will

be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest. The

lower end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being bevelled

and occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting into and

penetrating the soil.

Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists in

driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these, also

driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in., which

form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In this way

the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing the building

to settle unevenly.

Plank foundations.

Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9),

consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the trench

and spiked together; on the top of these are laid similar planks but

at right angles to the last, and upon the platform thus formed the

wall is built. This method is used in soft ground.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

Caissons.

Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction of the

foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in foundations

for buildings are to be found in the American Surety and the Manhattan

Life Insurance buildings, New York City. The latter building is 242

ft. high to the parapet, and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher.

The building is carried on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft.

below the street level to solid rock, and these piers support the 34

cast iron columns upon which the building is erected. The piers to

each building were constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see

CAISSON).

Well foundations.

A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy is to

build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully

practised in Madras. The wells are made circular, about 3 ft. in

diameter and one brick thick. The first course is laid and cemented

together on the surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is

excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another

is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards. The

brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according to

building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with

rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon

foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under the

city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

Coffer dams.

Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water whilst

putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed with two

rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced about 6 ft. apart, and

filled in between with a double row of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the

space between the rows being packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The

general rule for the thickness of a coffer dam is to make it equal to

the depth of water. An interesting example of a coffer dam is that at

the Keyham dock extension, where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to

85 ft. They were driven in a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000

were used.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

Dock foundations.

Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large concrete

tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty arises as to

the ingress of water. They are considered the best method of

constructing a building on soft ground and of keeping a building dry

(fig. 11). This type of foundation was used at the new colonial

office, Whitehall, London, and the new admiralty buildings at St

James's Park, London. A few buildings treated after the style of a

dock, but in some instances without the enclosing walls, are the

following: At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete

retaining wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and

is joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered

with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside

clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new "Old

Bailey" buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed on a

concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy Auxiliary

Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennet's Wharf, near Southwark Bridge, a

concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the site, with an

extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed similarly to dock

foundations, but in addition having steel joists and rods inserted in

the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole together, are

known as _gridiron_ foundations.

In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed with

small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed for

floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended

foundation on soft ground.

Cantilever foundations.

Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is not

sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of building

pier foundations at some distance from the proposed new wall. On the

top of these piers rest steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon

cast iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one end to a

column, while the other ends go through the full thickness of the new

wall. Upon these last ends is placed a steel girder upon which the

wall is built. This construction (fig. 12) has been used in America,

and in the Ritz Hotel, Piccadilly, London.

Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in the case of

some premises at Carr's Lane, Birmingham, partly built over the Great

Western railway tunnel (fig. 13). In this instance large piers were

built below the ground at the side of the tunnel. From the tops of

these piers large steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the

crown of the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the

building constructed upon them.

Foundations in Tunis.

In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy ground,

the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited by the sewage water

from the ancient or Arab quarter of the city, which is situated on an

adjacent hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about 33 ft. To

prepare the soil for supporting an ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to

10 ft. square are excavated to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level

of the ground water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and

powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt stone from the

lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust when exposed to the air.

The mixture is thrown into pits in layers about 12 in. thick and

rammed down for a very long time by specially trained labourers. A

gang of 15 or 20 men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the

foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard bed is thus

obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface of the ground, and

on this artificial bed the foundations of the building are laid.

Although this method of construction is crude, it is stated that the

practical results are superior to those obtained by using piles,

concrete or other recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is

much less, for labour is cheap.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

Building on sand.

A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a signal station

at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on top of the highest

sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so that the observer may have an

unobstructed view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the sea

and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is absolutely

required that it shall stand firmly planted in such a way that even a

hurricane shall not shake it or make it tremble, since that would

affect the sight of the telescope in the observatory. The usual mode

of securing such a building is by means of a foundation of screw piles

or of heavy timbers sunk into the sand; this method, however, has the

disadvantage that if the wind shifts the sand away from around the

foundation, it becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To

avoid such an accident, recourse was had to the following design,

which was considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an

effective anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a

cellar, above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole

is surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a

square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and

pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made

likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined

together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are

mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet

above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first

room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper room.

Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts. The

structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside with

rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and grooved

yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal in shape, is

securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a corrugated iron

roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with 3 in. wood, and

boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit was first dug in

the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on the bottom. The

cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure built upon it;

thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top of the hill or

the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up with sand and

packed solid all round, consequently the building is anchored in its

place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in weight.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.]

The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance,

is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much

importance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact

and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site

answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best

form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if

that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight, on

a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of

solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of

the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before

his work can even be started on its way to completion.

AUTHORITIES.--The principal books for reference on this subject are:

_A Practical Treatise on Foundations_, by W.M. Patron, C. E.;

_Building Construction and Superintendence_, part i., by F.E. Kidder;

_Notes on Building Construction_, vols. i. ii. and iii.; _Aide

Memoir_, vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; _Advanced Building

Construction_, by C.F. Mitchell; _Modern House Construction_, by G.L.

Sutcliffe; _Building Construction_, by Professor Henry Adams;

_Practical Building Construction_, by J.P. Allen. (J. Bt.)

FOUNDING (from Lat. _fundere_, to pour), the process of casting in

metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running molten

metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from that object. To

enable the founder to prepare a mould for the casting, he must receive a

pattern similar to the casting required. Some few exceptions occur, to

be noted presently, but the above statement is true of perhaps 98% of

all castings produced. The construction of such patterns gives

employment to a large number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire

the necessary knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to

seven years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the work

of pattern construction--that of the craft itself and that of the

moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed strongly. They are

generally of wood, and they thus require skill in the use of woodworking

tools and the making of timber joints, together with a knowledge of the

behaviour of timber, &c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or

white metal alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the

founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without

inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since cast

work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including

projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the

withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and fracture of

the sand must involve many difficult problems that have to be as fully

understood by the pattern-maker as by the moulder. It is from this point

of view that the work of the pattern-maker should be approached in the

first place. No closed mould can possibly be made without one or more

joints, for if a pattern is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it

cannot be withdrawn except by making a parting in the sand, and it is

not difficult to conceive that the parting in the pattern might

advantageously be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately,

with that of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal

of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the lower

than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle smaller or

"tapered." Nor may they have any lateral extensions into the lower sand,

unless these can be made to withdraw separately from the main portion of

the pattern. Finally, there are many internal spaces which cannot be

formed by a pattern directly in the sand, but provision for which must

be made by some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

A single example must illustrate the main principles which have just

been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves questions

of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding. The

casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1

illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation

of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious

difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it were

made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with the

open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the pieces

A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will "deliver"

freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as shown in fig. 3,

or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as in fig. 4, or along

the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The timber shadings in

figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable arrangement of

material. The prints are "boxed up." Fig. 4 shows a certain stage of

the moulding, in which one half of the pattern has been "rammed" in

sand, and turned over in the "bottom box," and the upper half is ready

to be rammed in the "top box," with "runner pin" or "git stick" A, set

in place. The lower loose piece has had its skewer removed during the

ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates the mould completed and ready for pouring.

The boxes have been parted, the pattern has been withdrawn, cores

inserted in the impressions left by the prints, vents taken from the

central body of cinders, the pouring basin made and the boxes cottered

together.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

Every single detail now briefly noted in connexion with this bracket

is applied and modified in an almost infinite number of ways to suit

the ever varying character of foundry work. Yet this process does not

touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting. There is

a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete patterns and

core boxes are never made, because of the great expense that would be

involved in the pattern construction. There are also some cases in

which the methods adopted would not permit of the use of patterns, as

in that group of work in which the sand or loam is "swept" to the form

required for the moulds and cores by means of striking boards, loam

boards, core boards or strickles. In these classes of moulding the

loose green sands and core sands are not much used; instead, loam--a

wet and plastic sand mixture--is employed, supported against bricks

(loam moulds) or against core bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam

cores). All heavy marine engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping,

and all massive cores for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides

much large circular and cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders,

soap pans, lead pans, mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In

these cases the edge of the striking board is a counterpart of the

profile of the work swept up. Joints also have to be made in such

moulds, not of course in order to provide for the removal of a

pattern, but for the exposure of the separate parts in course of

construction, and for closing them up, or putting them together in

their due relations. These joints also are swept by the boards,

generally cut to produce suitable "checks," or "registers" to ensure

that they accurately fit together. Fig. 6, showing a portion of a

swept-up mould, illustrates the general arrangement. A plate, A,

carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are embedded in loam, and break

joint. To a striking bar, C, supported in a step, a striking board or

sweeping board, D, is bolted, and is swept round against plastic loam,

which is afterwards dried. The check on the board at A corresponds

with a similar check on the board which strikes the interior of the

pan, and by which top and bottom portions of the mould are registered

together. This is indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept

on bricks, and turned over into place, and the metal is poured into

the space b, b, between the two moulds. There is also a large group of

swept-up work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation.

Then the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges

of "core plates," or of "core irons" (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the

volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of this

kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and B the

"strickle," sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves pasted

together completing the core.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often involving

as much detail as the construction and moulding of patterns. Two

perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in both of which

provision exists for removing the box parts from the core after the

latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and tapered, and often

have loose pieces within them, and also prints, into the impressions

of which other cores are inserted.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

_Machine-moulding._--There is a development of modern methods of

founding which is effecting radical changes in some departments of

foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines. The advantages of this

method are manifold, and its limitations are being lessened

continually. There are two broad departments between which

machine-moulding is divided. One, of less importance, is that of toothed

wheels; the other is that of general work, except of a very massive

character.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special adaptation of the

mechanism of the dividing engine, by means of which, instead of using a

complete pattern of a toothed wheel, two or three pattern teeth are

used, and the machine takes charge of the correct pitching or division

of the teeth moulded therefrom, leaving to the moulder the work only of

turning the handle of the division plate, and ramming the sand around

the pattern teeth. The result is accurate pitching, and the use of two

or three teeth instead of a full pattern, together with any core boxes

and striking boards that are necessary for the arms.

The other department of machine moulding includes nearly every

conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions. There are some

dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for no one type is suitable

for all classes of moulds, while some are designed specially for one or

two kinds only.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The pattern

parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate or table A

(fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they must

partake of certain movements which are imparted to it. Often patterns

mounted, as in fig. 10, are moulded by hand, without any aid from a

machine, by methods of "plate-moulding." The delivery of the pattern

from the sand is invariably accomplished by a perpendicular movement

of a portion of the machine (fig. 11), withdrawing either the pattern

from the mould or the mould from the pattern. The important point is

that the perpendicular movement, being under the coercion of the

vertical guides provided in the hand machines, or the hydraulic ram in

fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental to

withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine performed

nothing more than this it would justify its existence. Little or no

taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds are more nearly

uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds. But there are other

advantages. In machine-moulding the joint faces for parting moulds

are produced by the faces of the plates on which the pattern is

mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by the hands and trowel of the

moulder. When the joint face is of irregular outline, as it often is,

this item alone saves a good deal of time, which again is multiplied

by the number of moulds repeated, often amounting to thousands.

Further, provision is generally made on machine plates for the ingates

and runners (fig. 10) through which the metal enters the mould, the

preparation of which in hand work occupies a considerable amount of

time. Another great advantage applies especially to the case of deep

moulds. These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the

liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of the

pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled by a

plate, termed a "stripping plate," which is pierced to allow the

patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly on the

sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from becoming torn

up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but is a necessity in

numerous instances. The most familiar example is that of the teeth of

gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount of taper interferes

with accurate engagement, and this is representative of many other

portions of mechanism. These stripping plates are of metal, but in

order to save the cost of filing them in iron or steel, many are

cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy round the actual pattern

itself in the first place, the white metal being enclosed and retained

in a plain iron frame which forms the body of the plate. Lastly, many

machines, but not the majority, include provision for mechanically

ramming the sand around the pattern by power instead of by hand. This

is really the least valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it

is not applicable to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly

used for these, but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand

round a pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by

careful hand ramming.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when (1)

several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a single

plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould are produced

on different machines, carrying each its moiety of the pattern; (3)

when the machine and pattern details are simplified so much that the

labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of unskilled

attendants who are taught in a month or two the few simple operations

required. That is the direction in which repetitive casting is now

rapidly tending.

In fig. 11 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with

the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so

as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for

ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the final

squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of the

hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D. The

plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent of the

ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the stage seen

in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on the carriage

F, provided with wheels to run on rails.

Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &c., is

carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing

principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green, i.e.

moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being used),

and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and machine

moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted. The

differences in working are those due to the various characteristics of

the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the sand

mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of the

temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the fluxing

and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical

character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department

must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably

fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings

would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither

brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned

suitably for iron.

A special kind of casting is that into "chill moulds," adopted in a

considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels in

the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and

steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &c. The chill

ranges in depth from 1/4 in. to 1 in., and is produced by pouring a

special mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron

surface, the parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled

being surrounded by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of

chill-casting is to produce a surface hardness in the metal.

The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account of by

the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are made larger

than the size of the casting required by the exact amount that the

metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold state. This

amount varies from 1/8 in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings, to 1/8

in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from 3/16 in. to 5/16 in. per

foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be

borne in mind in making light and heavy-castings, and castings with or

without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a

fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings,

particularly of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this

respect than iron, and iron much less than steel. (J. G. H.)

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, originally institutions for the reception of

"foundlings," i.e. children who have been abandoned or exposed, and left

for the public to find and save. The early history of such institutions

is connected with the practice of infanticide, and in western Europe

where social disorder was rife and famine of frequent occurrence,

exposure and extensive sales of children were the necessary

consequences. Against these evils, which were noticed by several

councils, the church provided a rough system of relief, children being

deposited (_jactati_) in marble shells at the church doors, and tended

first by the _matricularii_ or male nurses, and then by the _nutricarii_

or foster-parents.[1] But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that

definite institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as

Treves, Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, archbishop

of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable work; but his

fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de Paul, who in the

reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the countess of Joigny, Mme le

Gras and other religious ladies, rescued the foundlings of Paris from

the horrors of a primitive institution named La Couche (rue St Landry),

and ultimately obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicetre for their

accommodation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital in

1670. The Hotel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance. No provision,

however, was made outside the great towns; the houses in the cities were

overcrowded and administered with laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied

that the state would yet be seriously embarrassed by this increasing

evil.[2] From 1452 to 1789 the law had imposed on the _seigneurs de

haute justice_ the duty of succouring children found deserted on their

territories. The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a

state debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were

given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the "enfants de la

patrie." By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. "Toute recherche de la

paternite est interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code Napoleon, "la

recherche de la maternite est admise."

_France._--The laws of France relating to this part of what is called

L'Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction

of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of the

5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law of the

27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles of the

law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the system of

national poor relief established by the Revolution. The _enfants

assistes_ include, besides (1) orphans and (2) foundlings proper, (3)

children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated, neglected or

morally abandoned children whose parents have been deprived of their

parental rights by the decision of a court of justice, (5) children,

under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for certain crimes,

whose parental rights have been delegated by a tribunal to the state.

Children classified under 1-5 are termed _pupilles de l'assistance_,

"wards of public charity," and are distinguished by the law of 1904

from children under the protection of the state, classified as: (1)

_enfants secourus_, i.e. children whose parents or relatives are

unable, through poverty, to support them; (2) _enfants en depot_, i.e.

children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence and children

temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital, and (3)

_enfants en garde_, i.e. children who have either committed or been

the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state care by

judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these children is a

departmental (_etablissement depositaire_), and not a communal

institution. The etablissement depositaire is usually the ward of an

hospice, in which--with the exception of children _en depot_--the stay

is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing the principle

laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of age under the

guardianship of the state, except the mentally or physically infirm,

must be boarded out in country districts. They are generally

apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural industry, and

until majority they remain under the guardianship of the

administrative commissioners of the department. The state pays the

whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The expenses of

administration, the "home" expenses, for the nurse (_nourrice

sedentaire_) or the wet nurse (_nourrice au sein_), the _prime de

survie_ (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the "outdoor"

expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried mothers

in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the foster-parents

(_nourriciers_) in the country for board, school-money, &c.; (3)

clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children; (5) printing,

&c.; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials and apprentice

fees--are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by the state

two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by the communes.

The following figures show the number of children (exclusive of

_enfants secourus_) relieved at various periods:

Year. Number relieved.

1890 95,701

1895 121,201

1900 138,308

1905 149,803

The _droit de recherche_ is conceded to the parent on payment of a

small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all

expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed a

_tour_ or revolving box (_Drehcylinder_ in Germany) to be kept at each

hospital. These have been discontinued. The "Assistance Publique" of

Paris is managed by a "directeur" appointed by the minister of the

interior, and associated with a representative _conseil de

surveillance_. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistes contains about

700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities for the

adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible here to give

even a sketch of the long and able controversies which have occurred

in France on the principles of management of foundling hospitals, the

advantages of _tours_ and the system of admission _a bureau ouvert_,

the transfer of orphans from one department to another, the hygiene

and service of hospitals and the inspection of nurses, the education

and reclamation of the children and the rights of the state in their

future. Reference may be made to the works noticed at the end of this

article.

_Belgium._--In this country the arrangements for the relief of

foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose very

much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully described

apart from the general questions of local government and poor law

administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, however, are

purely communal bodies, although they receive pecuniary assistance

from both the departments and the state. A decree of 1811 directed

that there should be an asylum and a wheel for receiving foundlings in

every arrondissement. The last "wheel," that of Antwerp, was closed in

1860. (See _Des Institutions de bienfaisance et de prevoyance en

Belgique_, 1850 a 1860, par M.P. Lentz.)

_Italy_ is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans

and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See

_Della carita preventiva in Italia_, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one

branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola

Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time of

Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual number

of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See _The Charitable

Institutions of Rome_, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa

degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving

450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The

splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the

support of about 160 children by the "Congregazione di Carita" acting

through 30 parish boards (_deputazione fraternate_).

_Austria._--In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent

place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th of

April 1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment

commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were

declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported by

the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October 1860

handed them over to the provincial committees. They are now local

institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite separate

from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is gratuitous

when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent by a

criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for four

months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a certificate

from the parish priest and "poor-father" (the parish inspector of the

poor-law administration) that she has no money. In other cases

payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two months old the child

is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the neighbourhood of

respectable married persons, who have certificates from the police or

the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected by the latter and by a

special medical officer. These persons receive a constantly

diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be determined by 14

days' notice on either side. The foster-parents may retain the child

in their service or employment till the age of twenty-two, but the

true parents may at any time reclaim the foundling on reimbursing the

asylum and compensating the foster-parents.

_Russia._--Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings were

received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by the state.

But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals have been

in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity (prykaz

obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions

(Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch at

Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought the

baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the child

may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse her child.

After the usual period of six years in the country very great care is

taken with the education, especially of the more promising children.

The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the public service.

Malthus (_The Principles of Population_, vol. i. p. 434) has made a

violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues that they

discourage marriage and therefore population, and that the best

management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He adds: "An

occasional child murder from false shame is saved at a very high price

if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some of the best and most

useful feelings of the human heart in a great part of the nation." It

does not appear, however, that the rate of illegitimacy in Russia is

comparatively high; it is so in the two great cities. The rights of

parents over the children were very much restricted, and those of the

government much extended by a ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas in

1837. The most eminent Russian writer on this subject is M. Gourov.

See his _Recherches sur les enfants trouves_, and _Essai sur

l'histoire des enfants trouves_ (Paris, 1829).

In _America_, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private

charities, exist in most of the large cities.

_Great Britain._--The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated by

royal charter in 1739 "for the maintenance and education of exposed

and deserted young children." The petition of Captain Thomas Coram,

who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,[3] states as

its objects "to prevent the frequent murders of poor miserable

children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman custom of

exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At first no

questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing mark

was put on each child by the parent. These were often marked coins,

trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses written on scraps of

paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully recorded. One entry is,

"Paper on the breast, clout on the head." The applications became too

numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white and black balls

was adopted. In 1756 the House of Commons came to a resolution that

all children offered should be received, that local receiving places

should be appointed all over the country, and that the funds should be

publicly guaranteed. A basket was accordingly hung outside the

hospital; the maximum age for admission was raised from two to twelve

months, and a flood of children poured in from the country workhouses.

In less than four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile

trade grew up among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the

country to the hospital,--an undertaking which, like the French

_meneurs_, they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty.

Of these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total

expense was about L500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons. After

throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary funds by

fees from a general system of parochial registration, they came to the

conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontinued.

The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, adopted a

pernicious system of receiving children with considerable sums (e.g.

L100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed by the

parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it is now a fundamental

rule that no money is received. The committee of inquiry must now be

satisfied of the previous good character and present necessity of the

mother, and that the father of the child has deserted it and the

mother, and that the reception of the child will probably replace the

mother in the course of virtue and in the way of an honest livelihood.

All the children at the Foundling hospital are those of unmarried

women, and they are all first children of their mothers. The principle

is in fact that laid down by Fielding in _Tom Jones_--"Too true I am

afraid it is that many women have become abandoned and have sunk to

the last degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip."

At present the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of

fifteen. The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of

admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named after the

patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a list. Children

are seldom taken after they are twelve months old. On reception they

are sent down to the country, where they stay until they are about

four or five years old. At sixteen the girls are generally apprenticed

as servants for four years, and the boys at the age of fourteen as

mechanics for seven years. There is a small benevolent fund for

adults. The musical service, which was originally sung by the blind

children only, was made fashionable by the generosity of Handel, who

frequently had the "Messiah" performed there, and who bequeathed to

the hospital a MS. copy (full score) of his greatest oratorio. The

altar-piece is West's picture of Christ presenting a little Child. In

1774 Dr Burney and Signor Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to

form in connexion with the hospital a public music school, in

imitation of the Conservatorium of the Continent. In 1847, however, a

successful "Juvenile Band" was started. The educational effects of

music have been found excellent, and the hospital supplies many

musicians to the best army and navy bands. The early connexion between

the hospital and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is

one of extreme interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling,

which were organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the

formation of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of

Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to

Finchley, and Roubillac's bust of Handel. (See _History and Objects of

the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder_, by J. Brownlow.)

In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No inquiry was

made about the parents, and no money received. From 1500 to 2000

children were received annually. A large income was derived from a

duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In 1822 an admission fee

of L5 was charged on the parish from which the child came. This

reduced the annual arrivals to about 500. In 1829 the select committee

on the Irish miscellaneous estimates recommended that no further

assistance should be given. The hospital had not preserved life or

educated the foundlings. The mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the

total cost L10,000 a year. Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then

Irish Secretary) closed the institution.

Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In 1759

John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious and

charitable purpose "of preventing child murder" by the establishment

of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and taking care of their

children as foundlings. But by an act of parliament in 1822, which

sets forth "doubts as to the propriety" of the original purpose, the

money was given to trustees to erect a hospital for the maintenance

and education of destitute children.

AUTHORITIES.--_Histoire statistique et morale des enfants trouves_ by

MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Paris, 1837) (the authors were eminent

medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the

foundling hospital); Remacle, _Des hospices d'enfants trouves en

Europe_ (Paris, 1838); Hugel _Die Findelhauser und das Findelwesen

Europas_ (Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, "Das Armenwesen und die

Armengesetzgebung," in _Europaischen Staaten_ (Berlin, 1870);

Sennichon, _Histoire des enfants abandonnes_ (Paris, 1880); the annual

_Rapport sur le service des enfants assistes du departement de la

Seine_; Epstein, _Studien zur Frage der Findelanstalten_ (Prague,

1882); Florence D. Hill, _Children of the State_ (2nd ed., 1889). For

United States, see H. Folks, _Care of Neglected and Dependent

Children_ (1901); A.G. Warner, _American Charities_ (enlarged, 1908)

and _Reports of Massachusetts State Board of Charities_. Information

may also be got in the _Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries_,

communicated to the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary;

_Accounts and Papers_ (1875), vol. lxv. c. 1225; _Report of Committee

on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1890); _Report of Lords Committee

on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1896). (See also CHARITY AND

CHARITIES.)