Calvin's Civil Legislation.
For a long time Calvin's able and vigorous scheme of
ecclesiastical polity was accompanied by practical success at
Geneva. Public order and morality were placed under careful
supervision. Gaming-houses were prohibited; and in order to keep
the citizens out of taverns, which were at that time greatly
frequented, Calvin proposed the establishment of 'clubs open only
to members of the association, in which young men, and fathers of
families, could meet and discuss matters relating to the war, and
other things useful to the commonwealth.' Four such clubs were
immediately established. All gross immorality and coarse abuse of
the evangelical religion and worship were punished, and so were
all drunkards, men and women who led evil lives, and midnight
brawlers. In a little municipal republic, with a small
population, the character of individual members, and all facts
connected with them, were generally so well known that any abuse
of power was difficult. The pastors, if they were not active in
the discharge of their duty, or did not lead a good life, were
suspended, or even banished. There was perfect accordance between
the Venerable Company, the Consistory and the Council; and, on
the whole, the public approved of and supported all the steps
taken in concert by the civil and religious rulers.
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But although Calvin's system was righteously conceived and
carried out, his thoughts and legislation were influenced by two
false notions which soon proved fatal; for when truth and error
are blindly united, the evil will assuredly be developed, and
will compromise the good. Calvin's religious system for the
evangelical church almost entirely overlooked individual liberty.
He desired to regulate private life in accordance with the laws
of morality and by means of the powers of the State; to penetrate
all social and family life, and the soul of every man, and to
restrict individual responsibility within an ever-narrowing
circle. In the relation of the evangelical church to the State,
he asserted and carried out the principle adopted in the Catholic
Church, the right of the spiritual power to appeal to the secular
arm in order to suppress and punish those offences against
religion recognised by the State; that is, impiety and heresy.
Calvin thus denied and violated the rights of conscience and
personal liberty in private life and in matters of religion,--a
deplorable but natural consequence of his contempt for, and
denial of man's free-will in his general doctrine.
In spite of the enthusiasm which had been called forth by
Calvin's return, the Libertines, whether sceptical or licentious,
of noble or simple birth, soon began to manifest their
discontent. They responded to the meddlesome interference and
demands of the magistrates, in matters of faith and religious
ordinances, by persistent coldness or insolent contempt.
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'What a pleasant thing it is to see the delightful liberty that
there is in this city!' said a refugee from Lyons, who had not
long previously arrived in Geneva: 'Yes!' answered a woman,
'formerly they made us go to mass, and now they make us go to
church.' A man was found in the streets on horseback during the
hours of divine service: 'Why are you not at church?' said one of
the municipal officers: 'Oh!' said he, 'is there room enough in
church for my horse and me?' A peasant said, 'My faith and
religion are a block of wood, and I am cutting them into chips.'
Another heard an ass braying, and called out, 'What a fine psalm
he's singing!' A young man presented an account-book to his
betrothed, and said, 'Madam, this is your best hymn-book.' These
words were repeated, and the speakers prosecuted and punished.
One of them was even banished from the city. Disorderly conduct
and language were guarded against and repressed with watchful
severity. M. Gaberel, the learned and judicious author of the
history of the Church of Geneva, whilst he relates these facts
with scrupulous impartiality, adds: 'The most vigilant of
police-forces failed to discover more than eleven offences
against public worship between 1541 and 1546; a country deserves
warm praise in which religious feeling leaves so little room for
transgression.' [Footnote 92]
[Footnote 92: Gaberel, i. 356-367.]
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The remark is just; nevertheless, it is not so much the number as
the nature of these rigorous puerilities which gives such a
vexatious character to arbitrary power, and excites irritation
that, sooner or later, is sure to become contagious. There is no
doubt that there was a great improvement in the moral and social
condition of Geneva at this period, that good order and good
conduct were restored both in public and domestic life, and that
Calvin's government was infinitely superior to that of his
adversaries; but his unwarrantable interference in private life,
and his contempt for the rights of individuals, furnished his
enemies with dangerous weapons and prepared grave perils which he
had afterwards to encounter.
These perils from within were augmented by dangers from without,
in the attacks of an anti-Christian or sceptical pantheism, which
sought to disguise its immorality and anarchy under the name of
liberty. At this period pantheistic doctrines were taught on the
banks of the Rhine, in some of the great cities of western
Europe, as Antwerp and Lille, and they had even penetrated the
little court of Nérac, where Queen Margaret of Navarre, who had
formerly befriended many reformers, and even Calvin himself, now
granted hospitality to some of the advocates of these views, thus
showing more liberality than discretion. The sect assumed the
name of 'Spiritual Libertines.' Their tenets were soon made known
at Geneva, where they obtained prompt recognition from the local
and practical Libertines. Calvin was not one who could remain
indifferent and inactive in the presence of new germs of impiety
and immorality. In 1544 he published a pamphlet _Against that
fantastic and furious sect of Libertines who call themselves
Spiritual_. 'How is it possible,' said he, 'that I should
condemn the Pope and his accomplices, and should nevertheless
pardon these men who are much greater enemies of God and more
hostile to his truth?
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For, after all, the Pope does leave some form of religion; he
does not rob men of the hope of eternal life; he instructs them
in the fear of God, and shows the difference between good and
evil; he acknowledges our Lord Jesus Christ to be very God and
very man, and recognises the authority of the Word of God. But
the whole aim of these men is to confound together heaven and
earth, to destroy all religion whatsoever, to efface all
knowledge of the spiritual nature of man, to deaden his
conscience, and obliterate all distinction between men and
brutes.' [Footnote 93]
[Footnote 93: Calvini Opera, vii. 162 (1868).]
Queen Margaret complained to Calvin of this violent attack upon
men whom she honoured with her protection and favour. He
answered: 'My intention, Madam, was in no wise to seek to
diminish your honour, or lessen the respect which every believer
ought to feel for you. For I say that true believers owe you more
reverence than that which is your due from all men, on account of
the majesty to which our Lord has exalted you, the royal house
from which you have sprung, and your great excellence in the
things which pertain to this world. For those who know me are
well aware that I am not such a savage, nor so inhuman as to
despise and seek to inspire contempt for princes and nobles, and
that which belongs to the order and government of this world. But
I behold the most pernicious and execrable sect that ever existed
in this world. I see what destruction they are causing, and that
they are a fire kindled to scathe and destroy everything, a
contagion which will infect the whole earth, unless some remedy
be found. Since our Lord has called me to the position which I
occupy, my conscience constrains me to resist them so far as it
is in my power. A dog will bark if he sees his master attacked,
and should I not be a cowardly wretch if I could see God's truth
assailed and stand silent, and utter no word?' [Footnote 94]
[Footnote 94: _Calvin, Lettres Françaises_, i. 109-117
(1864).]
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Calvin never remained silent and indifferent on any occasion when
he thought that God's truth was assailed, and these occasions
were constantly arising. He was labouring to secure the
ascendency of Christian faith and morality in the public and
private life of the Genevese, in their deeds and words, in their
houses and the streets of their city; but at the same time the
love of intellectual liberty and practical licence was springing
up throughout the republic, and many were most anxious to throw
off the yoke of the reformer. Calvin was aided and supported
throughout this contest by the two religious organizations which
he had instituted--the Venerable Company and the Consistory; he
possessed numerous and warm adherents in the various public
councils and among all classes of the population; but he had also
bitter enemies. Perhaps the most serious dangers he had to
encounter arose from those prudent or timid men, who, being
short-sighted or weak-hearted, were alarmed at his moral severity
and oppressive exercise of ecclesiastical power. After having
supported him against his enemies, they would uphold some claim
of individual or civil liberty in opposition to him. In the space
of three years, from 1546 to 1549, there were seven or eight
occasions on which Calvin came into collision either with
aristocratic pretensions or popular prejudices, in cases which
made a great noise in so small a republic.
{272}
In 1546 a manufacturer of playing-cards, Pierre Ameaux, and his
wife Benoite, not only openly declared themselves to be
materialists, but carried out the principles they had adopted in
their own licentious lives. The woman was summoned before the
Consistory, and condemned to imprisonment. Her husband forsook
her and obtained a divorce from her, but he continued to lead an
immoral life and to declaim against Calvin. 'He is a bad man,'
said he, 'a wicked Picard, who has been teaching false doctrines
for seven years. It is we who hold the true doctrine, as I can
prove. He wants to make himself a bishop, and the magistrates do
nothing without consulting him. I could tell you things that
would astonish you, and all in good time I will make them known.'
Ameaux was summoned before the Consistory, and imprisoned; but
the Two Hundred disapproved of the sentence, and elected him a
member of the lower Council. There was a division between the two
powers. Calvin and the pastors declared that if it was decided
that Ameaux's fault was so trivial, and that they were suspected
of having preached false doctrine for seven years, they would
insist on being brought to trial. The Council hereupon revoked
their resolution in favour of Ameaux, and condemned him to the
punishment known as the _amende honorable_; that is, he was
to walk through all the principal parts of the town in his shirt,
bare-headed and with a lighted torch in his hand, and to end by
making a public confession and expressing sorrow for his faults,
upon his knees.
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Theatrical representations were a favourite amusement of the
Genevese populace. But they were now rarely indulged in; and,
during this same year, certain performances were proposed. Calvin
approved of the first piece, entitled 'A History for the
Edification of the People,' 'provided one scene was suppressed,
in which shopkeepers were ridiculed and traduced.' Indeed, so
great was his toleration that the evening sermon was postponed on
account of the length of the theatricals. A month later
permission was asked for the representation of a second piece,
entitled 'The Acts of the Apostles.' The manuscript of the play
was submitted to Calvin, who said, 'Those who desire the
performance of this play ought rather to devote their money to
works of charity. What I say is not so much by way of censure as
of remonstrance; we ought first of all to spend our money for the
good of our neighbours.' In spite of this remonstrance, however,
the Council sanctioned the performance, adding, 'and, as it will
be very edifying, debtors may, for four days, have free admission
to see the aforesaid story acted.' One of the pastors, Calvin's
colleague, was much more strict, and preached in St. Peter's
church against the proposed play in strong terms. 'The women,' he
said, 'who mount the stage to perform that false scene are
shameless creatures; those who are handsome go to exhibit their
beauty, and the ugly ones to show off their finery and their
magnificent satins and gold. All this display excites evil
thoughts and profligate talk among the spectators.' The subject
was again laid before the Council, and Calvin generously
supported his colleague, declaring that he held precisely the
same opinions as those expressed in the sermon. This time,
however, the Council persisted in its toleration, and the play
was performed; but, at the request of the pastors, the
magistrates refused to sanction any further representations
'until the time was more favourable for them.'
{274}
After the theatricals the subject of dancing was discussed. In
spite of the ecclesiastical ordinances, a grand ball had been
given, accompanied by excesses, in which several of the most
important families in the city took part; among others that of
the former syndic Ami Perrin, who had at one time been one of
Calvin's adherents. Gaberel says: 'A memoir still exists which
gives a detailed account of these extraordinary amusements, and
from this terrible record it appears that the dances then
performed in private houses would not be tolerated at the present
day in the height of the most disorderly carnival.' [Footnote 95]
[Footnote 95: Gaberel, _Pièces justificatives_, p. 249.
The memorial, addressed to the King of Navarre by Dancau, is
in the library of Geneva.]
The syndic Amblard had been also present at the ball, but he
confessed his fault, listened to Calvin's remonstrances, and
still remained his faithful friend; he even declared that it was
only just that the rich should be punished as well as the poor.
But Madame Perrin was not of such a meek disposition. No sooner
had Calvin begun to address her, than she flew into a violent
passion, and broke into invective and abuse. 'Oh, you wicked
man!' said she, 'you would like to drink the blood of our family;
but you will be turned out of Geneva before we are.' Calvin
answered, 'Remember that you are a woman, and that you disgrace
yourself by speaking in such a manner; you have banished every
feeling of modesty from your thoughts and manners, but your
temper will not prevent the Consistory from doing its duty.
{275}
If there were as many crowns as there are empty heads in your
family, you would not be able to change the current of
ecclesiastical discipline. Build a new city if you want to live
after your own fashion; but so long as you are in Geneva your
efforts to shake off the yoke, of the Gospel will be in vain.' In
consequence of this scene, Madame Perrin was imprisoned for
several days, and from that time the cordial friendship which had
united her husband to the reformer was replaced by implacable
hatred.
Whatever was the object, and wherever the locality of the
contest, whether in street or parlour, against an excited mob, or
face to face with angry friends, whether to establish order or to
uphold morality, Calvin's indomitable courage never failed. In
1547 a former canon, Jacques Gruet, one of the foremost
Libertines, who had, according to the historians, 'concentrated
all his hatred upon Calvin,' was one day seen loitering about St.
Peter's church and going into it. A paper, evidently addressed to
Calvin, was found in the pulpit: 'Pot-belly, you and your
companions had better hold your tongues, for if you irritate us
too far we will crush you to powder. When men have suffered more
than they can bear, vengeance is at hand. ... We will not have so
many masters.' Gruet was arrested, and his papers were seized.
Among them were some that were grossly blasphemous, ridiculing
and attacking the Christian religion; [Footnote 96] whilst, on
the other hand, there were proofs of his correspondence with the
Court of Savoy, and of his willingness to betray the republic,
and gratify, at the expense of the national independence, his
hatred of Calvin, and the system which he had established.
[Footnote 96: Papers were found in his own handwriting in
which he spoke of our Lord Jesus Christ and his apostles in
the most blasphemous and offensive manner. 'The Word of God,'
he said, 'is worth nothing, any more than those who made it.
The Gospel is only a tissue of lies; there is less in it than
in Æsop's Fables, except false and absurd doctrine.' (Henry,
vol. ii. Appendix, 121; Gaberel, i. 391.) I have suppressed
his coarse and violent language, which would be painfully
offensive to every religious and moral nature.]
{276}
Gruet was tried, condemned, and executed as a blasphemer and
traitor to his country. After his apprehension he was repeatedly
put to the torture, but he refused to name any accomplices. A
warning, however, came from the Pays de Vaud, in consequence of
which the Genevese Council was informed that 'more than twenty
persons had bound themselves by oath to throw Calvin into the
Rhone.' The indignation of the faithful, and the irritation of
the Libertines, had reached the highest point; and both
indignation and irritation broke out at a meeting of the Two
Hundred on the 16th of December, 1547. They had been called
together on account of new complaints made by the pastors of 'the
insolence, debauchery, dissolute manners, and enmity which tend
to the ruin of this city.' Fresh proceedings had been instituted
against the former syndic, Ami Perrin, but he had been acquitted
for want of proof against him, though deprived of his official
employment. Libertines and reformers were present at the meeting
in about equal numbers; the debate was transformed into a tumult,
and violent threats were uttered against the pastors and the
Consistory. Some of their friends, terrified at the proceedings,
left hastily to warn Calvin and his colleagues not to attend the
meeting of the Council.
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'Wait a few moments for me,' said Calvin, and went out alone,
walked direct to the Hôtel de Ville, and entered the meeting
unexpectedly. He was received with loud outcries, and it is said
that several swords were drawn. He said: 'I know that I am the
chief cause of your quarrels, and if blood must be shed to
appease them, take my life, for I call God to witness that I am
come to expose myself to your swords.' There is sometimes one
happy moment in which courage conquers anger; the Council grew
calm, the members took their seats, and Calvin continued: 'There
is nothing except religion which can make you free, and secure
your liberty; but in order to obtain this you must be united, and
if my presence is an insuperable obstacle to the maintenance of
peace, I will leave the city, and will pray to God that those men
who desire to live without Christianity and law may save the
republic, and maintain its prosperity.' The reaction was as
sudden as the explosion. The Council voted oblivion of the past,
and the reconciliation of the opponents. Calvin and one of his
colleagues made the first advance: 'Gentlemen,' said they, 'the
Lord's Supper is at hand: we wish to unite all hearts, and we
desire to offer the hand of friendship to M. Ami Perrin, and we
beg, gentlemen, that you will reinstate him in his office of
councillor.' 'As for me,' answered Perrin, 'I bring no complaint
against any one, I do not wish evil to any one, and I desire to
live in peace.' Three months later he was restored to office, and
the opponents, whether Christians or Libertines, for a short time
imagined themselves to be reconciled.
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