serving dishes.
For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the
greater quantity of tapioca should be used.
CREAM OF POTATO SOUP
3 potatoes
2 1/2 cupfuls milk
2 egg yolks or 1 egg
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Pepper
1/8 teaspoonful celery salt
Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it
to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning,
combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double
boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens. _Serve
immediately_.
QUESTIONS
In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca?
How much of this ingredient should be used (see _Blanc Mange_,
above)?
What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup?
Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs?
How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see
above)?
What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange?
When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of
adding the egg.
Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for
one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard.
LESSON LV
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B)
CORN CUSTARD
1 can corn _or_
6 ears green corn
1 teaspoonful salt
l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 cupful milk
2 eggs
Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for
method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs,
add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking-
dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven
until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable.
_One egg may be omitted_ and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2
tablespoonfuls respectively.
CHEESE PUDDING
1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces
1 egg
1 cupful milk
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca
Cayenne
Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered
baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and
bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method
of preparing _Dried Bread Crumbs_).
QUESTIONS
What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture?
What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture?
What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or
Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two
foods bake? Give a reason for your answer.
In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the
same length of time?
Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn.
How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve?
How many will the Cheese Pudding serve?
LESSON LVI
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C)
Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then
baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or
dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk.
How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked
Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread
Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference.
BREAD PUDDING
2 cupfuls milk
1 cupful bread crumbs
1 tablespoonful butter
3 tablespoonfuls sugar
1 egg
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful spices
3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants
Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the
remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and
place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until
it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of
baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see
below).
If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change
should be made in the other ingredients (see _Chocolate Corn-starch
Pudding_)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be
omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and
Chocolate Bread Pudding.
CHOCOLATE BREAD PUDDING
1 cupful bread crumbs
2 cupfuls scalded milk
1 ounce chocolate
1/4 cupful boiling water
1/3 cupful sugar
1 egg
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until
soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook
gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture.
Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or
whipped cream or Lemon Sauce.
VANILLA SAUCE
1/2 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/8 teaspoonful salt
2 cupfuls boiling water
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10
minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla
[Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just
before serving.
CHOCOLATE SAUCE
1/2 cupful sugar
3 tablespoonfuls flour
1 cupful water
1 cupful milk
3/8 cupful cocoa _or_
2 squares (or ounces) chocolate
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water;
stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over
boiling water for at least 15 minutes.
If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling
water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to
the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See
footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over
desserts.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding?
What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk
mixture?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding,
and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result,
if baked in a very hot oven?
What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of
baking?
Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding.
What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water?
In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see
Experiment 24)?
How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the
quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast?
Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one
pint of sauce.
What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce?
Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for
Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening
each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures?
What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly
over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked
only over boiling water?
LESSON LVII
CHEESE (A)
THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.--To show the relation of cheese to milk,
and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in
a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it.
Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set
aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed
the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see
Lesson XLVI)?
EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY--Again heat the contents of the
test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and
press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the
cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In
cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted
milk?
Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown
in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into
shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the
ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the
cheese firm.
There are two general classes of cheese,--hard cheese and soft cheese. A
hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in
this country.
ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.--The rennet or junket used to clot the
casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of
a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human
stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in
the stomach.
EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Add a few drops of vinegar to warm
milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has
been curdled by the acid?
To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this
substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material
(see _Care of Milk_)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the
clotted condition of sour milk.
JUNKET "CUSTARD"
1 quart milk
1/4 cupful sugar
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 tablespoonful liquid rennet _or_
1 junket tablet
Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg
Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is _lukewarm_ only; do not
heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm, _i.e._ body
temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like
the wrist"--neither warmer nor colder--it is lukewarm in temperature. If a
junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or
junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a
warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool
place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve
with cream.
COTTAGE CHEESE
1 quart thick sour milk
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Cream, top milk, or butter
Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the
mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the
mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it
to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt
and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve
lightly heaped, or molded into balls.
QUESTIONS
Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see
Experiment 12)?
In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the
digestion of milk in the stomach?
Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested.
How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk?
Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour
milk.
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home?
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market?
LESSON LVIII
CHEESE (B)
FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is concentrated food, _i.e._ it
contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as
much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and
as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to
protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven).
Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive
than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent
than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute
dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese.
Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but
investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487, _The Digestion of Cheese_,
p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of
digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should
be heated at low or moderate temperature.
It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The
use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already
been eaten, is not advisable.
CARE OF CHEESE.--Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is
placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (see _Why Foods
Spoil_). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly
covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a
cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin
paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should
not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it.
MACARONI AND CHEESE
1 cupful macaroni
1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce
2 cupfuls buttered crumbs
3/4 cupful grated cheese
Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling,
salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a
colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk
and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni
to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs
and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown.
_Rice or noodles_, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for
macaroni.
QUESTIONS
What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very
soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce?
What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity?
What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)?
Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water?
What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain?
What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (see
_Cheese Sauce,_)?
What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of
rice? What is the price per pound of cheese?
How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese?
How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve?
How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it
compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How
much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food?
LESSON LIX
STRUCTURE OF BEEF--METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS
MEAT.--The flesh of animals is called _meat_. In market this term is
applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton
(sheep), lamb, and pork (pig).
To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try
the following experiments with beef:
EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.--Scrape a piece of lean beef on both
sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat.
What is the color and texture, _i.e._ toughness, of the two parts into
which the muscle is divided?
Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (_a_)
connective tissue or framework, and (_b_) muscle fiber.
Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal
portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52.
EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.--
Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying
pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more
tender or tough by dry heat?
(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a
ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (_a_). Is the
fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over
it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber?
EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE
TISSUE.--Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover
it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and
heat affect its toughness?
(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook
in water at simmering temperature as directed in (_a_). How do heat
and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and
taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has
a more pleasing flavor?
From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the
length of time--_long or short_--that _connective tissue_ must
be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with
regard to the kind of heat--_dry or moist_--that must be applied to
connective tissue to make it tender?
What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat
upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more
pleasing flavor?
[Illustration: FIGURE 43.--STRUCTURE OF MEAT. A. muscle fibers; B. fat
cells; C. connective tissue.]
THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.--The connective tissue of meat is
the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of
the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump.
This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination,
however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes,
microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of
connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle
juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring
materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are
called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as
shown also in Figure 43.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers
College. FIGURE 44.--CLUB OR DELMONICO STEAK.]
The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the
walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These
proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the
following lesson.
CARE OF MEAT.--As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in
which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before
cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold
water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking.
SEARING MEAT.--Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor,
it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be
accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein
coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are
prevented from escaping. _This process is called searing._
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 45.--PORTERHOUSE]
From the results of Experiment 51 (_b_), one can understand why
seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is
desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to
make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the
temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat.
TENDER CUTS OF BEEF--Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain
more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts
of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the
connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts.
[Illustration: FIGURE 46.--SIRLOIN,--HIP STEAK (portion next to the
porterhouse) _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College_]
[Illustration: FIGURE 47.--SIRLOIN,--FLAT BONE (choice cut in the middle
of the sirloin section). _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College._]
Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts
of the beef would one expect to find most tender?
Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts.
Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked
successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts
of meat: (_a_) broiling, (_b_) pan-broiling, and (_c_)
roasting (baking).
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 48.--SIRLOIN,--ROUND BONE (next to the rump and round).]
The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure
44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and
first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime
ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin.
Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see
Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 49.--FIRST CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 50.--SECOND CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
BROILING
Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut
from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove
the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals
or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or
placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughly _seared_
on both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the
coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch
thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10
minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serve _at once_.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 51.--BLADE RIB ROAST (7th and 8th ribs).]
PAN-BROILING
Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying
pan _without any fat_. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more
slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to
brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is
the same as for broiling.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.--Pan-broiled steak differs
from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (_a_) ease of
digestion and (_b_) flavor. As explained previously (_Frying and
Digestion_), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested.
For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit
the fat, and to broil a steak.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_. Teachers College
FIGURE 52--CHUCK RIB ROAST (9th and 10th ribs)]
Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a
pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In
"fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the
flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the
addition of any other flavor.
ROASTING (BAKING)
Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before
an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and
baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as
follows:
[Illustration: FIGURE 53.--COLONIAL FIREPLACE, SHOWING A "ROASTING
KITCHEN"--a device for roasting meat--at lower right-hand corner.]
Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a
rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in
the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven
(500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400
degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with
flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste
often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with
flour, and continue baking as before.
Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one,
the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of
beef should weigh at least 4 pounds.
The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for
beef roasts, _15 minutes to each pound_ is allowed.
QUESTIONS
Explain the purpose of searing meat.
If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared?
Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or
pan-broiled?
Why cannot meat be broiled over _blazing_ coals?
What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak?
What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak?
How many persons will each serve?
LESSON LX
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A)
PROTEIN IN MEAT.--It was mentioned previously that there are several
different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins
exist in:
(_a_) Connective tissue.
(_b_) Walls of muscle fibers.