Resisting "to the last."

It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks by Sir John

Jones, made in answer to Carnot's book. He says in the notes to the

second volume of the _Journals of the Sieges in Spain_: "When the breach

shall be pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon the

ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed, as by so doing he

spills the blood of many brave men without a justifiable object, his

life and the lives of the garrison should be made the forfeit. A system

enforced by terror must be counteracted by still greater terror.

Humanity towards an enemy in such a case is cruelty to one's own

troops.... The principle to be combated is not the obligation to resist

behind the breach--for where there is a good retrenchment the bastion

should be disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can

as safely be so--but the doctrine that surrender shall not take place

when successful resistance becomes hopeless."

Carnot's word is "fight to the last." Sir John Jones says the commander

has no right to provoke further carnage when resistance is hopeless. The

question of course is, When is resistance hopeless? Sir John Jones's

reputation leaves little doubt that if he had been commanding a fortress

on British soil he would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as

there was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these two men

of similar temper are found in opposition is quite simple. When Carnot

wrote, the French army occupied most of the important fortresses of

Europe, and it was to the interest of the emperor that if attacked they

should be held to the last moment, in order to cause the enemy as much

delay and loss as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the

engineers who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his

arguments were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen whose lives

were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.

A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the ideas in

which they had been educated were those of the pre-Napoleonic era. In

the 18th century fortresses were many, good roads few, and campaigns for

the most part leisurely. To the European nations of that time,

inheritors of a perennial state of war, the idea of concentrating the

national resources on a short and decisive campaign had not occurred.

The "knock-out blow" had not been invented. All these conditions are now

so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been set up, both

for the defence of places and the general employment of fortification.

As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a garrison as a

penalty for holding out too long would meet with no sympathy in the

present day. On the other hand, the issue of modern wars is worked out

so rapidly that if a fortress is well defended, with the advantage of

the present weapons, there is always a chance of holding out till the

close of the war. If the place is worth holding, it should as a rule be

held to the bitter end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs;

moreover, the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions

imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large number of

his troops.

Permanent defences.

In concluding this article some elementary considerations in connexion

with the use of permanent defences may be noticed, though the general

question of strategic fortification is outside its scope. The objects of

fortification differ, as has been shown, from age to age. In former

times a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical Norsemen might

find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-baron might look on

his castle as so much capital invested; a wealthy medieval town might

prove the value of its walls more than once in a generation; a country

without a standing army might gain time for preparation by means of

fortresses barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the

question stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize their

full fighting strength at a few hours' notice? It can only be answered

when the circumstances of a particular country are examined.

The use and abuse of fortresses.

If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations of equal

fighting strength and equal resources standing ready in arms to defend a

common frontier, and that the theatre of war presents no difficulties on

either side, then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as an

adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses do not decide the

issue of a campaign; they can only influence it. It is better,

therefore, to put all the money the fortress would have cost, and all

the man-power that its maintenance implies, into the increase and

equipment of the active army. For the fate of the fortress must depend

ultimately on the result of the operations of the active armies.

Moreover, the very assumption that resources on both sides are equal

means that the nation which has spent money on permanent fortifications

will have the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself

beforehand to a defensive role.

This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the tendency to

over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In practice there will

always be occasion for some use of fortification. A mountain range may

lend itself to an economical defence by a few men and some inexpensive

barrier forts. A nation may have close to its frontier an important

strategic centre, such as a railway junction, or a town of the first

manufacturing importance, which must be protected. In such a case it may

be necessary to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again,

if one nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other, it

may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by fortresses so

as to force invasion into a district where concentration against it is

easiest.

As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary if it

stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the active

armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting strength of the

country has been practically destroyed, it is not of much use to stand a

siege in the capital. There can be but one end, and it is better, as

business men say, to cut losses. If the fighting strength is not

entirely destroyed and can be recruited within a reasonable time, say

two or three months, then it appears that under modern conditions the

capital might be held for that time by means of extemporized defences.

The question is one that can only be decided by going into the

circumstances of each particular case.

The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive neighbours is in

a different category. If she stands alone she will be eaten up in time,

fortifications or no fortifications; but if she can reckon on assistance

from outside, it may be worth while to expend most of the national

resources on permanent defences.

These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as

illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual problems that

soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too complex to be dealt with

in generalities, and no mere treatise can supply the place of knowledge,

thought and practice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The more important works on the subject are: Durer,

_Unterricht zur Befestigung_ (Nuremberg, 1527); Speckle, _Architectur

von Festungen_ (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, _L'Architecture mil. ou la

f. nouvelle_ (Paris, 1637); Pagan, _Les Fortif._ (Paris, 1689); de

Ville, _Les Fortif._ (Lyons, 1629); de Fer, _Introduction a la

fortification_ (Paris, 1723); B.F. de Belidor, _Science des

Ingenieurs, &c._ (Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban,

Montalembert, Cormontaingne; Mandar, _De l'architecture des

forteresses_ (Paris, 1801); Chasseloup-Laubat, _Essais sur quelques

parties de l'artil. et de la fortification_ (Milan, 1811); Carnot,

_Defense des places fortes_ (Paris, 1812); Jones, _Journals of Sieges

in Spain_ (3rd ed., London, 1846); T. Choumara, _Memoire sur la

fortification_ (1847); A. von Zastrow, _Geschichte der bestandigen

Befestigung_ (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of Sir C. Pasley; Noizet,

_Principes de fortif._ (Paris, 1859); Dufour, _De la fortif.

permanente_ (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Duc, _L'Architecture

militaire au moyen age_ (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy, _Essai

historique sur la fortification_ (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont

(_q.v._); Delambre, _La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la

tactique et la strategie_ (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, _Angriff und

Verteidigung fester Platze_ (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, _Die Festung in

der heutigen Kriegfuhrung_ (Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner,

_Die bestandige Befestigung und der Festungskrieg_ (Vienna,

1894-1899); W. Stavenhagen, _Grundriss der Befestigungslehre_ (Berlin,

1900-1909); Plessix and Legrand, _Manuel complet de fortification_

(Paris, 1900, new edition 1909); Ritter v. Brunner, _Die bestandige

Befestigung_ (Vienna, 1909), _Die Feldbefestigung_ (Vienna, 1904);

Rocchi, _Traccia per lo studio della fortificazione permanente_

(Turin, 1902); Sir G.S. Clarke, _Fortification_ (1907); V. Deguise,

_La Fortification permanente contemporaine_ (Brussels, 1908); Royal

Military Academy, _Text-book of Fortification_, pt. ii. (London,

1893); British official _Instruction in Military Engineering_, pts.

i., ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908). (L. J.)

FORTLAGE, KARL (1806-1881), German philosopher, was born at Osnabruck.

After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin, he became professor of

philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he held till his death.

Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to Fichte and Beneke (q.v.),

with whose insistence on psychology as the basis of all philosophy he

fully agreed. The fundamental idea of his psychology is impulse, which

combines representation (which presupposes consciousness) and feeling

(i.e. pleasure). Reason is the highest thing in nature, i.e. is divine

in its nature, God is the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his

instruments.

Fortlage's chief works are: _Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit

Kant_ (Leipzig, 1852); _System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft_

(2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); _Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise fur das

Dasein Gottes_ (Heidelberg, 1840); _Beitrage zur Psych. als

Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1875).

FORT LEE, a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the N.E.

part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson river, opposite the

northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905) 3433; (1910) 4472. It is

connected with the neighbouring towns and cities by electric railways,

and by ferry with New York City, of which it is a residential suburb.

The main part of the borough lies along the summit of the Palisades;

north of Fort Lee is an Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of

Independence the Americans erected here a fortification, first called

Fort Constitution but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General

Charles Lee. The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the

village that grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until

the 20th of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene

with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of Fort

Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the crossing of the

Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made it necessary for Greene to

abandon this post and join Washington in the famous "retreat across the

Jerseys." An attempt to recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony

Wayne in 1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument,

designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a

Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908. The borough of

Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904.

FORT MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on

the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the state, and about 20 m.

S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901; (1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were

foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910) 8900. Fort Madison is served by the

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (which has repair shops here) and the

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. The city has various

manufactures, including canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements;

the value of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of

50.8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of Iowa's

penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site of the city in

1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently settled in 1833, Fort Madison

was laid out as a town in 1836, and was chartered as a city in 1839.

FORTROSE (Gaelic for _t'rois_, "the wood on the promontory"), a royal

and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty,

Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated on the south-eastern coast of

the peninsula of the Black Isle, 8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26-1/4 m.

by rail. It is the terminus of the Black Isle branch of the Highland

railway; there is communication by steamer with Inverness and also with

Fort George, 2-1/2 m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose

consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about 1 m. apart,

which were united into a free burgh by James II. in 1455 and created a

royal burgh in 1590. It is a place of considerable antiquity, a

monastery having been established in the 6th century by St Moluag, a

friend of Columba's, and St Peter's church built in the 8th century. In

1124 David I. instituted the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and

the town acquired some fame for its school of theology and law. The

cathedral is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of

Ross (her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and

finished in 1485 by Abbot Fraser, whose previous residence at Melrose is

said to account for the Perpendicular features of his portion of the

work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform in plan, and built of

red sandstone, but all that is left are the south aisles of the nave and

the chancel, with the chapter-house, a two-storeyed structure, standing

apart near the north-eastern corner. The cathedral and bishop's palace

were destroyed by order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great

fort at Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of

1460. These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but

other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle combination

poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some consequence, and

the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie, in the churchyard of which is

an ancient Celtic cross, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and there

is a golf course in Chanonry Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness

district group of parliamentary burghs.

FORT SCOTT, a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county, Kansas,

U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of Kansas City, Missouri.

Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946; (1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were

negroes; (1910 census) 10,463. It is the point of intersection of the

Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the

Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways, and has in

consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a rolling plain. Among

its institutions are an Epworth house (1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the

Goodlander home, and a Carnegie library. Near the city there is a

national cemetery. Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral

fields, and its trade in bituminous coal is especially important.

Building stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also

found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water is procured

from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is a mineral-water

bath house. The city is also a trading centre for a rich farming region,

and is a horse and mule market of considerable importance. Among its

manufactures are mattresses, syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry

products. In 1905 the total value of the city's factory product was

$1,349,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city owns and

operates its waterworks. The fort after which the city is named was

established by the Federal government in 1842, at a time when the whole

of eastern Kansas was still parcelled out among Indian tribes; it was

abandoned in 1855. The town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was

chartered as a city in 1860.

FORT SMITH, a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county, on the

extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about 440 ft. above

sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river, at its junction with

the Poteau, and at the point where the Arkansas breaks through the

Boston mountains. Pop. (1890) 11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were

of negro descent and 684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975.

Transportation is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St

Louis & San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the

Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley and the

Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business centre of the city

facilitates freight transfers. Some of the business streets are

unusually broad, and the streets in the residential district are well

shaded. Fort Smith is the business centre of a fine agricultural country

and of the Arkansas coal and natural gas region. It has extensive

wholesale jobbing interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in

its own manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products,

chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and bricks. In

1905 the total value of the factory product was $2,329,454, an increase

of 66.2% since 1900. The public schools have a rich endowment: the

proceeds of lands (about 200 acres) once belonging to the local

military reservation, which--except the part occupied by a national

cemetery--was given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of

the city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there is a

Carnegie library. A United States army post was established here in

1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county was created in 1851.

Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in 1842, and was chartered as a

city in 1845. All transportation was by river and wagon until 1876, when

the railway was completed from Little Rock. The military post, in

earlier years the chief depot for the western forts, was abandoned in

1871. During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with the

Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April 1861, and was

reoccupied by the Union forces in September 1863. There was considerable

unrest due to border "bushwhacking" throughout the war, and several

skirmishes took place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than

doubled in 1905.

FORTUNA (FORTUNE), an Italian goddess of great antiquity, but apparently

not native at Rome, where, according to universal Roman tradition, she

was introduced by the king Servius Tullius as Fors Fortuna, and

established in a temple on the Etruscan side of the Tiber outside the

city, and also under other titles in other shrines. In Latium she had

two famous places of worship, one at Praeneste, where there was an

oracle of _Fortuna primigenia_ (the first-born), frequented especially

by women who, as we may suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their

children or their own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well

known from Horace's ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna was

never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented the hopes

and fears of men and especially of women at different stages of their

life and experience; thus we find her worshipped as time went on under

numerous cult-titles, such as _muliebris_, _virilis_, _hujusce diei_,

_equestris_, _redux_, &c., which connected her supposed powers with

individuals, groups of individuals, or particular occasions. Gradually

she became more or less closely identified with the Gr. [Greek: Tyche],

and was represented on coins, &c., with a cornucopia as the giver of

prosperity, a rudder as the controller of destinies, and with a wheel,

or standing on a ball, to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this

semi-Greek form she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and

Pliny (_N.H._ ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all

places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis, and as

_Panthea_ was supposed to combine the attributes of all other deities.

The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher's

_Mythological Lexicon_ (s.v.); see also Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus

der Romer_, p. 206 foll. (W. W. F.*)

FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th century

A.D. He was the author of a treatise on metres, dedicated to one of his

pupils, a youth of senatorial rank, who desired to be instructed in the

Horatian metres. The manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental

ideas of metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed

analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used are Caesius

Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the grammarian of the [Greek:

Techne] of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a common name in the African

provinces, it is probable that the author was a countryman of Juba,

Terentianus Maurus and Victorinus.

Editions of the _Ars_ in H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi., and

separately by him (1885).

FORTUNATUS, the legendary hero of a popular European chap-book. He was a

native, says the story, of Famagusta in Cyprus, and meeting the goddess

of Fortune in a forest received from her a purse which was continually

replenished as often as he drew from it. With this he wandered through

many lands, and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the

treasures which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had

the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired. Of this

hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to Cyprus, where he

led a luxurious life. On his death he left the purse and the hat to his

sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they were jealous of each other, and by

their recklessness and folly soon fell on evil days. The moral of the

story is obvious: men should desire reason and wisdom before all the

treasures of the world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus

occupies in Karl Simrock's _Die deutschen Volksbucher_, vol. iii.,

upwards of 158 pages. The scene is continually shifted--from Cyprus to

Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France; and a large

number of secondary characters appear. The style and allusions indicate

a comparatively modern date for the authorship; but the nucleus of the

legend can be traced back to a much earlier period. The stories of

Jonathas and the three jewels in the _Gesta Romanorum_, of the emperor

Frederick and the three precious stones in the _Cento Novelle antiche_,

of the Mazin of Khorassan in the _Thousand and one Nights_, and the

flying scaffold in the _Bahar Danush_, have all a certain similarity.

The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus appeared at

Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German investigators are disposed to

regard this as the original form. Innumerable versions occur in French,

Italian, Dutch and English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in

1553, and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter's comedy appeared in

a German translation in _Englische Komodien und Tragodien_, 1620. Ludwig

Tieck has utilized the legend in his _Phantasus_, and Adelbert von

Chamisso in his _Peter Schlemihl_; and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished

narrative poem entitled "Fortunatus and his Sons."

See Dr Fr. W.V. Schmidt's _Fortunatus und seine Sohne, eine

Zauber-Tragodie, von Thomas Decker, mit einem Anhang_, &c. (Berlin,

1819); Joseph Johann Gorres, _Die deutschen Volksbucher_ (1807).

FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS (530-609), bishop of

Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time, was born near Ceneda in

Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan and Ravenna, with the special object

of excelling as a rhetorician and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to

France, where he was received with much favour at the court of Sigbert,

king of Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an

_epithalamium_. After remaining a year or two at the court of Sigbert he

travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons of distinction,

and composing short pieces of poetry on any subject that occurred to

him. At Poitiers he visited Queen Radegunda, who lived there in

retirement, and she induced him to prolong his stay in the city

indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed the friendship of the famous Gregory

of Tours and other eminent ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of

Poitiers in 599, and died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were

collected in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the _Vexilla

regis prodeunt_, Englished by J.M. Neale as "The royal banners forward

go"), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour of his patroness

Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of a nunnery at Poitiers. He

also wrote a large poem in 4 books in honour of St Martin, and several

lives of the saints in prose. His prose is stiff and mechanical, but

most of his poetry has an easy rhythmical flow.

An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower at

Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M.A. Luschi

(Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne's _Patrologiae cursus

completus_, vol. lxxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch (Berlin,

1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and Leroux (1885).

FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and traveller, was born

at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of September 1813. He was employed

in the botanical garden at Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal

Horticultural Society's garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of

the Chinese War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in

China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of many

beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in 1848 on behalf of

the East India Company, had much more important consequences,

occasioning the successful introduction into India of the tea-plant. In

subsequent journeys he visited Formosa and Japan, described the culture

of the silkworm and the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many

trees, shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The

incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting

books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880.

FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO (1838-1874), Spanish painter, was

born at Reus on the 11th of June 1838. His parents, who were in poor

circumstances, sent him for education to the primary school of his

native town, where he received some instruction in the rudiments of art.

When he was twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care

of his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a collection

of wax figures, with which he was travelling from town to town. In the

working of this show the boy took an active part, modelling and painting

many of the figures; and two years later, when he reached Barcelona, the

cleverness of his handiwork made so much impression on some people in

authority there that they induced the municipality to make him an

allowance of forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go

through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy of

Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio Lorenzale, and

in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that entitled him to complete his

studies in Rome. Then followed a period of more than two years, during

which he laboured steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had

access at Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the war

between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny was sent by the

authorities of Barcelona to paint the most striking incidents of the

campaign. The expedition lasted for about six months only, but it made

upon him an impression that was powerful enough to affect the whole

course of his subsequent development, and to implant permanently in his

mind a preference for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He

returned to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned by the

city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture of the camps

of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the Spanish army. After making a

large number of studies he went back to Rome, and began the composition

on a canvas fifteen metres long; but though it occupied much of his time

during the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself

instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great size, in

which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities of technique and

modulations of colour. He visited Paris in 1868 and shortly afterwards

married the daughter of Federico Madrazo, the director of the royal

museum at Madrid. Another visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two

years' stay at Granada, but then he returned to Rome, where he died

somewhat suddenly on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of

malarial fever, contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and

Portici in the summer of 1874.

The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life is

distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a marvellous

cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but the qualities of

his art are those that are attainable by a master of technical resource

rather than by a deep thinker. His insight into subtleties of

illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity was remarkable in the

extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious to the point of

extravagance. At the same time in such pictures as "La Vicaria" and

"Choosing a Model," and in some of his Moorish subjects, like "The Snake

Charmers" and "Moors playing with a Vulture," he showed himself to be

endowed with a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a

thorough understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love

of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the

fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.

See Davillier, _Fortuny, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance, &c._

(Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, _Fortuny_ (_Artistes celebres_ series)

(Paris, 1889). (A. L. B.)

FORT WAYNE, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Indiana, U.S.A.,

102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where the St Joseph and St

Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890)

35,393; (1900) 45,115, of whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census)

63,933. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Fort

Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake

Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the

Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by interurban electric

lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft. above sea-level) and

level, and its land area was in 1906 a little more than 6 sq. m. The

streets are laid out on a rectangular plan and bordered by a profusion

of shade trees. The city has several parks, including Lawton Park (31

acres), in which there is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry

Ware Lawton (1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side

Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (1 acre), and Old

Fort Park (1/4 acre), which is on the site of Old Fort Wayne. The

educational institutions include the German Concordia Collegium

(Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having 220 students in 1908, and the

state school for feeble-minded youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie

library. Fort Wayne is one of the most important railway centres in the

Middle West, and several railways maintain here their principal car and

repair shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing

industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state in the

value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway companies. The

other manufactories include foundries and machine shops, iron and steel

mills, knitting mills, planing mills, sash and door, car-wheel,

electrical machinery, and woodenware factories and flour mills. In 1905

the total value of the factory product of the city was $15,129,562,

showing an increase of 34.3% since 1900.

The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neighbourhood,

and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or Great Miami Village),

was situated on the E. bank of the St Joseph river, within the limits of

the present city. On the E. bank of the St Mary's a French trading post

was built about 1680. In 1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was

moved to the E. bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in

1760 and Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than

three months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In September

1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the Maumee river the

stockade fort which was named in his honour, the site of which forms the

present Old Fort Park. By the treaty of Greenville, concluded by General

Wayne on the 3rd of August 1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area,

including the tract of the Miami towns, was ceded to the United States,

and free passage to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was

guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians. By the

treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W.H. Harrison on the 7th of

June 1803, the tract about Vincennes reserved to the United States by

the treaty of Greenville was described and defined; by the second treaty

of Fort Wayne, concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1809, the

Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land, mostly

S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort Wayne was besieged by

Indians, who withdrew on the arrival, on the 12th of September, of

General Harrison with about 2700 men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort

was abandoned on the 19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The

first permanent settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was an

important fur-trading depot until 1830. The opening of the Wabash & Erie

canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was platted and was made the

county-seat in 1824; and in 1840 Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.

See W.A. Brice, _History of Fort Wayne_ (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John B.

Dillon, _History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by

Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816_

(Indianapolis, Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, _History of the

Maumee River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization

into Counties_ (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).

FORT WILLIAM, the principal town of Thunder Bay district, Ontario,

Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the Kaministiquia river,

about a mile from Lake Superior. It is the lake terminus of the Canadian

Pacific railway, of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several

steamship lines. Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern

railway, lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain

elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export trade

in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also exported from the

mining district, of which it is the centre. Industries, such as saw,

planing and flour mills, have also sprung up. The population was 4800 in

1901, but has since increased with great rapidity.

FORT WILLIAM, a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)

2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe, an arm of the

sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or canal, and was, in

bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands. It is 122-1/2 m. N.E. of

Glasgow by the West Highland railway. The fort, at first called

Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in 1655 to hold the Cameron men in

subjection, and was enlarged in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed

it after William III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour

of his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe met to

share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully besieged it in 1715

and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860, and demolished in 1890 to

provide room for the railway and the station. Amongst the public

buildings are the Belford hospital, public hall, court house and the

low-level meteorological observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in

connexion with the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter

was closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the

distilleries, about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape.

Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory of Ewen

Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born in the parish.

Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place of call for the

steamers passing through the Caledonian canal. The town is the point

from which the ascent of Ben Nevis--4-1/2 m. E.S.E. as the crow flies--is

commonly made. At Corpach, about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins,

the series of locks between here and Banavie--within little more than a

mile--being known as "Neptune's Staircase." Both the Lochy and the Nevis

enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort William. A mile and a

half from the town, on the Lochy, stands the grand old ruin of

Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular pile with a round tower at

each corner, a favourite subject with landscape painters. Close by is

the scene of the battle of the 2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose

completely defeated the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the

Scottish Baronial style, 1-1/2 m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and

farther from the river, is the seat of Lord Abinger.

FORT WORTH, a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county, Texas, U.S.A.,

about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the West Fork of the Trinity

river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890) 23,076; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were

foreign-born and 4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served

by the Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City, the

Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco & Texas of the

"Frisco" system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas

Central, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas &

Texas, the St Louis South-Western, the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity

& Brazos Valley (Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is

beautifully situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of

Fort Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal

institution, which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College in

1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy, a college

of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a law school, a

medical school, a school of commerce, and a department of oratory and

elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students; the Polytechnic College

(coeducational; Methodist Episcopal, South), which was established in

1890, has preparatory, collegiate, normal, commercial, and fine arts

departments and a summer school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and

(altogether) 696 students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a

kindergarten training school; St Andrews school (Protestant Episcopal),

and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There are several good

business, municipal and county buildings, and a Carnegie library. On the

3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed ten blocks in the centre of the city.

Fort Worth lies in the midst of a stock-raising and fertile

agricultural region; there is an important stockyard and packing

establishment just outside the city; and considerable quantities of

cotton are raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats,

flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars,

clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and overalls;

and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tanneries. In 1905 the

total value of the city's factory product was $5,668,391, an increase of

62.5% since 1900; Fort Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of

the state in the value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth.

Fort Worth's numerous railways have given it great importance as a

commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and

the electric-lighting plant.

A military post was established here in 1849, being called first Camp

Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in 1853. A settlement grew

up about the fort, and the city was incorporated in 1873. The fort and

the settlement were named in honour of General William Jenkins Worth

(1794-1849), a native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of

1812, commanded the United States forces against the Seminole Indians in

1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and General Scott in the

Mexican War, distinguishing himself at Monterey (where he earned the

brevet of major-general) and in other engagements, and later commanded

the department of Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of

government.

FORTY, the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word is derived from

the O. Eng. _feowertig_, a combination of _feower_, four, and _tig_, an

old form of "ten," used as a suffix, cf. Icel. _tiu_, Dan. _ti_, ten,

and Ger. _vierzig_, forty. The name "The Forty" has been given to

various bodies composed of that number of members, particularly to a

judicial body in ancient Athens, who tried small cases in the rural

districts, and to a court of criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal

courts in the Venetian republic. The French Academy (see ACADEMIES) has

also been known as "The Forty" or "The Forty Immortals." The period just

before the repeal of the corn laws in the United Kingdom is frequently

alluded to, particularly by the free trade school, as the "hungry

forties"; and the "roaring forties" is a sailor's name for the stormy

region between the 40th and 50th latitudes N. and S., but more

particularly applied to the portion of the north Atlantic lying between

those latitudes.

FORUM (Lat. from _foris_, "out of doors"), in Roman antiquity, any open

place used, like the Greek [Greek: agora], for the transaction of

mercantile, judicial or political business, sometimes merely as a

promenade. It was level, rectangular in form, surrounded by porticoes,

basilicas, courts of law and other public buildings. In the laws of the

Twelve Tables the word is used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, _De

legibus_, ii. 24); in a Roman camp the forum was an open place

immediately beside the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally

applied generally to the space in front of any public building or

gateway. In Rome (q.v.) itself, however, during the period of the early

history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and formerly

marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills (also called

Forum Romanum), which probably even during the regal period afforded the

accommodation necessary for such public meetings as could not be held

within the area Capitolina. In early times the Forum Romanum was used

for athletic games, and over the porticoes were galleries for

spectators; there were also shops of various kinds. But with the growth

of the city and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum

became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number of

_civilia_ (judicial) and _venalia_ (mercantile) fora came into

existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of Caesar and

Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum _boarium_ (cattle),

_holitorium_ (vegetable), _piscarium_ (fish), _pistorium_ (bread),

_vinarium_ (wine), to the latter. The Fora of Nerva (also called

_transitorium_ or _pervium_, because a main road led through it to the

Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian, although partly intended to

facilitate the course of public business, were chiefly erected to

embellish the city. The construction of separate markets was not,

however, necessarily the rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii,

at the north-east end of the forum, there was a _macellum_ (market), and

shops for provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a

building supposed to have been the clothworkers' exchange, and at Timgad

in North Africa (a military colony founded under Trajan) the whole of

the south side of the forum was occupied by shops. The forum was usually

paved, and although on festal occasions chariots were probably driven

through, it was not a thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the

entrances, of which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites

for new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the centre,

and the two main streets crossed one another close to but not through

it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or 6 ft. lower than the forum.

The word _forum_ frequently appears in the names of Roman market towns;

as, for example, in Forum Appii, Forum Julii (_Frejus_), Forum Livii

(_Forli_), Forum Sempronii (_Fossombrone_). These _fora_ were

distinguished from mere _vici_ by the possession of a municipal

organization, which, however, was less complete than that of a

prefecture. In legal phraseology, which distinguishes the _forum

commune_ from the _forum privilegiatum_, and the _forum generale_ from

the _forum speciale_, the word is practically equivalent to "court" or

"jurisdiction."

For the fora at Rome, see ROME: _Archaeology_, and works quoted.

FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia, 43 m. S.E. of

Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor of the road. Horace

mentions it as the usual halt at the end of the first day's journey from

Rome, and describes it as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The

presence of the former was due to the fact that it was the

starting-point of a canal which ran parallel to the road through the

Pomptine Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and

Horace (see APPIA, VIA). It is mentioned also as a halting place in the

account of Paul's journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). Under Nerva and

Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription records expressly the

paving with silex (replacing the former gravelling) of the section from

Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was

similarly repaired, and that at Forum Appii, though it bears no

inscription, is of the same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have

been found here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via

Appia was reconstructed. (T. As.)

FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about 23 m. N.W. of Rome

(not 32 m. as in the _Antonine Itinerary_), situated above the western

bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod. Lake of Bracciano), and connected with

the Via Cassia at Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side

of the lake (_Ann. Inst._, 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church

of SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the 8th or

9th century A.D. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses have come

to light on the spot; and an inscription of the Augustan period, which

probably stood over the door of a villa, calls the place Pausilypon--a

name justified by the beauty of the site.

See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, ibid. (1895), 342.

FORUM TRAIANI (mod. _Fordongianus_), an ancient town of Sardinia, on the

river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the Roman road through the

centre of the island from Carales to Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of

its ruins have been destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the

baths, erected over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the

water and the large central _piscina_ are noteworthy. The bridge over

the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite bank are

the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off is a group of

_nuraghi_, of which that of St Barbara in the commune of Villanova

Truschedda is one of the finest.

See Taramelli in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1903), 469.

FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770-1842), English antiquary, was born in

London on the 27th of May 1770. He was educated at St Paul's school and

Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was

ordained and became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he

remained till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and

remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards

as vicar. His first important work, _British Monachism_ (2 vols., 1802),

was a compilation, from manuscripts in the British Museum and Bodleian

libraries, of facts relating to English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke

had been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for

which he is best remembered, the _Encyclopaedia of Antiquities_,

appeared in 1824. A sequel to this, _Foreign Topography_, was published

in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died at Walford on

the 1st of January 1842.

FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged to a noble

Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices of the

republic--ambassador, president of the Forty, member of the Council of

Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, _avvogadore di comun_, &c. His

first wife was Maria Priuli and his second Maria Nani; of his many

children all save one son (Jacopo) died young. But although a capable

administrator he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge

Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the various

candidates for the succession, warned the council against electing

Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the republic into

disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari was elected (1423) and

reigned for thirty-four years. In proclaiming the new doge the customary

formula which recognized the people's share in the appointment and asked

for their approval--the last vestige of popular government--was finally

dropped.

Foscari's reign bore out Mocenigo's warning and was full of wars on the

_terra ferma_, and through the doge's influence Venice joined the

Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was carried on with

varying success for eight years. In 1430 an attempt was made on

Foscari's life by a noble to whom he had refused an appointment; and

three years later a conspiracy of young bloods to secure the various

offices for themselves by illicit intrigues was discovered. These

events, as well as the long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory

state of Venetian finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to

abdicate, which was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic

tragedy by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge's son

Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and irresponsible

youth, was in that year accused of the serious crime of having accepted

presents from various citizens and foreign princes who either desired

government appointments or wished to influence the policy of the

republic. Jacopo escaped, but was tried in contumacy before the Council

of Ten and condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and to

have his property confiscated. But the execution of the sentence was

delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually the penalty was

commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446). Four years later Ermolao

Donato, a distinguished official who had been a member of the Ten at the

time of the trial, was assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of

complicity in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for

the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed to his

guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the accused, and so

merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his life, with a pension

of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the council received information

from the rector (governor) of Candia to the effect that Jacopo Foscari

had been in treasonable correspondence with the duke of Milan and the

sultan of Turkey. He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a

year's imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile.

His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to Jacopo's

entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him, he replied

advising him to bear his punishment without protest. When the year was

up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died in January 1457. The doge

was overwhelmed with grief at this bereavement and became quite

incapable of attending to business. Consequently the council decided to

ask him to abdicate; at first he refused, but was finally obliged to

conform to their wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats.

Within a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days

later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead.

The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added many

picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them tending to

show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo's judges and accusers,

whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional leniency.

The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanin's _Storia

documentata di Venezia_, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice, 1855);

where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan, _I due

Foscari_ (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the subject

Byron's tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger's poem _Italy_

(1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the subject entitled _I

due Foscari_. (L. V.*)

FOSCOLO, UGO (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at Zante in the

Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the death of his father, a

physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the family removed to Venice, and in

the University of Padua Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the

Dalmatian grammar school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was

the abbe Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly

popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo's literary

tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies in

ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the appearance

in 1797 of his tragedy _Tieste_--a production which obtained a certain

degree of success. Foscolo, who, from causes not clearly explained, had

changed his Christian name Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an

active part in the stormy political discussions which the fall of the

republic of Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the

national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the liberator,

expecting from the military successes of the French general, not merely

the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy, but the establishment of

a free republican government.

The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which Napoleon handed

Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude shock to Foscolo, but did not

quite destroy his hopes. The state of mind produced by that shock is

reflected in the _Letters of Jacopo Ortis_ (1798), a species of

political _Werther_,--for the hero of Foscolo embodies the mental

sufferings and suicide of an undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero

of Goethe places before us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering

and at last cutting short the life of a private German scholar. The

story of Foscolo, like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy

fact. Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student of

Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances akin to those

described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo's mind appears to have been

only too familiar with the thought of suicide. Cato and the many

classical examples of self-destruction scattered through the pages of

Plutarch appealed to the imaginations of young Italian patriots as they

had done in France to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde.

In the case of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the

writer's mind by the composition of the work seems to have been

beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future rudely

shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and sought relief in

now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national poet. At Milan,

whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he was engaged in other

literary pursuits besides the composition of _Ortis_. The friendship

formed there with the great poet Parini was ever afterwards remembered

with pride and gratitude. The friendship formed with another celebrated

Milanese poet soon gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still

hoping that his country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a

volunteer in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and

the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When released he

returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches to his _Ortis_,

published a translation of and commentary upon _Callimachus_, commenced

a version of the _Iliad_, and began his translation of Sterne's

_Sentimental Journey_. The result of a memorandum prepared for Lyons,

where, along with other Italian delegates, he was to have laid before

Napoleon the state of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him

for his country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of

France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his _Carme sui

sepolcri_, of which the entire spirit and language may be described as a

sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the misery of the present

and the darkness of the future. The mighty dead are summoned from their

tombs, as ages before they had been in the masterpieces of Greek

oratory, to fight again the battles of their country. The inaugural

lecture on the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in

January 1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia,

was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged his

young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to academic

traditions, but in their relation to individual and national life and

growth. The sensation produced by this lecture had no slight share in

provoking the decree of Napoleon by which the chair of national

eloquence was abolished in all the Italian universities. Soon afterwards

Foscolo's tragedy of _Ajax_ was represented but with little success at

Milan, and its supposed allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an

object of suspicion, he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The

chief fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of _Ricciarda_, the

_Ode to the Graces_, left unfinished, and the completion of his version

of the _Sentimental Journey_ (1813). His version of Sterne is an

important feature in his personal history. When serving with the French

he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had traversed much of the ground

gone over by Yorick; and in his memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the

version is ascribed, he throws much curious light on his own character.

He returned to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence

he passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin on

his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the shores

of England at the close of 1816.

During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until his death

there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the most brilliant

circles of the English capital confer on foreigners of political and

literary renown, and experienced all the misery which follows on a

disregard of the first conditions of domestic economy. His contributions

to the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_, his dissertations in Italian

on the text of Dante and Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on

Petrarch, of which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre's admirable

translations of some of Petrarch's finest sonnets, heightened his

previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and forethought

in pecuniary matters involved him in much embarrassment, and at last

consigned him to a prison; and when released he felt bitterly the change

in his social position, and the coldness now shown to him by many whom

he had been accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in

society--if we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an

observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott--had unhappily not

been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships. He died at Turnham

Green on the 10th of October 1827. Forty-four years after his death, in

1871, his remains were brought to Florence, and with all the pride, pomp

and circumstance of a great national mourning, found their final

resting-place beside the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of

Michelangelo and Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of

Santa Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully entitled.

For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour of his diction his

country honours him as a great classic author. He had assigned to the

literature of his nation higher aims than any which it previously

recognized. With all his defects of character, and through all his

vicissitudes of fortune, he was always a sincere and courageous patriot.

Ample materials for the study of Foscolo's character and career may be

found in the complete series of his works published in Florence by Le

Monnier. The series consists of _Prose letterarie_, (4 vols., 1850);

_Epistolario_ (3 vols., 1854); _Prose politiche_ (1 vol., 1850);

_Poesie_ (1 vol., 1856); _Lettere di Ortis_ (1 vol., 1858); _Saggi di

critica storico-letteraria_ (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this

series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn in

1876, _Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e della Signora di

Stael, a Vincenzo Monti_. The work published at Florence in the summer

of 1878, _Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi_, throws much

doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo's writings as given in

the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some curious and

original illustrations of Foscolo's familiarity with the English

language. (J. M. S.)

FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer, was born in

London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a solicitor by profession,

and on his retirement from practice in 1840, he devoted himself to the

study of legal antiquities. His _Judges of England_ (9 vols., 1848-1864)

is a standard work, characterized by accuracy and extensive research.

_Biographia Juridica_, _a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges_,

appeared shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the

Incorporated Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He

died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.

FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of

Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)

7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has an imposing castle with four

towers, begun by Filippo d'Acaia in 1314. The cathedral was

reconstructed at the end of the 18th century. The place began to acquire

some importance in the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237,

but in 1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to

Filippo d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy.

It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has a branch line to

Mondovi.

FOSSANUOVA, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome, near the railway

station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It is the finest example of a

Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian Early Gothic style, in Italy,

and dates from the end of the 12th to the end of the 13th century. The

church (1187-1208) is closely similar to that of Casamari. The other

conventual buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in

1274.

See C. Enlart, _Origines francaises de l'architecture gothique en

Italie_ (Paris, 1894) (_Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes

et de Rome_, fasc. 66).

FOSSE (or FOSS) WAY, the Early English name of a Roman road or series of

roads in Britain, used later by the English, running from Lincoln by

Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost all the Roman line is still in use

as modern road or lane. It passes from Lincoln through Newark and

Leicester (the Roman _Ratae_) to High Cross (_Venonae_), where it

intersects Watling Street at a point often called "the centre of

England." Hence it runs to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and

Ilchester, crosses the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and

enters Exeter. Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but

without warrant. (See further under ERMINE STREET.) (F. J. H.)

FOSSICK (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning fussy or

troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of Australia to the

search for gold by solitary individuals, in untried localities or in

abandoned diggings. A "fossicker," or pocket miner, is one who buys up

the right to search old claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked

by previous diggers.

FOSSOMBRONE (anc. _Forum Sempronii_), a town and episcopal see of the

Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 11 m. E.S.E. of

the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 7531,

commune, 10,847. The town is situated in the valley of the Metauro, in

the centre of fine scenery, at the meeting-point of roads to Fano, to

the Furlo pass and Fossato di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino

and to Sinigaglia, the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The

cathedral, rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor

Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured _ancona_ of 1480. S.

Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal. The library, founded by

a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains some antiquities. Above the

town is a medieval castle. There is a considerable trade in silk.

The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E. at S. Martino al

Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station on the Via Flaminia

and a _municipium_. The date of its foundation is not known. Excavations

in 1879-1880 led to the discovery of a house and of other buildings on

the ancient road (A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 458).

It already had a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta

obtained possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold,

with Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the latter

it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631.

FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1754-1844), Tuscan statesman and

mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was educated at the university of

Pisa, where he devoted himself particularly to mathematics. He obtained

an official appointment in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was

entrusted by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the

drainage of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a

treatise in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but

on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily. On the

erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom of Etruria, under

the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was appointed president of the

commission of finance. In 1809 he went to Paris as one of the senators

for Tuscany to pay homage to Napoleon. He was made president of the

legislative commission on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand

III. in 1814, and subsequently prime minister, which position he

retained under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which was

only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote the

well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany, and the

bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the law, honesty

in the administration of justice and toleration of opinion, but he

totally neglected the moral improvement of the people. At the age of

seventy-eight he married, and twelve years afterwards died, in 1844.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Gino Capponi, _Il Conte V. Fossombroni_, A. von

Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg_

(Gotha, 1877); Zobi, _Storia civile delta Toscana_ (Florence,

1850-1853); Galeotti, _Delle Leggi e dell' amministrazione della

Toscana_ (Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, _Leopoldo II_. (Florence,

1871); see also under CAPPONI, GINO; FERDINAND III., of Tuscany, and

LEOPOLD II., of Tuscany. (L. V.*)

FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904), English geologist and

mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve Foster (for many years

secretary of the Society of Arts), was born at Camberwell on the 23rd of

March 1841. After receiving his early education at Boulogne and Amiens,

he studied successively at the Royal School of Mines in London and at

the mining college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the

Geological Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards

in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894) he

communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865 the now classic

paper "On the superficial deposits of the Valley of the Medway, with

remarks on the Denudation of the Weald." In this paper the sculpturing

of the Wealden area by rain and rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from

the Geological Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to

mineralogy and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was

appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for the S.W. of

England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N. Wales district. In

1890 he was appointed professor of mining at the Royal College of

Science and he held this post until the close of his life. His later

work is embodied largely in the reports of mines and quarries issued

annually by the home office. He was distinguished for his extensive

scientific and practical knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone

quarrying. He was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While

investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man in 1897

his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-oxide gas, and he

never fully recovered from the effects. He died in London on the 19th of

April 1904. He published _Ore and Stone Mining_, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and

_The Elements of Mining and Quarrying_, 1903.

FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847- ), Canadian politician and financier, was

born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist

descent. After a brilliant university career at the university of

Brunswick, at Edinburgh and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught

in various local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and

history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative member

for King's County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament, and in 1885 entered

the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as minister of marine and fisheries;

in 1888 he became minister of finance, which position he held till the

defeat of his party in 1896. A careful and even brilliant financier, and

a keen debater, he became known as a strong believer in protection for

Canadian industries and in preferential trade within the British empire.

FOSTER, JOHN (1770-1843), English author and dissenting minister,

generally known as the "Essayist," was born in a small farmhouse near

Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September 1770. Partly from

constitutional causes, but partly also from the want of proper

companions, as well as from the grave and severe habits of his parents,

his earlier years were enshrouded in a somewhat gloomy and sombre

atmosphere, which was never afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful

energy, finding no proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to

morbid intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own

testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of a "painful

sense of an awkward but entire individuality."

The small income accruing to Foster's parents from their farm they

supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he began to assist them by

spinning wool by the hand wheel, and from his fourteenth year by weaving

double stuffs. Even "when a child," however, he had the "feelings of a

foreigner in the place"; and though he performed his monotonous task

with conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing

his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without difficulty

passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a great taste for

reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut himself up alone in a barn,

afterwards working at his loom "like a horse," to make up for lost time.

He had also at this period "a passion for making pictures with a pen."

Shortly after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of the

Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents were connected;

and with the view of preparing himself for the ministerial office he

began about the same time to attend a seminary at Brearley Hall

conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett.

After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted to the

Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of study at this

institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he

preached to an audience of less than a hundred persons, in a small and

dingy room situated near the river at the top of a flight of steps

called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he remained only three months. In

the beginning of 1793 he proceeded to Dublin, where, after failing as a

preacher, he attempted to revive a classical and mathematical school,

but with so little success that he did not prosecute the experiment for

more than eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a

Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself with more

earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the discharge of his

ministerial duties, his efforts produced little apparent impression, and

the gradual diminution of his hearers necessitated his resignation.

After employing himself for a few months at Battersea in the instruction

of twenty African youths brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with

the view of having them trained to aid as missionaries to their

fellow-countrymen, he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small

congregation at Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years.

In 1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he became

pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the thyroid gland

compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the same year he

published the volume of _Essays_ on which his literary fame most largely

if not mainly rests. They were written in the form of letters addressed

to the lady whom he afterwards married, and consist of four papers,--"On

a Man writing Memoirs of himself"; "On Decision of Character"; "On the

Application of the Epithet Romantic"; and "On some Causes by which

Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable to Men of Cultivated

Taste." The success of this work was immediate, and was so considerable

that on resigning his charge he determined to adopt literature as his

profession. The _Eclectic Review_ was the only periodical with which he

established a connexion; but his contributions to that journal, which

were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles. On his marriage

in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-Water, a small village in

Gloucestershire, where he remained till 1817, when he returned to

Downend and resumed his duties to his old congregation. Here he

published in 1820 his _Essay on Popular Ignorance_, which was the

enlargement of a sermon originally preached on behalf of the British and

Foreign School Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol,

and in 1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead

chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the settlement of

Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued, as in such

circumstances it appeared to Foster to be "altogether superfluous and

even bordering on impertinent." The health of Foster during the later

years of his life was somewhat infirm, the result chiefly of the toil

and effort of literary composition; and the death of his only son, his

wife and the greater number of his most intimate friends combined with

his bodily ailments to lend additional sombreness to his manner of

regarding the events and arrangements of the present world--the "visage

of death" being almost his "one remaining luminary." He died at

Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843.

The cast of Foster's mind was meditative and reflective rather than

logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately Calvinistic

views, his language even in preaching very seldom took the mould of

theological forms. Though always retaining his connexion with the

Baptist denomination, the evils resulting from organized religious

communities seemed to him so great that he came to be "strongly of

opinion that churches are useless and mischievous institutions, and the

sooner they are dissolved the better." The only Christian observances

which he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the

Lord's Supper, and it so happened that he never administered the

ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured by a

constant reference to the "endless future." He was a firm believer in

supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing hope that a ray of

light from the other world might sometimes in this way be vouchsafed to

mortals. As a writer he was most painstaking and laborious in his choice

of diction, and his style has its natural consequent defects, though the

result is eloquent in its way.

Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a

_Discourse on Missions_ (1818); "Introductory Essay" to Doddridge's

_Rise and Progress of Religion_ (1825); "Observations on Mr Hall's

Character as a Preacher," prefixed to the collected edition of Hall's

_Works_ (1832); an "Introduction" to a pamphlet by Mr Marshman on the

Serampore Missionaries; several political letters to the _Morning

Chronicle_, and contributions to the _Eclectic Review_, published

posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. _His Life and Correspondence_, edited

by J.E. Ryland, was published in 1846.

FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-1907), English physiologist, was born at

Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After graduating in medicine at

London University in 1859, he began to practise in his native town, but

in 1867 he returned to London as teacher of practical physiology at

University College, where two years afterwards he became professor. In

1870 he was appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its

praelectorship in physiology, and thirteen years later he became the

first occupant of the newly-created chair of physiology in the

university, holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and

administrator, and had a very large share in the organization and

development of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was

one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity

exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great Britain. In

1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president of the British

Association at its meeting at Dover. In the following year he was

elected to represent the university of London in parliament. Though

returned as a Unionist, his political action was not to be dictated by

party considerations, and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he

played no prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was

defeated. His chief writings were a _Textbook of Physiology_ (1876),

which became a standard work, and _Lectures on the History of Physiology

in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1901), which consisted of

lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, in

1900. He died suddenly in London on the 29th of January 1907.

FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899), English painter, was born at North

Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the workshop of Ebenezer

Landells, a wood engraver, with whom he worked for six years as an

illustrative draughtsman, devoting himself mainly to landscape. During

the succeeding fifteen years he became famous as a prolific and

accomplished illustrator, but about 1861 abandoned illustration for

painting, and gained wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water

colours, of landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of

children. He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of

the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memorable

for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and

pleasantness of sentiment.

See _Birket Foster, his Life and Work_ (extra number of the _Art

Journal_) by Marcus B. Huish (1890), an interesting sketch; and

_Birket Foster, R.W.S._, by H.M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very

complete and fully illustrated biography.

FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864), American song and ballad writer,

was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of July 1826. He was

the youngest child of a merchant of Irish descent who became a member of

the state legislature and was related by marriage to President Buchanan.

Stephen early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet,

the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge of French

and German. He was sent to school in Towanda, Pennsylvania, and later to

Athens, Pennsylvania, and when thirteen years old he wrote the song

"Sadly to Mine Heart Appealing." At sixteen he wrote "Open thy Lattice,

Love"; at seventeen he entered his brother's business house, Cincinnati,

Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile such

popular pieces as "Old Uncle Ned," "O Susannah!" and others. He then

adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief successes were songs

written for the negro melodists or Christy minstrels. Besides those

mentioned the following attained great popularity: "Nelly was a Lady,"

"Old Kentucky Home," "Old Folks at Home," "Massa's in de Cold, Cold

Ground," &c. For these and other songs the composer received

considerable sums, "Old Folks at Home" bringing him, it is said, 15,000

dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music. In

1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned to Pittsburg.

His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies, many of which have

been popular on both sides of the Atlantic and sung in many tongues.

"Old Black Joe," the last of these negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His

later songs were sentimental ballads. Among these are "Old Dog Tray,"

"Gentle Annie," "Willie, we have missed you," &c. His "Come where my

Love lies Dreaming" is a well known vocal quartet. Although as a

musician and composer Foster has little claim to high rank, his

song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern developments of

popular music. He died at New York on the 13th of January 1864.

FOSTORIA, a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and partly in

Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7070;

(1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910) 9597. It is served by the

Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the Ohio Central,

the Lake Erie & Western, and the Hocking Valley railways, and by two

interurban electric lines. The city is situated in an agricultural

region, and oil abounds in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures

are glass, flour, planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages,

barrels, incandescent lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile

engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear. The

waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. In 1832, upon the

coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome and Risdon, were laid out

on the site of what is now Fostoria. A bitter rivalry arose between

them, but they were finally united under one government, and the city

thus formed was named in honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles

Foster (1828-1904), governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and

secretary of the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to

promote its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.

FOTHERGILL, JOHN (1712-1780), English physician, was born of a Quaker

family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End in Yorkshire. He took the

degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736, and after visiting the continent of

Europe he in 1740 settled in London, where he gained an extensive

practice. In the epidemics of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to

have had sixty patients daily. In his leisure he made a study of

conchology and botany; and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive

botanical garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various

parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the South Sea

voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by Anthony Purver, a

Quaker, was made and printed at his expense. His pamphlet entitled

"Account of the Sore Throat attended with Ulcers" (1748) contains one of

the first descriptions of diphtheria in English, and was translated into

several languages. He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.

FOTHERINGHAY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, picturesquely

situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 1-1/2 m. from Elton station

on the Peterborough branch of the London & North-Western railway. The

castle, of which nothing but the earthworks and foundations remain, is

famous as the scene of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from

September 1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587.

The earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of very

early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times. It became an

important stronghold of the Plantagenets from the time of Edward III.,

and was the birthplace of Richard III. in 1452. The church of St Mary

and All Saints, originally collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the

nave with aisles, and the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but

the building is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of

York, who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the

third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the earl of

Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of Wakefield in

1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments were erected by Queen

Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs in ruins.

FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON (1819-1868), French physicist, was the son

of a publisher at Paris, where he was born on the 18th of September

1819. After an education received chiefly at home, he studied medicine,

which, however, he speedily abandoned for physical science, the

improvement of L.J.M. Daguerre's photographic processes being the object

to which he first directed his attention. During three years he was

experimental assistant to Alfred Donne (1801-1878) in his course of

lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A.H.L. Fizeau he carried on a

series of investigations on the intensity of the light of the sun, as

compared with that of carbon in the electric arc, and of lime in the

flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the interference of heat rays, and

of light rays differing greatly in lengths of path; and on the chromatic

polarization of light. In 1849 he contributed to the _Comptes Rendus_ a

description of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp,

and, in conjunction with H.V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision. By

the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir Charles

Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric currents, he was

enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater velocity of light in air than

in water, and to establish that the velocity of light in different media

is inversely as the refractive indices of the media. For his

demonstration in 1851 of the diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation

of the plane of oscillation of a freely suspended, long and heavy

pendulum exhibited by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the

following year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the

Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year he was

made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at Paris. In

September of that year he discovered that the force required for the

rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when it is made to rotate

with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disk at the same time

becoming heated by the eddy or "Foucault currents" induced in its metal.

Foucault invented in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the

succeeding year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting

telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution. With

Wheatstone's revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the absolute

velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000 m.) a second,

or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous experimenters. He

was created in that year a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and an

officer of the Legion of Honour, in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal

Society of London, and next year a member of the mechanical section of

the Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of Watt's

governor, upon which he had for some time been experimenting with a view

to making its period of revolution constant, and on a new apparatus for

regulating the electric light; and in the following year (_Compt. Rend._

lxiii.) he showed how, by the deposition of a transparently thin film of

silver on the outer side of the object glass of a telescope, the sun

could be viewed without injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault

died of paralysis on the 11th of February 1868 at Paris. From the year

1845 he edited the scientific portion of the _Journal des Debats_. His

chief scientific papers are to be found in the _Comptes Rendus_,

1847-1869.

See _Revue cours scient._ vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; _Proc. Roy. Soc._

xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; Lissajous, _Notice historique sur

la vie et les travaux de Leon Foucault_ (Paris, 1875).

FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763-1820), French statesman, was born

in a small village near Nantes on the 21st of May 1763. His father, a

seafaring man, destined him for the sea; but the weakness of his frame

and the precocity of his talents soon caused this idea to be given up.

He was educated at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed

marked aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to

enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept by

brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made rapid progress,

and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the colleges of Niort, Saumur,

Vendome, Juilly and Arras. At Arras he had some dealings with

Robespierre at the time of the beginning of the French Revolution

(1789).

In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to their college at

Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal for revolutionary

principles; but at Nantes he showed even more democratic fervour. His

abilities and the zeal with which he espoused the most subversive

notions brought him into favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a

leading member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the

college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouche gave up all

connexion with the church, whose major vows he had not taken. After the

downfall of the monarchy on the 10th of August 1792, he was elected as

deputy for the department of the Lower Loire to the National Convention

which met at the autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The

literary and pedagogic sympathies of Fouche at first brought him into

touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists; but

their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of Louis XVI.

(December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to espouse the cause of the

Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more thoroughgoing champions of

revolutionary doctrine. On the question of the execution of the king,

Fouche, after some preliminary hesitations, expressed himself with the

utmost vigour in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who

"wavered before the shadow of a king."

The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the Convention

against England and Holland (Feb. 1, 1793), and a little later against

Spain, brought Fouche into notoriety as one of the fiercest of the

Jacobinical fanatics who then held power at Paris. While the armies of

the first coalition threatened the north-east of France, a revolt of the

royalist peasants of Brittany and la Vendee menaced the Convention on

the west. That body deputed Fouche with a colleague, Villers, to proceed

to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial powers

for the crushing of the revolt of "the whites." The vigour with which he

carried out these duties earned him other work, and he soon held the

post of commissioner of the republic in the department of the Nievre.

Together with Chaumette, he helped to initiate the atheistical movement,

the founders of which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the

extinction of Christianity in France. In the department of the Nievre he

ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and

established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the cemeteries, he

ordered these words to be inscribed: "Death is an eternal sleep." He

also waged war against luxury and wealth, and desired to abolish the use

of money. The new cult was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the

strange orgy known as "The Festival of Reason" (November 10, 1793).

Fouche then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance of the

Convention on that city, which had revolted against the new Jacobin

tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remarkable for its obscene

parody of religious rites, he then, along with his colleague, Collot

d'Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to work with a rigour which

made his name odious. Modern research, however, proves that at the close

of those horrors Fouche exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his

conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return to Paris

early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: "The blood of

criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes power on sure

foundations." By that time Robespierre had struck down the other leaders

of the atheistical party; but early in June 1794, at the time of the

"Festival of the Supreme Being," Fouche ventured to mock at the theistic

revival which Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took

place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of Fouche from

the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouche, however, was working with his

customary skill and energy, and along with Tallien and others, managed

to effect the overthrow of the theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July

28), 1794. The ensuing reaction in favour of more merciful methods of

government threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been

mainly instrumental in carrying through the _coup d'etat_ of Thermidor;

but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouche in intrigue, they managed for

a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords, however, crept in which

left him for a time almost isolated, and it needed all his ability to

withstand the attacks of the moderates. A vigorous attack on him by

Boissy d'Anglas, on the 9th of August 1795, caused him to be arrested,

but the troubles which ensued in Vendemiaire averted the doom that

seemed to be pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was

passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year 1795.

In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-1799),

Fouche remained at first in obscurity, but the relations which he had

with the communists, once headed by Chaumette and now by Francois N.

("Gracchus") Babeuf (q.v.), helped him to rise once more. He is said to

have betrayed to the director Barras the secret of the strange plot

which Babeuf and a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent

research has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from

poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the supply of

military _materiel_, which offered opportunities direct and indirect.

After offering his services to the royalists, whose movement was then

gathering force, he again decided to support the Jacobins and the

director Barras (q.v.). In the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor 1797 he made

himself serviceable to Barras, who in 1798 appointed him to be French

ambassador to the Cisalpine republic. At Milan he carried matters with

so high a hand against the Gallophobes of that government that his

actions were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused

state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold his own

and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early in 1799 he

returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office as ambassador at

The Hague, he became minister of police at Paris (July 20, 1799). The

newly elected director, Sieyes (q.v.), was then in the ascendant and

desired to curb the excesses of the Jacobins, who had recently reopened

their club. Fouche, casting consistency to the winds, closed the

Jacobins club in a manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted

down the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists, who

were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of the return of

Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin was one of the most

powerful men in France.