Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
[Illustration: _By permission of Harrison H Dodge, Superintendent_ A
CORNER OF WASHINGTON'S KITCHEN AT MOUNT VERNON]
SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING
BY
CARLOTTA C. GREER HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT, EAST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL CLEVELAND, OHIO
PREFACE
_School and Home Cooking_ is a text which can be placed in the hands
of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Its
use eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus saves
much time.
The _psychological_ method of education, which treats first of
material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis
develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind in
preparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff
may be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of the
content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is
psychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are
sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil.
Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any
subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving
technical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason a
classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the
text; they are classified after each is considered.
At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of
lessons called _Related Work_, which includes table service lessons,
home projects, and meal cooking. _Table service_ lessons are
introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should
be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative
processes are performed. The _cost_ and _food value_ of meals
are considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wise
_selection_ and thrifty _buying_ of foods are also treated in
these lessons.
_Home projects_ which progressive teachers have found effective in
making home economics function in the home--one of the goals to be
attained in democratic education--contain suggestive material which may
be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes.
An adaptation of the "meal method," _i.e., meal cooking_, is used
both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also for
gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same
time.
_Experiments_ regarding food preparation and composition and
processes of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been taken
to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil
and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow
directions, make observations, and draw helpful deductions.
The _recipes_ have been adapted from various sources. Where it is
possible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensive
food materials are used. The more expensive materials are used as
sparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foods
follow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory in
the home kitchen.
Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor of
Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portions
of the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of the
Department of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, for
valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the
preparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking reading
of the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrative
material: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood and
Company, _The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journal
of Home Economics_, and the United States Department of Agriculture.
CLEVELAND, July, 1920.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
FOREWORD
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
I. Baked Apples--Dishwashing
II. Measurements--Stuffed and Scalloped Tomatoes
III. Fuels and Combustion--Sauted and Baked Squash
IV. Coal Ranges--Corn Dishes
V. Gas Ranges--Scalloped Fruit
VI. Stoves and Heating Devices--Stuffed Peppers, Butterscotch Apples
DIVISION TWO
BODY-REGULATING FOOD--WATER
VII. Water and Beverages (A)
VIII. Water and Beverages (B)
RELATED WORK
IX. Home Projects
X. Afternoon Tea
DIVISION THREE
BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS,--RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)
XI. Fresh Vegetables (A)
XII. Fresh Vegetables (B)
XIII. Fresh Fruits
RELATED WORK
LESSON
XIV. Review: Meal Cooking
XV. Home Projects
DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
XVI. Sugar: Digestion of Sugar
XVII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (A)
XVIII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (B)
XIX. Cereals: Starch and Cellulose
XX. Cereals: Rice (A)
XXI. Cereals: Rice (B)
XXII. Cereals and the Fireless Cooker
XXIII. Cereals for Frying or Baking
XXIV. Powdered Cereals Used for Thickening
XXV. Toast: Digestion of Starch
XXVI. Root Vegetables (A)
XXVII. Root Vegetables (B)
XXVIII. Root Vegetables (C)
XXIX. Starchy Foods Cooked at High Temperature
RELATED WORK
XXX. Dining Room Service
XXXI. Cooking and Serving Breakfast
XXXII. Review: Meal Cooking
XXXIII. Home Projects
DIVISION FIVE
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AN OILS
XXXIV. Fat as a Frying Medium
XXXV. Fat as a Frying Medium--Food Fats
XXXVI. Fat as a Frying Medium--Digestion of Fat
XXXVII. Fat Saving
RELATED WORK
XXXVIII. Dining Room Courtesy
XXXIX. Cooking and Serving Breakfast
XL. Review: Meal Cooking
XLI. Home Projects
DIVISION SIX
ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN
XLII. Eggs
XLIII. Eggs: Digestion of Protein
XLIV. Eggs: Omelets (A)
XLV. Eggs: Omelets (B)
XLVI. Milk
XLVII. Milk with Cocoa and Chocolate
XLVIII. Milk and Cream
XLIX. Cream Soups (A)
L. Cream Soups (B)
LI. Milk Thickened with Egg (A)
LII. Milk Thickened with Egg (B)
LIII. Milk Thickened with Egg (C)
LIV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (A)
LV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (B)
LVI. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (C)
LVII. Cheese (A)
LVIII. Cheese (B)
LIX. Structure of Beef--Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts
LX. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (A)
LXI. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (B)
LXIL. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (A)
LXIII. Beef; Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (B)
LXIV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (C)
LXV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (D)
LXVI. Beef: Uses of Cooked Beef
LXVII. Gelatine (A)
LXVIIL. Gelatine (B)
LXIX. Fish (A)
LXX. Fish (B)
LXXI. Fish (C)
LXXII. Legumes (A)
LXXIII. Legumes (B)
LXXIV. Legumes (C)
RELATED WORK
LXXV. Cost of Food
LXXVI. Cooking and Serving a Breakfast
LXXVII. Review: Meal Cooking
LXXVIII. Home Projects
DIVISION SEVEN
HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES
LXXIX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Delicate Flavor
LXXX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Strong Flavor
LXXXI. Salads (A)
LXXXII. Salads (B)
LXXXIII. Classification of Foodstuffs
RELATED WORK
LXXXIV. Selecting Food
LXXXV. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper
LXXXVL. Review: Meal Cooking
LXXXVII. Home Projects
DIVISION EIGHT
FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS
LXXXVIII. Food Adjuncts--Dishes Containing Food Adjuncts
RELATED WORK
LXXXIX. Spending for Food
XC. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper
XCI. Review: Meal Cooking
XCII. Home Projects
DIVISION NINE
FOOD COMBINATIONS
XCIII. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (A)
XCIV. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (B)
XCV. Fish Salad and Salad Rolls
XCVI. Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws
XCVII. Veal and Potatoes
XCVIII. Mutton and Lamb Dishes
XCIX. Pork, Vegetables, and Apple Sauce
C. Chicken and Rice
CI. Chicken and Peas
CII. Oyster Dishes
CIII. Meat-substitute Dishes
CIV. Meat Extenders and One-dish Meals
RELATED WORK
CV. Menu-making
CVI. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Luncheon or Supper
CVII. Review: Meal Cooking
CVIII. Home Projects
DIVISION TEN
QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS
CIX. Leavening with Steam and Air: Popovers
CX. Leavening with Baking Soda and Sour Milk: Spider Corn Bread
CXI. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Molasses: Gingerbread
CXII. Leavening with Baking Powder: Griddle Cakes
CXIII. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Baking Powder: Sour Milk
Griddle Cakes
CXIV. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Cream of Tartar: Steamed
Brown Breads
CXV. Formulating Recipes--Waffles
RELATED WORK
CXVI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Foods
CXVII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner
CXVIII. Review: Meal Cooking
CXIX. Home Projects
DIVISION ELEVEN
QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS
CXX. Fine and Coarse Flours--Muffins
CXXI. Comparison of Wheat and Other Grains--Muffins
CXXII. Baking Powder Loaf Breads
CXXIII. Eggs for Quick Breads--Cream Puffs
RELATED WORK
CXXIV. Food Requirement
CXXV. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner
CXXVI. Review: Meal Cooking
CXXVII. Home Projects
DIVISION TWELVE
QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS
CXXVIII. Method of Mixing Fat in Quick Breads--Drop Biscuit
CXXIX. Quantity of Fat in Quick Breads--Short Cake
CXXX. "Cut" Biscuit
RELATED WORK
CXXXI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Food Applied to the Daily Food
Requirement.
CXXXII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner.
CXXXIII. Review: Meal Cooking.
CXXXIV. Home Projects.
DIVISION THIRTEEN
YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS
CXXXV. Yeast--Loaf Bread.
CXXXVI. Wheat Flour--Bread Sponge.
CXXXVII. Modifications of Plain White Bread.
CXXXVIII. Rolls and Buns.
RELATED WORK
CXXXIX. Food for Girls and Boys.
CXL. Planning a Day's Diet--Cooking and Serving a Meal.
CXLI. Review: Meal Cooking.
CXLII. Home Projects.
DIVISION FOURTEEN
CAKE
CXLIII. Cake without Fat--Sponge Cake.
CXLIV. Cake Containing Fat--One-egg Cake.
CXLV. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (A)
CXLVI. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (B)
CXLVII. Cake Containing Fat--Cookies
CXLVIII. Cakes without Eggs
RELATED WORK
CXLIX. The Luncheon Box
CL. Planning and Preparing Box Luncheons
CLI. Review--Meal Cooking
CLII. Home Projects
DIVISION FIFTEEN
PASTRY
CLIII. Pies with Under Crust
CLIV. Pies with Upper Crust
CLV. Two-crust Pies
RELATED WORK
CLVI. Infant Feeding
CLVII. Modifying Milk
CLVIII. Review--Meal Cooking
CLIX. Home Projects
DIVISION SIXTEEN
FROZEN DESSERTS
CLX. Method of Freezing--Water Ice
CLXI. Frozen Creams
RELATED WORK
CLXII. Diet for Young Children
CLXIII. Planning and Preparing Menus for Children
CLXIV. Review--Meal Cooking
CLXV. Home Projects
DIVISION SEVENTEEN
FOOD PRESERVATION
CLXVI. The Principles of Preserving Food
CLXVII. Processing with Little or No Sugar--Canned Fruit
CLXVIII. Processing with Much Sugar--Preserves, Jams, and Conserves
CLXIX. Processing with Much Sugar--Jellies
CLXX. Processing with Vinegar and Spices--Relishes
CLXXI. Canned Vegetables
CLXXII. Dried Vegetables
RELATED WORK
CLXXIII. The Sick-room Tray
CLXXIV. Preparing Trays for the Sick and Convalescent
CLXXV. Review--Meal Cooking
CLXXVI. Home Projects
DIVISION EIGHTEEN
SUPPLEMENTARY
I. Thanksgiving Sauce
II. Thanksgiving Desserts
III. Christmas Sweets
IV. Christmas Candy
APPENDIX
Suggestions for Teaching
Books for Reference
INDEX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A corner in Washington's kitchen at Mt. Vernon [_Frontispiece_]
1. Skewer and knitting needle for testing foods
2. A sink arranged for efficiency in dish-washing
3. Utensils for dish-washing
4. Dish-drainer
5. Dish-drainer
6. Dish-rack
7. Dish-rack
8. A rack for drying dishes
9. Utensils for measuring and weighing foods
10. Coal range, showing course of direct draft
11. Coal range, showing course of indirect draft
12. Gas burner, showing mixer
13. Gas burners
14. Gas range, showing direction of draft
15. Cross-section of wickless kerosene stove
16. Electric range
17. Pressure cooker
18. Steam cooker, containing various foods
19. Scene on a tea plantation
20. Tea-ball teapot
21. Coffee berries
22. Coffee percolator
23. Grains of starch
24. A cupful of rice before and after boiling
25. Insulated wall of a refrigerator
26. Fireless cooker, having excelsior packing
27. Fireless cooker, with stone disks
28. Electric fireless cooker
29. Gas range, having fireless cooker attachment, insulated oven and hoods
30. Method of folding filter paper
31. Utensil for steaming,--a "steamer"
32. "Steam" without pressure, and "steam" which has been under pressure
33. Table laid for an informal luncheon
34. Wheel tray
35. How to hold the knife and fork
36. Keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth
37. The teaspoon should rest on the saucer
38. How to hold the soup spoon
39. Apparatus to determine the temperature at which eggs coagulate
40. Method of holding pan to turn an omelet on to a platter
41. Cocoa pods
42. Dried bread crumbs
43. Structure of meat
44. Club or Delmonico steak
45. Porterhouse
46. Sirloin,--hip steak
47. Sirloin,--flat bone
48. Sirloin,--round bone
49. First cut prime rib roast
50. Second cut prime rib roast
51. Blade rib roast
52. Chuck rib roast
53. Colonial fireplace, showing a "roasting kitchen"
54. Round
55. Chuck
56. Cuts of beef
57. Rump
58. Cross rib, Boston cut, or English cut
59. Skirt steak; flank steak
60. Fish kettle, showing rack
61. A suggestion for the division of each dollar spent for food
62. The composition of roots and succulent vegetables
63. The composition of butter and other fat-yielding foods
64. The composition of milk and milk products
65. Cuts of veal
66. Cuts of lamb or mutton
67. Lamb chops
68. The composition of fresh and cured meats
69. Cuts of pork
70. The composition of fresh and dried fruits
71. Removing tendons from the leg of a fowl
72. Fowl trussed for roasting,--breast view
73. Fowl trussed for roasting,--back view
74. Composition of fish, fish products, and oysters
75. The composition of eggs and cheese
76. The composition of legumes and corn
77. The composition of bread and other cereal foods
78. Foods containing calcium
79. Foods containing phosphorus
80. Foods containing iron
81. Oven heat regulator
82. Illustrating the amount of heat represented by one Calorie
83. Comparative weights of 100-Calorie portions of food
84. 100-Calorie portions of food
85. Longitudinal section of wheat grain, showing bran, floury part, and
germ
86. Growing yeast plants
87. Graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modified
milk
88. Some species of molds
89. The four types of bacteria
90. Canning foods
91. Rack for holding jars
92. The composition of fruits and fruit products
93. Drier for vegetables or fruits
94. The composition of sugar and similar foods
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Measurement equivalents.
2. Use of the wooden spoon.
3. Lack of draft.
4. Presence of draft.
5. The regulation and purpose of a gas mixer.
6. The dissolving power of water.
7. Presence of gases in water. 8. Simmering and boiling of water.
9. Tannin in tea.
10. The solubility of granulated sugar in cold water.
11. The solubility of granulated sugar in hot water.
12. The solubility of powdered sugar.
13. The solubility of caramel.
14. The starch test.
15. The effect of cold water on starch.
16. The effect of heat on starch.
17. Stiffening of cooked starch.
18. The structure of starch.
19. Separation of cellulose and starch.
20. The difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cooked
over boiling water.
21. Retention of heat.
22. Starch grains and boiling water.
23. Separation of starch grains with cold water.
24. Separation of starch grains with sugar.
25. Separation of starch grains with fat.
26. The change of starch into dextrin.
27. The solubility of dextrin.
28. Starch in cracker.
29. Action of saliva upon starch.
30. The effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water.
31. Temperature at which fats and oils decompose or "burn".
32. Bread fried in "cool" fat.
33. The temperature of fat for frying
34. Saponification of fat
35. Action of oil and water
36. Emulsion of fat
37. The coagulation of egg-white
38. The solubility of albumin
39. Temperature at which eggs coagulate
40. Comparison of cooked and boiled eggs
41. Effect of beating a whole egg
42. Comparison of eggs beaten with a Dover egg beater and with a wire
spoon
43. Effect of beating egg yolk and white separately
44. Separation of milk into foodstuffs
45. Scalding milk
46. Comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware
47. Effect of rennet on milk
48. Separation of curd and whey
49. Effect of acid on milk
50. Division of muscle
51. Effect of dry heat on (_a_) connective tissue, (_b_) muscle
fiber
52. Effect of moisture and heat on (_a_) connective tissue,
(_b_) muscle fiber
53. Comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening
54. Effect of cold water on meat
55. Effect of boiling water on meat
56. Effect of salt on meat
57. Effect of cold water on gelatine
58. Effect of hot water on gelatine
59. Effect of soaking fish in water
60. Effect of boiling fish rapidly
61. Effect of acid on milk
62. Neutralization of acid by means of soda
63. Protein in oyster liquor
64. Leavening with steam and air
65. Comparison of thick and thin quick breads
66. Preparation of flour for quick breads
67. Action of baking soda on sour milk
68. Chemical change
69. Quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk
70. Action of baking soda on molasses.
71. Quantity of baking soda to use with molasses.
72. Effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.
73. Effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.
74. Effect of hot water on baking powder.
75. Starch in baking powder.
76. Comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders.
77. Conditions for growth of the yeast plant.
78. Protein in flour.
79. Mixtures for freezing.
80. Effect of air, light, and drying upon the growth of molds.
81. Effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds.
82. Effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds.
83. Effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds.
84. Growth of molds on cut fruit.
85. Growth of molds upon whole fruits.
86. Growth of molds on other foods.
87. Growth of molds upon wood.
88. Growth of molds upon cloth.
89. Contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food.
90. Growth of bacteria.
91. Effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria.
92. Effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria.
93. Use of sugar as a preservative.
94. Pectin in fruit juice.
95. Pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel.
[Illustration: BLEST BE THE FEAST WITH SIMPLE PLENTY CROWNED]
FOREWORD
One of the slogans of the World War,--"Food will win the War,"--showed
that food was much more important than many persons had believed. It
confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, or
relieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor in
achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time.
The subject of food is a broad one,--one that is growing in interest. Many
present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me what
you eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. The
most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an
individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. If
you would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your food
carefully.
A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foods
one should know what foods to _select_ at market, whence they come,
how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, and
how they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety of
foods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; others
contain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said that
for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is a
pity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchased
at the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods to
choose to meet best the needs of the body.
Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter of
_combining_ foods that are varied in composition or that supplement
one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not only
nutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important to
combine foods that "taste well."
In learning to _prepare_ foods, the experience of those who have
cooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told to
follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Following
a direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result in
rapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you
would become skilful in food preparation.
One class of food or one principle of cooking may be _related_ to
another or _associated_ with another. For example, the method of
cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general.
There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle of
cooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupil
has learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply the
principle to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, the
pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledge
gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of
a cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipes
appearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved.
The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker
and acquires skill in a much shorter time.
The _results_ of every process should be observed. Careful
observations should be made when work is not successful. There is no such
thing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. The
cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The same
mistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to result
from such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result of
one's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a great
satisfaction, to the home-keeper.
A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Graceful
_serving_ of food at such a table is an art. The ability to serve
food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to
acquire.
Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as
follows:
(_a_) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy,
nutriment, and flavor.
(_b_) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one class
of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another.
(_c_) Note the results of your work; know why the results are
successful or why they are unsuccessful.
Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all important
factors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realize
that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil,
broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. All
this demands much earnest thought and effort.
SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
LESSON I
BAKED APPLES--DISH-WASHING
BAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins)
6 apples
Seeded raisins
6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar
6 tablespoonfuls water
Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core from
each. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish.
Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugar
in each core. Pour the water around the apples.
Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient baking
with a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking,
occasionally "baste" the apples, _i.e._ take spoonfuls of the water
from around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for baking
apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From
20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required.
DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.--There is almost invariably a waste of effort
in both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to:
(_a_) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments.
(_b_) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing.
(_c_) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too
many motions in washing and drying them.
Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping,
efficiency methods, _i.e._ methods which accomplish satisfactory
results with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be applied
to it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, may
become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS.
Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which serves
as a handle.]
For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable:
A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing
dishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a
sink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on
an inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for this
purpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of the
sink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans;
dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish-
mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish-
cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap-
holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and a
large cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size
for use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slats
for drying brushes (see Figure 2).
PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.--If possible, as soon as _serving dishes,
i.e._ dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits of
food from them. The scraping may be done with: (_a_) a piece of soft
paper, (_b_) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (_c_) a knife or
spoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping,
but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible to
wash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can be
washed.
[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING.
Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in the
upper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.]
_Cooking utensils_ need special care before washing, especially if
they have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease from
dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the
drainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills and
great inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting a
utensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefully
with a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan or
kettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil
with hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a few
minutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectiveness
of this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied to
aluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark
stain on aluminum)
[Illustration: FIGURE 3--UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING
A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths G
plate scraper]
Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency
if they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, using
cold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, or
starch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup.
ARRANGING DISHES.--Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing
utensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind of
dishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at the _right_ of
the dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at the _left_ of
the pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her
left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may be
no unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washing
at the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the left
hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed
at the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining board
at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure
2).
WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--Fill the dish-pan about two
thirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes in
the pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latter
is used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan about
two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may be
placed in the rinsing pan.
Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanest
dishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups,
saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap-
dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do not
wash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bits
of blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or
vinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover egg
beater should not soak in water.
If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth.
Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold or
greasy.
[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--DISH-DRAINER.]
Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to
scour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to
the steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there are
any stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Apply
the latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible,
rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry or
bread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold water
and scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which
is free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, or
bread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side to
prevent warping.
[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--DISH-DRAINER.]
RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.--Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (see
Figures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the former
has been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of the
water to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish-
racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again.
[Illustration: FIGURE 6--DISH-RACK.]
DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--If such dishes as plates, platters, and
saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, no
towel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a soft
towel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for
this purpose.
Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting,
dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel on
these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the
warming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open
air. Stand boards on end until dry.
[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--DISH-RACK.]
CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.--Use dish-towels and cloths for no other
purpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importance
to keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soak
them in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well.
Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. At
least once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them as
directed above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until it
boils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry.
[Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.--A RACK
FOR DRYING DISHES.]
CARE OF THE SINK.--If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may be
cleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wears
away the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult
to clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used in
cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water
standing in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth and
wash the sink. _Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning
the sink._ If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, apply
a small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by opening
the hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down the
drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap.
The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. This
is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. If
this is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much
hot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. If
the latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop the
drain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of
the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To use
this, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water.
Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remain
in the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon of
water. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.--For
both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen
or the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to cover
the hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn in
the kitchen. The hands should be washed _before_ preparing or cooking
food, and _after_ touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirable
to have a hand towel conveniently placed.
_Clean cooking_ means _clean tasting_. This can be done by
taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from
the cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon.
QUESTIONS
Are apples sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck?
What is the price per pound or per peck of apples?
Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch be
rinsed with _cold_ water?
Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in _hot_
water?
Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed
with hot water before washing?
Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water?
Why not _fill_ the dish-pan with soiled dishes?
Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water?
Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover egg
beater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with a
soft towel?
Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly?
Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment
87.)
Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering?
Why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain or
enamel sink?
What is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no water
run from the faucet while cleaning a sink?
LESSON II
MEASUREMENTS--STUFFED AND SCALLOPED TOMATOES
EXPERIMENT 1: [Footnote 2: The pupil should record each experiment in a
notebook in a methodical way, giving (_a_) the aim of the experiment,
(_b_) the process, (_c_) the result, and (_d_) the
conclusion or practical application.] MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS.--In
measuring solid materials with teaspoon, tablespoon, or standard measuring
cup (see Figure 9), fill the measuring utensil with the material and then
"level" it with a knife.
Use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements:
(_a_) Find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful
(_b_) Find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup
(_c_) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint
Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise
A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise
[Illustration: FIGURE 9--UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS]
An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally
A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise
A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuring
fractional teaspoonfuls
NEED OF ACCURACY--When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure all
ingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredients
for certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result is
satisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her own
standards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives are
not _sure_ of success. For certain foods the ingredients should
always be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far as
possible, the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text. When the
quantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merely
the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated.
When large quantities of materials are to be measured, a quart measure on
which the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves more
convenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are more
conveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipment
for cooking (see Figure 9).
The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements.
She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking
utensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity of
several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of
measurement.
Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food to
buy at market, and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated number
of persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough
rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. She
might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts
concerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of a
little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thrifty
housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when
there were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note the
quantity of the materials used, and then observe the quantity of the
finished product.
EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.--Place a tin and a wooden spoon in
a saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5
minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which would
be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind of
spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods? Why? (See
_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)
Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, knobs on covers for
saucepans, etc., are of wood.
STUFFED TOMATOES
6 ripe tomatoes
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
3/4 teaspoonful mixed herbs
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of the
seed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, then
add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with the
prepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about
20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbs
brown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1)
rather than with a fork.
For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme.
_Soft bread crumbs_ are prepared from stale bread, _i.e._ bread
that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours.
Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of bread
crumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and butter with these
vegetables.
Use a granite, glass, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (See
_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)
SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Recipes for both
fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon
the season can be made.]
1 can or 1 quart tomatoes
1 tablespoonful salt
Dash pepper
3 cupfuls bread crumbs
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain and
peel and cut into pieces.
Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking-
dish. Cover with buttered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at
400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking to
prevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scalloped
dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked.
Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes.
Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1
cupful of the dried crumbs.
TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.--Heat slightly the pan or dish to
be oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub the
heated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory method
because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not
have to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be
wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It is
well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen
for this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory
means of applying melted butter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings to
the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful
cleaning.
Butter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used for
oiling pans or baking-dishes.
QUESTIONS
In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs
before they are buttered. Why?
Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a
fork?
What kind of baking-pan--tin, granite, or earthenware--is best to use for
Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking
Fruits_, p.65)
Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or
peck?
What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck?
How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs?
How many slices in one loaf of bread?
LESSON III
FUELS AND COMBUSTION--SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH
FUEL.--In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This
heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first
requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn, _i.e._ a fuel. The
fuels commonly used in households are,--wood, coal, kerosene, and gas.
Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well
established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat.
HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.--There are fuel substances everywhere,--paper,
cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does
not burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper is
placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it
is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood
and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by
the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood.
All fuels must be heated before they will burn.
When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the
difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some
substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn,
while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require
different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on
the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing
the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The
burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the
temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to
paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The
temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and
continue to burn is called the _kindling temperature_ of that
substance.
DRAFT; OXYGEN.--
EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.--(_a_) Place a short candle on a pan.
Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the
candle continue to burn? Why?
(_b_) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time
support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so
that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of
cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn?
Why?
EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.--Remove the cover from the top of the
chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What
substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why
the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this
experiment.
If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases
to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded
from it. _The act of burning,_ i.e. _combustion, is the union of
any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are
produced._ We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until
heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel
will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third
requisite for combustion.
The necessity for a draft, _i.e._ a continuous supply of fresh air
which furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4.
SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.]
SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.]
Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove the
skin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fat
and heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden
brown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over the
frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve at
once.
BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3]
Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for
serving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (at
right angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell.
Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (at
moderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter,
salt, and pepper.
QUESTIONS
Name the three requisites for combustion.
Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain your
answer.
What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind of
squash is required to serve 6 persons?
LESSON IV
COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The principles of building
a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and
heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cooking
or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the
pupils, this lesson may be omitted]--CORN DISHES