TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555).
THE PARTIES IN GERMANY, 1532-1542.--For ten years after the Peace of
_Nuremberg_, the Protestants in Germany were left unmolested. The
menacing attitude of the _Turks_, and the occupations of the
emperor in Italy and in other lands, rendered it impossible to
interfere with them. _Philip_, the Landgrave of Hesse, a
chivalrous Protestant prince, led the way in the armed restoration of
Duke _Ulrich of Würtemberg_, who had been driven out of his
dominion. Thus a Protestant prince was established in the heart of
Southern Germany (1534). In _Westphalia_, a fanatical branch of
the Anabaptist sect at _Münster_, with whom the Lutherans did not
sympathize, was broken up by the neighboring Catholic princes. The
overthrow of the power of _Lübeck_ and of the Hanseatic League
did not check the advance of Lutheranism. It continued to make great
progress in different directions. The _Smalcald League_ was
extended. A _league_ of the Catholic states was formed at
_Nuremberg_ in 1538. During three years (1538-1541) efforts were
made by the emperor to secure peace and union. Of these the Conference
and Diet of _Ratisbon_ in 1541 is the most remarkable. The
Protestants and Catholics could not agree upon statements of doctrine;
but the necessity of getting Protestant help against the Turks
compelled _Charles_ to sanction the Peace of _Nuremberg_,
and to make to the Lutherans other important concessions. This
arrangement the emperor regarded as only a temporary truce. Among the
conquests of Protestantism after the Peace of _Nuremberg_, and
prior to 1544, were _Brandenburg_ and _Ducal Saxony_, whose
rulers adopted the new doctrine. It was spreading in _Austria_,
in _Bavaria_, and in other states. Duke _Henry of Brunswick_
fell into conflict with the Smalcaldic League, and was conquered, so
that his principality became Protestant. Even the ecclesiastical
elector of _Cologne_ was taking steps towards joining the
Protestant side. This would have given to the Lutherans a majority in
the electoral college. The bishoprics with temporal power were
numerous in Germany. If they were secularized, the old religious
system would be deprived of a principal support.
THE SMALCALDIC WAR.--_Charles V_. was now secretly resolved to
coerce the Protestants in Germany, and silently made his preparations
for war. Before hostilities commenced, _Luther_ died (1546). The
emperor concluded the _Peace of Crespy_, after a fourth war with
_Francis I_. It was a part of the agreement, that they should act
jointly against the heretics. But as _Francis_ in the last two
wars against the emperor (1536-1538, 1542-1544) had taken for allies
the Turks under _Soliman_, it could not be predicted how long he
would abide by his engagements. For the present, _Charles_ was
safe in this quarter. He now took pains to shut the eyes of the
Protestant princes to their danger. The Smalcaldic League was
over-confident of its strength. Its members were discordant among
themselves. Of the two chief leaders, the elector of Saxony, _John
Frederic_, was a slow and unskillful general; and _Philip_,
the Landgrave of Hesse, a brave and capable soldier, could not take
command over an elector. Above all, _Maurice_, the Duke of
Saxony, was in the midst of a quarrel with his relative, the elector,
and coveted a part of his territories. _Maurice_ was an able and
adroit man, a Protestant, but without the earnest religious
convictions that belonged to the electors and to that generation of
princes which was passing away. _Maurice_ was won by the emperor,
through promises of enrichment and favor, and pledges not to interfere
with religion in his principality. _Charles_ might have been
prevented from bringing in foreign troops from the Netherlands and
from Italy, but the military conduct of the elector was feeble and
indecisive. He was defeated and captured in 1547 at _Mühlberg_,
and the surrender of the Landgrave _Philip_ soon followed. The
Protestant cause was prostrate. The clever _Maurice_ had his
reward: the electoral office was transferred to him; he obtained a
goodly portion of the elector's territory.
THE RESULT: THE INTERIM.--_Charles_ was victorious, and
apparently master of Germany. The country was occupied by his forces
as far north as the Elbe. He was engaged in the work of pacification
and of confirming his authority. In 1548 he issued the _Interim of
Augsburg_, in which concessions were made to both parties, which
proved satisfactory to neither. Skillful as the emperor was in
diplomacy, he always showed weakness in dealing with the religious
question. He proceeded to force the new measure on the refractory
cities in the South. In the North it had little effect. _Maurice_
modified it in his own dominion. When _Charles_ seemed to himself
to be on the eve of a complete triumph, he was deserted by the allies
on whom he counted,--_Rome_, _France_, and the princes,
especially _Maurice_.
BREACH OF CHARLES WITH ROME.--The emperor's assuming to regulate the
affairs of religion was regarded with disfavor at Rome. There had been
a constant call for a general council to adjust the religious
controversies. Rome, from fear of imperial influence, and for other
reasons, had opposed the measure. At length, in 1545, the famous
_Council of Trent_ assembled. The emperor wanted that body to
begin with measures for the reformation of abuses. He looked for
co-operation in his scheme for uniting the parties in Germany. But the
council took another path: it began with anathemas against the
heretical doctrines. Charles found himself at variance with the policy
of Rome, at the moment when he was trying to bring Germany to
submission.
DISAFFECTION OF MAURICE.--The emperor's course in Germany produced
general alarm. He separated the _Netherlands_ from the
jurisdiction of the empire, but settled the succession in the
government in the house of _Hapsburg_. He drove the Diet into
other measures which looked towards the acquiring of military
supremacy for himself in Germany. He violated his pledges respecting
the two captive princes. _Philip_ of Hesse, the father-in-law of
_Maurice_, he treated with great severity and indignity. Threats
were thrown out by the counselors of _Charles_ against the other
princes, and even against _Maurice_, who complained of the
treatment of _Philip_, and was sore under the load of
unpopularity that rested on him on account of his warfare against his
co-religionists, by whom he was considered another Judas.
THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG.--_Maurice_ laid his plans with secrecy and
with masterly skill. He secured the coöperation of other German
princes. He concluded an alliance with _Henry II_. of France. He
arranged with _Magdeburg_, which he had been besieging, to make
it a place of refuge if there should be need of an asylum. When all
was ready, without having excited any suspicion on the part of
_Charles_, he suddenly took the field, marched southward with an
army that increased as he advanced, crossed the Alps, and forced the
emperor, tormented with the gout, to fly hastily from _Innsbruck_
(1552). The captive princes were released. It was decided that Germany
was not to be ruled by Spanish soldiery. The dream of imperial
domination vanished. The Protestants were promised by _Ferdinand_
of Austria, in the name of his brother, toleration, and equality of
rights. At the Diet of _Augsburg_ in 1555, the _Religious
Peace_ was concluded. Every prince was to be allowed to choose
between the Catholic religion and the Augsburg Confession, and the
religion of the prince was to be that of the land over which he
reigned: that is, each government was to choose the creed for its
subjects. Ferdinand put in the "ecclesiastical reservation," which
provided that if the head of an ecclesiastical state should become a
Lutheran, he should resign his benefice. He also declared that the
Lutheran subjects of ecclesiastical princes were not to be
disturbed. The "reservation" was to please the Catholics: the
additional provision was to meet the wishes of the
Protestants. Neither stood on the same basis as the other part of the
treaty.
From Maurice the electoral dignity descended in the _Albertine_
line of Saxon princes. The _Ernestine_ line retained Weimar,
Gotha, etc.