and Herat; who rule as at Cabool and Peshawur. They complete the number
of governments into which the monarchy has been dismembered; and, after
our more minute accounts of the two other chiefships, do not require
much notice. Candahar is in the possession of a branch of the Barukzye
family, and Herat is ruled by Kamran, the son of King Mahmood of Cabool.
~Chiefships of Candahar.~
It has been already mentioned that Shere Dil Khan fled from Cabool
to Candahar; and formed the present chiefship, with the spoil of his
nephew. He was a man of singular habits, in some respects resembling
his brother, Futteh Khan; but morose as well as cruel. They give an
anecdote of his lopping off the finger of one of his boys, telling
him at the same time, if he cried, that he could not be his child, or
a Barukzye. The young fellow bore it with great patience. Shere Dil
Khan, in his flight to Candahar, was accompanied by four brothers. He
himself is since dead, as also one of his brothers. Candahar is now
governed by Cohun Dil Khan, supported by his two surviving brothers,
Ruhum Dil and Meer Dil. The revenues amount to about eight lacs of
rupees; his force consists of 9000 horse, and six pieces of artillery;
but, as the city is situated in the heart of the Dooranee country,
and near the native seat of the Barukzye family, he could, perhaps,
increase his cavalry on an emergency. The government is not popular,
nor would it appear, from the acts of oppression, that it deserved to
be so. The chief is on bad terms with most of his neighbours. In common
with all his family, he is inimical to Kamran of Herat, and has at
different times attempted to seize that city. He is also at issue with
the chief of Cabool. The connexion between the Peshawur and Candahar
branches of the Barukzyes, is very close and sincere; but their united
efforts will not, in all probability, injure their brother of Cabool.
The Candahar chief also seeks to form a settlement on the Indus; and
has for several years past sent his troops to threaten Shikarpoor in
Sinde. The Ameers of that country have been hitherto able to resist
his attacks; but, as there is an open and easy communication between
Candahar and the Indus, by the pass of Bolan, the chief is not likely
to discontinue his endeavours in that quarter. In a disorganised state
of Sinde, he might easily possess himself of Shikarpoor; and such a
state of events seems by no means improbable in the country of the
Ameers. The chief of Candahar would gladly interest the ruler of the
Punjab in his cause; but it is not probable that he will procure his
assistance, as he himself looks upon Shikarpoor with an eye of cupidity.
~Government of Herat.~
Herat is the only province of the kingdom of Cabool, now held by a
descendant of the royal family; and the Prince Kamran rules more from
tolerance in his enemies than his own power. He receives no aid from
his countrymen, since the whole of the chiefs in Afghanistan are his
enemies, and desire his destruction, in revenge for the assassination
of their brother Futteh Khan. Herat has, therefore, become a dependency
of Persia. The town itself has of late years been several times entered
by the troops of that nation; and only spared by the ready tender of
money on the part of its governor. It was threatened in September 1832,
by the Prince Royal in person, who made a pecuniary demand; and also
required that the coinage of the city should be struck in the name
of the King of Persia. It is probable that both these requests will
be granted, since Kamran would gladly hold his power on any terms.
The Persians do not appear to contemplate any permanent settlement in
Herat, since it would incur the expense of retaining a force, that
would diminish the tribute now gained from it. Kamran is said to be
in possession of some of the crown jewels of Cabool, and derives a
large revenue from Herat, which is situated in one of the most fertile
countries of the world. By this wealth he is yet able to retain about
his person some of the Afghan chiefs, and can raise a body of 4000
or 5000 horse. He has no political connexions in any quarter; but
still clings to the hope of being able to re-establish the monarchy
of his father. He has the character of a cruel and tyrannical man, is
destitute of friends, and odious to his countrymen.
CHAP. VI.
SUMMARY OF THE AFFAIRS OF CABOOL.
~Remarks on the overthrow of the royal dynasty.~
We have now given a sketch of the events which have occurred in Cabool,
to the fall of the monarchy; and described the several governments
into which it has been divided. Its prosperity as a kingdom seems
almost to have terminated with its founder, Ahmed Shah Dooranee. His
son Timour evinced none of the energy and activity of his parent. Shah
Zuman, his child and successor, defective in education, and cruel in
disposition, succeeded to a government relaxed by a long reign of
indolence. Shah Zuman, and his brothers, Mahmood and Shooja, seem alike
to have forgotten, on their elevation to a throne, that they ruled a
people whose genius was republican. The total overthrow of the dynasty
is universally attributed to the misplaced pride and arrogance of the
last kings, who now receive no sympathy from the Afghans in their
overthrow. Shooja, indeed, might have regained his power, but for his
rash attempts to exercise the authority of king, before he was firmly
fixed in it. The Afghans cannot control their feelings of jealousy
towards men in power; and this universal envy has dethroned their kings
and butchered their nobles. There is not a person of note, that figures
in their history for the last thirty years, who has died a natural
death. To be happy under any government, they must either be ruled by a
vigorous despot, or formed into many small republics.
~Improbabilities of restoring it.~
All the institutions of the Afghans are favourable to a republic; and
the supremacy of the Barukzye family in Cabool is acceptable to the
people; and I even think favourable to the prosperity of the country.
It is by far the greatest clan of the Dooranees, amounting to about
60,000 families, which will enable it to maintain its authority. The
late royal family of the Sudozyes, on the other hand, were few in
number, and looked for support to other tribes. Of these, the principal
were the Barukzyes. Hajee Jumal, the most influential of its chiefs,
willingly bowed to the authority of Ahmed Shah; and contributed to fix
him on his throne. The successors of that monarch rewarded his services
by the murder of his son Poynda Khan; and we have related the atrocious
assassination of his grandson the Vizier. Had the royal house treated
these benefactors with justice, and their subjects with moderation,
they might still have reigned in peace. The hatred of this family to
the house of Cabool, and the cause which excites it (the assassination
of two of their chiefs), forbid the belief that the Barukzyes will
ever consent to their restoration. It is certain that the aid of no
other tribe can avail them, for the whole wealth of the country is
in the hands of their enemies; and the bulk of the people view their
misfortunes with indifference, since it is believed they have drawn
them upon themselves. It is evident, therefore, that the restoration of
either Shooja ool Moolk, or Kamran, is an event of the most improbable
nature. The dynasty of the Sudozyes has passed away, unless it be
propped up by foreign aid; and it would be impossible to reclaim the
lost provinces of the empire, without a continuation of the same
assistance. It is more difficult to revive than to raise a dynasty; and
in the common chain of events, if the country is to be ruled by another
king, we must look for another family to establish its power in Cabool;
and this, in all probability, will be the Barukzyes.
~Relative power of Cabool and Persia.~
At present, there is no connexion of a political nature between the
states in Cabool and any foreign power. The Persians have long talked
vaingloriously of invading the country, but if there were no treachery
on the part of the Kuzzilbash guards, at Cabool, they could not
certainly make an impression on the kingdom. In a general war, the
enmity between the different houses would probably be forgotten, and
the united force of the Barukzyes alone amounts to about 30,000 horse.
While we were in Cabool, the chief received a notice from his brother
at Candahar, who had been threatened by an ambassador from the Persian
camp. The reply of Dost Mahommed Khan was characteristic:--“When the
Persians come, let me know, and as I am now your enemy, will I then
be your friend.” The natural strength of Cabool is its best barrier
against a successful invasion by an Asiatic power, and if we look
to the expedition of Nadir Shah, we are to remember that he was
accompanied by many Afghan chiefs, whom he had advanced to favour, and
who largely participated in his acquisitions, and the spoils he gained
from others.
The political state of Cabool, as a kingdom, becomes at all times an
object of the deepest importance to India, from the many changes which
constantly take place in that country. Of its four chiefships, one
is subject to the Punjab, and another to Persia. The chief of Cabool
himself is a man of enlightened views, and may secure a thorough
supremacy over the country, on the death of Runjeet Sing. It would
not be difficult for him to subdue Peshawur, and he might then seize
the provinces on the Indus, and very probably Cashmere. He is a man
favourably disposed towards the British Government, as indeed are the
whole chiefs of the kingdom. They were not in power when the British
mission entered the country in 1809, but our reputation was then
established, and the good opinion of all parties has been acquired by
our immediate withdrawal afterwards. That circumstance, it is true,
was unavoidable; but it has left impressions most favourable to our
disinterestedness. In Cabool, therefore, it would not be difficult to
form a connexion; and the chief is certainly worthy of notice, since
his country lies on the great road by which the manufactures of Britain
are imported, and which of late have been considerably increased by
his equity and justice. It would require no great expenditure of the
public funds to conciliate this chief; and, it is to be remembered,
that he is in possession of the most important position in Asia, as
regards the protection of British India. Had circumstances brought
us into an alliance with Cabool instead of Persia, we might have now
possessed more trusty and useful allies, nearer home, than we can boast
of in that country. We also should have never incurred a tenth of the
expenditure, which has been so freely lavished in Persia.
CHAP. VII.
ON THE POWER OF KOONDOOZ.
~Chiefship of Koondooz.~
~Its extent.~
The territories of Koondooz lie between Cabool and Bokhara. I shall
comprehend under that designation all which I have to say on the
countries, north of Hindoo Koosh, and south of the Oxus, as far
westward as the city of Balkh. These limits bound a chiefship, which is
ruled by an Uzbek family that has lately extended its power, and is now
possessed of great influence in these countries. This is the tribe of
Kutghun; the name of the chief is Mahommed Moorad Beg, and Meer is the
title by which he is known to his subjects. At no late period the tribe
was confined to the canton of Koondooz, but this chief has established
a power over all the neighbouring states; he holds Khooloom, Heibuk,
Ghoree, Inderab, Talighan, and Huzrut-Imam, and is master of the valley
of the Upper Oxus, and its tributary rivers. The city of Balkh has
likewise been in his hands; he contented himself with sacking it, and
marching off a great part of the population to his other conquests.
He has also reduced the whole kingdom of Budukhshan, and is at present
engaged in operations against the hill states north of the Oxus. The
district of Koolab, which is one of these, and lies between Durwaz and
Shughnan, is already in his possession. His power extends south to
Syghan, within thirty miles of Bameean, and across two of the passes of
Hindoo Koosh.
~Rise of Moorad Beg.~
The population of the territory consists chiefly of Tajiks, the
aborigines of the country, who form the entire body of the people in
Budukhshan. The Uzbeks bear a very small proportion to them.
The chief of Koondooz attained his present ascendancy on the death of
Khilich Ali Beg, a well-known Uzbek chief, who long ruled in Balkh, as
a nominal tributary to the crown of Cabool. Moorad Beg, of Koondooz,
held a secondary command under this chief.
At his death, which occurred more than eight years since, Moorad Beg
entered into intrigues with the different members of his family; and
finally succeeded in establishing his own authority. The sons of
Khilich Ali Beg now govern Khooloom and Heibuk as his vassals. The
Kutghuns have always possessed influence among the Uzbeks, but Moorad
Beg is the first of his family, or of his countrymen, who has formed
so extensive a principality. The tribe is of Moghul extraction, as it
is termed, since they and the Kalmuks descend from one stock. They
entered on their present seats in the 16th century, with the great
Uzbek nation, that expelled the descendants of Timour from their
paternal kingdom. Koondooz appears to have been the utmost limit of
invasion, since the Uzbeks have not settled in Budukhshan, or south
of Hindoo Koosh. The government of the present chief may be viewed as
tolerably well consolidated: his measures are vigorous.
~Policy and power of the chief.~
The Meer of Koondooz owes much of his power to the policy which he has
pursued towards those whom he has subjected. He retains the former
chiefs in authority, but stipulates for a contingent of troops, and the
maintenance of a portion of his own in the country, at their expense.
He thus increases his strength, and provides for the protection of
his newly acquired conquests, without danger of revolt. His united
forces amounted to about 20,000 horse, and six pieces of artillery,
one of which is a thirty-six pounder. He has no infantry, for the
Uzbeks despise that branch of an army, and know as little of the use
of cannon, though the possession of guns seems to secure a victory. I
must, however, mention, to the credit of the chief, that he has dragged
the great gun to Sarbagh, fifty miles into Hindoo Koosh. This piece
of ordnance was brought from Persia by Nadir Shah, who took the route
of Meshid, Shurukhs, and Meimuna, to Balkh,--a practical proof of the
goodness of the road, and the calibre by which it may be traversed.
The cavalry carry spears of an unwieldy size; some have matchlocks,
but a great part are ill armed and accoutred, though much superior
to those who oppose them. He supports these troops by an allowance
of grain, and retains all the commanders, and a portion of the men,
in constant attendance upon his person. Moorad Beg leads a life of
great activity, and takes the field in person; he constantly sends
his horse on excursions of plunder and capture, (as they are called,
“Chupawul,”) north of the Oxus, in the neighbourhood of Balkh, and the
country of the Huzaras. As the people there are Shiah Mahommedans,
they are seized without mercy, and distributed or sold into slavery. A
supply of these unfortunate wretches is also derived from Chitral, a
hill state, east of Budukhshan, the chief of which pays his tribute in
human beings. He excepts the caravans which pass through his territory
from these attacks, and also guards against exactions from the chiefs
whom he has rendered tributary. He holds little or no communication
with neighbouring powers. With the Chinese authorities in Yarkund,
to which there is a considerable trade, there has been an exchange of
presents, and the Koondooz chief once sent an ambassador regarding the
protection of the roads, which were infested by robbers from beyond the
Oxus. With the king at Bokhara there is no cordiality, for they are
mutually afraid of each other. Moorad Beg makes constant irruptions
into the provinces of Balkh, and the Governor of that city seeks his
safety in flight. The Afghans are separated from Koondooz by a great
chain of mountains, and the country to the eastward of Budukhshan is
equally rugged, and cut off by the lofty mountains of Beloot. The chief
of Koondooz has nevertheless crossed this range, and attacked Chitral.
He has also at times made inroads into the country of the Siahpoosh
Kaffirs, who dwell on Hindoo Koosh; but his last campaign, in this
quarter, about four years since, was not of an encouraging nature. The
Kaffirs allowed the troops to advance into the mountains, and then
attacked them. A snow storm ensued, and out of 4000 horse, one half
were unable to extricate themselves, and fell a sacrifice to their
temerity.
~Revenues of Koondooz.~
The revenue of this principality is paid in grain. There is abundance
of it and the necessaries of life; but money is exceedingly
scarce. Nothing proves this so satisfactorily as the coinage now in
circulation, which is of an Emperor of Delhi, prior to the age of
Nadir. Many foreign luxuries are derived from Bokhara, by sending
slaves and cattle to its market. Under such circumstances, it is
difficult to form any correct estimate of the revenues of Koondooz.
Moorad Beg is considered wealthy for an Uzbek. He demands one third
of the productions of the soil from his subjects. Koondooz itself is
rich in rice; and much silk is produced on the banks of the Oxus.
Budukhshan, at one time so fruitful and fertile a country, is almost
depopulated; and has severely felt the power of Koondooz. The ruler
of it, one of those who claim descent from Alexander the Great, has
been deposed; and a great part of the population driven from their
own beautiful valley to the fens of Koondooz. Budukhshan, therefore,
furnishes no revenue, and is occupied by Uzbek horse, who contribute
to its further desolation. Of its ruby mines I have spoken in another
place. The whole of the affairs of Mahommed Moorad Beg are managed by a
Hindoo named Atmaram, a native of Peshawur, who has the title of Dewan
Begee. He is a person of some talent, and has unlimited influence.
He has risen from the meanest origin. Among the Uzbeks, Hindoos are
despised, and never permitted to wear turbans; but this minister has
not only secured the privilege for himself, but for all his servants
and tribe who live with him. He has about 400 slaves in his household,
the gift of an indulgent master, and has also enriched himself to a
great extent; but his merits entitle him to the reward. The Uzbeks are
incapable of conducting matters of state; for, except the priests,
they are without education. Moorad Beg has therefore evinced the most
unerring proof of his own superiority in the selection of such a man
to conduct his government. It is to him that the merchant owes the
protection of his property; and that the chief himself reigns without a
rival in the countries which he has subdued.
~Character of Moorad Beg.~
Since much depends on the personal qualities of a chief who rules a
country composed of such materials, we must regard his character with
the greater interest. That of Moorad Beg has many prominent features,
nor is it free from contradiction. He is at once cruel and indulgent:
he encourages every plundering expedition which leaves his country,
and shares the spoil with the barbarians who secure it. Possessed of
power to retain the entire possessions over which he holds a supremacy,
he concedes both property and power, certainly of a limited nature,
to the individuals who, in most Asiatic governments, meet with death.
Except his forced removal of the inhabitants of one province to people
another, and that too a most unhealthy one; and his seizure of the
unfortunate Huzaras and Kaffirs, and their sale as slaves, I have
not heard him accused of any of the flagrant acts of wanton tyranny
and oppression, so common in despotic governments. The trader passes
through the dominions of Koondooz without molestation. The duties are
low; and some articles, such as shawls, are encouraged by an entire
remission. The people were also relieved from the payment of the tax on
silk at the time we were in Koondooz. The greatest apprehension under
which this chief labours, is a terror of the British name, as was shown
in the harsh treatment of Mr. Moorcroft and our party. He suspects the
conquerors of India, and it will require much to remove his suspicion.
Moorad Beg is about fifty years of age; his stature is tall, and his
features are those of a genuine Uzbek: his eyes are small to deformity;
his forehead broad and frowning; and the whole cast of his countenance
most repulsive. He is not addicted to any excess, and is moderate in
his pleasures. A holy person at Talighan, about thirty-five miles
from his capital, exercises great power over him. In early life he
was indebted to this man for good offices and advice; and there is no
favour that he might sue for which would now be refused. He has lately
given one of his daughters in marriage to his son. Moorad Beg has two
sons, one of them a promising lad of eighteen.
CHAP. VIII.
SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF BOKHARA.
~Early history of Bokhara.~
I procured five manuscripts on the history of Bokhara during my
residence in that country. It would be foreign to my design to give
the voluminous contents of these works; nor do I feel impressed with a
belief that the interest of their contents would reward the notice of
a general reader: I have handed them over to that flourishing society
the Oriental Translation Fund, from whom I have an assurance that it
will use every means to make them known to Oriental scholars. Bokhara,
in early ages, is described under the name of Bykune, a city still to
be traced in its vicinity, and connected by fable or truth with the
well-known name of Afrasiab. The country is there stated to have been
a marsh overgrown with reeds, and fed by the ice and snow which melted
in the hills of Samarcand. It is said to have been a hunting thicket,
and so marshy in many places, that a camel could not pass it. Such is
the language of the native historians. An intercourse was then kept
up with the Emperor of China, who gave his daughter to the ruler of
Bokhara: but with this fair partner followed the inroads of the Toorks,
which appear to have always desolated this country. We are next brought
to the age of Islam and the inroads of the Arabs, who contended with a
Queen, or Khatoon, famed as an idolater, but equally for her love of
justice; which is yet commemorated by popular songs. Her son embraced
the religion of the Faithful, but relented, and was put to death when
the Arabs finally established themselves in Toorkistan. This person
built a grand mosque in the ninety-fourth year of the Hejira (A.D.
716), causing the prayers to be read in Persian, “because it was the
language of the country.”[37] From that time the fame and size of the
city increased; and we hear of the commerce and vast population, the
deeds of the renowned Haroon ool Rusheed, and of Arslan Khan, both
of whom beautified and enriched it. We are also gravely told, on the
authority of the Archangel Gabriel, of the joyful procession with which
its inhabitants would be blessed on the day of judgment.
~From the age of Jengis to the invasion of the Uzbeks.~
Such is the early history of Bokhara, till the destroying Jengis
desolated it with his horde of Tartars in the 622d year of the
Hejira (A.D. 1232). It then appears, by the accounts of its bazars,
buildings, and aqueducts, to have been really a wealthy and fine
capital; but, in common with many great cities, it was overwhelmed by
the destructive hostilities of the Tartar, who swept, with unrelenting
fury from the Caspian to the Indus. In its turn, the kingdom of
Bokhara, ruled by its Ameer, the great Timur, a descendant of the
ferocious Jengis, wreaked its vengeance on neighbouring and distant
nations, and shook the bonds of sovereignty throughout Asia. The deeds
of this hero belong to the history of which I now treat; but the
conquests of Timour, and his enlightened institutes, his martial and
political career, require only a passing notice in this literary age.
His successors, after some generations, were driven from this their
paternal kingdom, and founded the dominion of the Great Moguls in
India, under the valiant Baber, whose present pageant successors yet
live, I cannot call it reign, in Delhi. This last revolution sprang
from the invasion of the Uzbek Tartars; another tribe from the seats of
Jengis, and also related to that conqueror, who crossed the Jaxartes
in the beginning of the sixteenth century, and retain in these times
all the countries of Mawur ool nuhr, or Transoxiana, extending to the
base of Hindoo Koosh. The Uzbeks achieved this great conquest under
Sheibanee Khan and his son. Baber was assisted by the King of Persia;
and Sheibanee Khan was defeated and slain at the battle of Merve.
~Nadir Shah’s inroad to the end of Shah Moorud’s reign.~
The supremacy which the Uzbek race had thus acquired was maintained
in the different kingdoms of Transoxiana, till the invasion of Nadir
Shah, in the early part of the last century. Aboolfuez Khan then ruled
in Bokhara, as Ameer, or Governor, and was acknowledged to be the
hereditary representative of the Uzbeks, who had expelled the house of
Timour, as well as a male descendant of the great Jengis. His Attalik,
or Vizier, Ruheem Khan, an Uzbek of the Mungut tribe, intrigued with
the Persian conqueror, and brought him to the gates of the city. Nadir
spared Bokhara; but the minister put the Ameer to death, and raised up
a son in his stead, to whom he had given his own daughter in marriage.
Him he also murdered. On the death of Ruheem Khan, this cruel and
treacherous minister was succeeded by Danial Beg, an Uzbek of the same
tribe (Mungut), who was distantly related, by marriage, to Aboolfuez
Khan. He pretended to no higher powers than the last minister, and
governed the country in the name of Aboolghazee Khan, a descendant
of the late Ameer and of Jengis. On the death of Danial Beg, his son
Moorad succeeded him as Vizier; and, setting aside the pageant king,
in whose name his father had ruled, proclaimed himself the Ameer of
Bokhara. Shah Moorad reigned seventeen years, and died about the
year 1800. He was greater as a theologian than a ruler; but the name
of Begee Jan, by which he was familiarly known, is much revered by
the Uzbeks, and many singular stories are related regarding him. He
carried on wars with the King of Cabool, and all the neighbouring and
less powerful states. He destroyed the city of Merve, in the desert,
and marched the greater part of its population to Bokhara; but his
deeds contributed little to his fame or the aggrandisement of a
kingdom, which he had usurped. From the time of Shah Moorad, the male
descendants of Jengis Khan have ceased to reign in Bokhara. There are
yet some members of that family in the country who live in poverty and
contempt; and the last King of Bokhara was, I understand, related to
them by the mother’s side.
~Reign of Hyder and the present King Nussier oollah.~
Shah Moorad was succeeded by his son Hyder, commonly called Saeed,
or Pure. He converted his office more into that of a priest than a
king, and his rigid adherence to the Koran, while it has rendered him
illustrious throughout the Mahommedan world, has greatly increased
bigotry and fanaticism in the country which he governed. He viewed
his title as Commander of the Faithful in its literal sense, and
passed the greater portion of his time in endeavouring to correct and
improve the morals of his age. Had his vigils been extended to external
politics, he might have, perhaps, benefited his country; but, after
a long and useless reign of twenty-seven years, he bequeathed (A. D.
1825) to his children a disputed succession, and a kingdom that had
been insulted and encroached upon from every side. His death was the
signal of revolt and civil war among his offspring. Ameer Hoosein, his
son, was proclaimed King, and perished, after a reign of fifty days,
not without suspicion of poison, which was administered by the Koosh
Begee, or minister, who favoured the pretensions of another brother.
He was succeeded by Omar Khan, who seized the reins of government and
the capital. His elder brother, Nussier oollah, or, as he is generally
styled, Buhadoor Khan, had, however, secured the secret influence of
the Koosh Begee, (though avowedly a partisan of Omar,) and prepared to
resist his power with all determination. He seized, as a preliminary
step, on the city of Samarcand, and, marching down upon Bokhara,
possessed himself of the canals and aqueducts which supply it with
water: these he closed, and the city fell into his hands, after a siege
of fifty days; delivered to him, however, by the Koosh Begee, whom he
appointed minister. Omar was placed in confinement; but he fled from
his keepers, and, after wandering to Meshid and Balkh, died of cholera
in Kokan; from which his remains were brought for interment to Bokhara.
Nussier oollah entered on the sovereignty without further resistance.
He put thirty of his brother’s partisans to death, and ordered one of
the principal Bees, or chiefs, to be thrown from the palace-gate, the
usual mode of execution in these countries. His treatment of three
younger brothers was far less justifiable: he sent them to an estate
on the banks of the Oxus, and cruelly ordered them to be murdered,
lest they should cabal against him; and Nussier oollah himself, the
only survivor of six children, now reigns in Bokhara. How little the
practical good worked by the bigoted parent on his unhappy children!
But Nussier oollah has, in some degree (if such be possible), redeemed
himself from the foul and vicious acts by which he secured his throne:
he now rules his subjects with a just and impartial hand, and has
ceased to resort to cruelty or crime in upholding his government, since
he has had no rival in the scene. He has a young and increasing family.
CHAP. IX.
ON THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY POWER OF BOKHARA.
~Importance of the kingdom of Bokhara.~
The importance of Bokhara does not arise from the extent of its
territories, but the position in which they stand. The fame which it
enjoys as a kingdom is to be traced to the days of the Chaghtyes.
It then included all Mawur ool Nuhr, or the country _between_ the
rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, extended to Kharasm and the Caspian, and far
into Khorasan. That age of splendour has long since passed; but the
favourable site of the capital still invests it with a great influence
among the natives of Transoxiana. Situated between the richest regions
of Europe and Asia, and in a tract surrounded by steppes and deserts,
Bokhara becomes the resting place of the merchant and the traveller,
and the centre of an extensive commerce. Viewed either in a military
or political light, its situation is commanding, and in the highest
degree valuable. Blessed with an exuberance of the productions of the
soil, in a land of barrenness it arrests the attention of remote and
neighbouring nations. In former times, it attracted the cupidity of
the Greeks and the Arabian Caliphs. It was overrun by the hordes of
the North; and from it, as a base, the renowned Timour led his legions
victorious to the remote countries of Asia. In modern days, it has
received ambassadors from the emperors of China and Russia, the Sultan
of Constantinople, and the monarchs of Persia and Cabool. It likewise
holds a supremacy among the surrounding Uzbek nations, who look up
to it as the capital of their tribe, and render a voluntary, though
nominal, homage to the ruler.
~Power and character of the King.~
The King of Bokhara rules, as in other Asiatic nations, a sovereign
despot; nevertheless, he is controlled in every action by the authority
of the Moollahs, or priests. This arises from no inability on his own
part to assert his power, but from the constitution of the monarchy,
which is exclusively based on the laws of the Koran, here more strictly
enforced perhaps than in any other Mahommedan country. The reigning
King of Bokhara, Nussier oollah, or, as he is styled, Buhadoor Khan,
is a young man of twenty-seven years of age. He takes the title of
Ameer ool Moomuneen, or Commander of the Faithful, and is always
addressed by the name of Huzrut; which is only used by the Mahommedans
of Toorkistan in speaking of their prophets. The name of King is
seldom mentioned in official documents; that of Ameer is preferred,
which without the affix of “ool Momuneen,” was the title by which
Timour and his successors were designated, down to the days of Baber.
It has a religious signification, which particularly unites it to the
King of Bokhara. He looks upon himself as one of the heads of the
Mahommedan religion. A respect is, nevertheless, paid to the Sultan of
Constantinople, as he is here styled the Caliph of Rome; and the King
of Bokhara is proud to hold the title of his bow-bearer.
The reigning King succeeded to the throne seven years since. He is
naturally just and liberal, and very strict in the observances of
religion. He appears, indeed, to be gradually sinking into the bigoted
habits of his father; which the nature of his government renders it
difficult to avoid. On his accession he divested himself of all his own
and his father’s wealth; which has gained him a high reputation among
his countrymen. In all his acts he is guided by the law; and the people
pretend that his private expenses are defrayed from the capitation tax;
which he exacts from Jews and Hindoos, since it would be sinful to so
appropriate the money of true believers. He is of an ambitious and
warlike disposition, and employs his revenues in the conciliation of
his army; to whom he has endeared himself by profuse largesses.
~The Koosh Begee, or Vizier.~
His minister, the Koosh Begee, possesses great influence over him; and,
though chiefly indebted to him for his throne, the King entertains no
dread of his power. He never leaves the citadel till his Vizier is
present to take charge of it. His Majesty will not receive his food
at any other hands but those of his minister. This person is of an
advanced age; upwards of sixty. He is an Uzbek, of the tribe of Mungut,
possessed of talent and acquirements; and unremitting in his attentions
to business. He also trades to a great extent, and is fond of money,
but strictly just in levying the taxes on commerce. The high office of
Vizier may be considered hereditary in his family: his father enjoyed
it; his brothers hold two of the governments; and his sons, of whom he
has thirteen, are employed in different districts or provinces. He has
fixed on one of these as his successor. There is a great mixture of
cunning in the minister’s character; but he is a liberal-minded man,
and favourably disposed to Europeans, and, in particular, the English.
The whole wealth and power of the kingdom is at his command; since he
receives the revenues, and is able to sway the priesthood, to whom he
is ever respectful and conciliatory.
~Political condition of the Uzbeks.~
Nothing is more remarkable to a traveller in Toorkistan than the
entire want of chiefs, or Sirdars, among the people, as in India and
Cabool. Here there are no great men, no Khans, or nobles, and no one
of consequence, but the court and the priesthood. The whole of the
governments are either held by slaves or dependents of the minister;
and every town and village is ruled by the Moollahs or Khwajus, the
descendants of the first Caliphs. As the base of the government of
Bokhara is the Koran, and the whole community are, or desire to be,
considered spiritual, it will fully account for the exception in
favour of the church. That engine and the state go heart in hand in
Toorkistan, and give mutual support to each other. There is no shadow
of popular government; but still, there is no evidence of discontent
under such a system of rule, though people could not be more thoroughly
enslaved than the Uzbeks. We must attribute this universal contentment
of the community to the protection which is derived from a strict
enforcement of the laws of the Koran. That book, at best, appears but
a poor Magna Charta; yet it fixes on a settled basis the principles
of jurisprudence; which, no doubt, leads the people to consider the
clergy as their best protection against the ambitious power of the
government. Their rigid adherence to the written law entitles these
doctors to the share of gratitude which they enjoy. No measures of
state are ever entered upon without their sanction; and a great
portion of the revenues are alienated for the support of the national
religion and the colleges which teach it. The surplus revenues of the
capital are even divided after this manner; and the whole plan of
administration bears a nearer resemblance to a hierarchy than any other
government. If a murder be committed; if a robbery occur; if a dispute
arise on any subject, it is immediately referred to the priesthood,
since the King does not take upon himself to judge of the merits of a
case without them. I am assured that this system has existed at Bokhara
from the earliest ages of Mahommedanism, and is not coeval with the
invasion of the Uzbeks, though it was more firmly established in the
reign of the last King, Hyder Shah, who held his creed in bigoted
veneration. Whatever may be the opinions entertained of the religion of
Mahommed, it is productive of great advantages in the administration
of a kingdom, when its laws are rigidly enforced. The police of the
city and kingdom of Bokhara is strict and efficient: the largest bales
of goods, as I have already stated, are left in open stalls at night
without danger, and the roads of the country are free from either
robbers or thieves. The uncompromising manner in which offenders are
treated, and the summary justice inflicted upon them, instil a salutary
terror into the minds of the ill-disposed. The most trivial offences
are punished with death: fines, and imprisonment in horrid dungeons,
are also employed, but more rarely. The laws of Mahommed are as much
enforced as they ever were under his own eye; and the legislation that
united the wandering Arabs of the desert has been transferred, without
a single improvement or alteration, to a people differing in manners,
habits, and languages, and considerably advanced in some points of
civilisation.
~Revenues of Bokhara.~
The revenues of the kingdom are levied according to the same
standard--the dicta of the Koran. A merchant pays one fortieth as a tax
on his goods; a farmer renders one fourth of the harvest of his fields
to the King: but the greater part of land in the country has been
alienated for the support of the religious men and establishments; and
many of these take the higher assessment of three tenths of the crop:
nor do the husbandmen complain of this exorbitant impost. In Toorkistan
land is valued by the water which it can command; and the individual
who distributes that necessary of life into the different aqueducts
about the capital holds a high rank in the state. A money-tax is
levied on gardens, and orchards, and melon-beds. All the inhabitants of
the country, not Mahommedans, pay a capitation tax annually. In time of
war, each householder is also taxed. There is a sum of money derived
from the customs of Bokhara; but, with this single exception, the whole
revenue is raised from the land. The following is an abstract of its
amount:--
Tillas.
{ Rametun 4,000
{ Zundunee 6,000
{ Wafkund 3,000
The seven tomuns of { Wurdunzye 3,000
Bokhara { Kyrabad 4,000
{ Wangazye 6,000
{ Kizhdowun 6,000
------ 31,000
{ Sheeraz 6,000
{ Sohood 4,000
The five tomuns of { Afeenkund 6,000
Samarcand { Anhar 5,000
{ Shoudar 12,000
------ 33,000
{ Punjkund 4,000
{ Oometan 2,000
Districts under Samarcand { Pan 2,000
{ Ooroogut 6,000
{ Karratippu 2,000
------ 16,000
{ Katakoorghan 12,000
{ Kutarchee 6,000
Meeankal, or Kuta-Koorghan, { Punjshumbu 5,000
between { Meetan 4,000
Bokhara and Samarcand { Noorator 5,000
{ Engi Koorghan 6,000
{ Chulak 5,000
------ 43,000
Kermina { Kermina 12,000
{ Zoodeen 15,000
------ 27,000
Jizzak Jizzak 8,000
------ 8,000
{ Kurshee 12,000
{ Khozar 6,000
Kurshee { Sheerabuel 5,000
{ Sadabad 4,000
{ Chiraghchee 5,000
------ 32,000
{ Narazsee 5,000
Banks of the Oxus, { Kukee 4,000
called “Lubab” { Charjooee 8,000
{ Ootar 5,000
------ 22,000
Karakool Karakool 15,000
------ 15,000
City of Bokhara Bokhara 50,000
------ 50,000
-------
Grand total of tillas (or rupees 18 lacs) 277,000
-------
From Balkh the crown receives nothing; the revenue is said to have
declined with its population, and the scanty returns from it, amounting
to 20,000 tillas, are granted to the chief, Eshan Khoju, who protects
it. Both Balkh and Jizzak are late acquisitions to the kingdom. As far
as an opinion can be formed on such subjects, I am led to believe that
the net land revenue of this kingdom amounts to about thirty-six lacs
of rupees, or double that which is received into the royal treasury,
since about half the land is enjoyed by the church. All the names
mentioned in the enumeration of the revenue are market-towns or
places, except the five “tomuns” of Samarcand. These are old names.
The idea which we have of towns and villages must be received with
considerable qualification in Toorkistan. A bazar, or market-place, is
sometimes a small village, and the inhabitants, instead of living in
it, reside in “robats,” at a distance, visiting it on market-days from
a circuit of ten or fifteen miles. The bazars of the country are held
on fixed days, with great regularity, as in Europe.
~Military force, &c.~
~Spirit of the Uzbeks.~
The military force of Bokhara is levied from the different districts
of the kingdom, and has no discipline. It consists of about 20,000
horse and 4000 infantry, with forty-one pieces of artillery. There are
likewise a description of troops, called “eeljaree,” or militia, which
are formed of the dependents and servants of the government, and amount
to about 50,000 horse, 10,000 of which are from Balkh and the countries
south of the Oxus. It might be further increased by levies among the
Toorkmuns; but the services of that tribe can only be commanded by the
individual who can enforce them. This is no great number, where almost
every individual, rich and poor, has a horse of some description. These
troops are seldom or ever called upon to serve, and, when embodied,
receive no pay. The registered, or “duftur,” troops are paid in grain,
and the chiefs have assignments of land. Each soldier receives yearly
eight Bokhara maunds of grain, each of which is equal to 256 lbs.
English. It consists of wheat, barley, juwaree, and urzun. The infantry
receive the same allowances as the cavalry, and, what is singular,
they come into field on horseback, and then dismount. They arm with
matchlocks, and are called “khusa burdar.” The horsemen have swords;
sometimes long knives, and heavy spears, about twenty feet long, with a
short blade. These lances are constructed of different pieces of wood
(generally of willow), and have an unwieldy appearance; they never
break at the joinings. The Uzbeks have few fire-arms, and use them
indifferently. An Indian or an Afghan never sets out on a journey but
he bristles with arms. The Uzbek, on the other hand, contents himself
with a lance, or the knife which he usually wears in his girdle. From
what I hear, the Uzbeks are not much to be dreaded as enemies. Their
manner of fighting wants spirit and courage; they vociferate loudly,
and the fate of the advanced guard decides the conquest. They are a
superior description of irregular cavalry, but poor soldiers. The
park of cannon lies neglected in the citadel, for the Uzbeks do not
properly appreciate the value of artillery, and the King has only to
contend with horse. There are no native artillerymen, and the guns lie
separated from their carriages, which, as may be imagined, are by no
means efficient. The train could, however, be easily put in order by
some of the Russian slaves. All the cannon are brass; three-fourths of
them appeared to be small field-pieces, four and six pounders. There
are four mortars; the rest are large guns. The powder of the country is
serviceable.
~Detail of the military force.~
The following detail of the military force of the kingdom will afford
an insight into the power of the several districts, and serve also
to mark the great Uzbek tribes at present existing in the country.
The first list is composed of cavalry; I also add the names of their
chiefs, here called “Bee,” which is a Turkish word, better known in
Europe as Bey.
---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------
Tribes. | No. | Chiefs. | District.
---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------
Kongrad | 1,000 | Moorad Bee | Kurshee.
Suraee | 1,000 | Ashoor Bee. |
Yaboo | 2,000 | Md. Ameer Bee. |
Khitai | 500 | Hoosun Bee | Yargi Koorghan.
Kipchack | 500 | Mahmood Bee | Chuluk.
Surkh Khitai | 800 | Aderagood Bee Kut | Koorghan.
Kara Kilpauk | 400 | Thikeem Bee | Sheeraz.
Kur Khyooz | 500 | Shade Bee | Jizzak.
Dyakhlee | 600 | Alum Bee | Punjenud.
Meeng | 2,000 | Kut Bee | Ooloogut.
Nymun | 500 | Kalaitoksa Bee | Zeodeen.
Julaee | 400 | Roostum Bee | Punjshumbu.
Meetna | 400 | Abdoo Jubbar Bee | Meetum.
Bahreen | 500 | Kobad Bee | Katurchee.
Boorkoot | 500 | Abdoo Jubber Bee | Nooratun.
Kulloogh | 600 | Abdoo Russool Bee | Kermina.
Huzara | 300 | Abdoo Jubber Bee | Ditto.
Kutghun | 300 | Doulut Bee | { Ditto from
| | | { Koondooz.
Arabuchee | 400 | Good Md. Bee | Karakool.
Chunder | 400 | Dolmus Bee | Ditto.
Toorkmuns N. }| | | { Banks of the
of the Oxus }| 800 | Eser Bee | { Oxus.
Kalmucks | 1,000 | Rhodaee Nug | Bokhara.
Mixed tribes }| | |
of Bokhara, }| 2,000 | The King. | Bokhara.
called }| | |
“Shagird }| | |
Peshu” }| | |
Mervees | 1,000 } | Mad. Suduk Bee | Ditto.
| 500 } Persians.| Moorad Bee Meer |
| } | Akhor | Samarcand.
Zorabadee | 500 } | Lootf Ali Beg | { Zorabud, near
| | | { Kurshee.
+-------------------+ |
Grand total | 19,500 | |
---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------
The infantry is levied on a much smaller scale, and entirely composed
of Tajiks, or the mercantile class. They are drawn from the districts
as follows:--
Bokhara 1,000
Samarcand 1,000
Kurshee 200
Jizzak 500
Kermina 200
Kut Koorghan 100
Punjshumbu 100
Khojar 100
Sherabul 100
Karabul 100
Narazun 100
Oostee 100
Charjooee 300
-----
Grand total 3,900
-----
That portion of the troops south of the Oxus is only nominally
dependent on Bokhara; there the Uzbeks are not numerous; a great
proportion of the population, however, are Arabs, who have the same
reputation for soldiers as in other countries. They are not at the
disposal of the government. Except the territories of Balkh, from which
a force of 2000 or 3000 men might be assembled, these people cannot be
viewed as available troops, for they are at enmity with one another,
and the King takes no pains to reconcile them.
~Foreign policy of Bokhara.~
Bokhara possesses a much higher influence, both physical and moral,
than any of the states around it; but its affairs were left in a most
embarrassed state by the late King, who bestowed more attention on
religion than politics. The Khan of Orgunje or Khiva waged a continual
war with him. The Khan of Kokan was also his declared enemy. The
chiefs of Shuhr Subz and Hissar acknowledged no allegiance, and the
Meer of Koondooz plundered and even seized Balkh. The affairs of the
kingdom are at present more prosperous, and the designs and power of
the reigning King bid fair to keep pace with one another. He has this
year chastised the chief of Shuhr Subz, and seized upon six of his
villages. That town, which is famed as the birth-place of Timour, is
considered the strongest in Toorkistan, from the marshy nature of the
country which surrounds it. The power of Kokan has been also broken,
and one of its frontier districts, that of Jizzak, which formed one
half of Uratippa, has been annexed to Bokhara within these four years.
Hissar might be also overcome, though it is mountainous, since the
chief is dead, and his country has been divided among four brothers.
The most powerful enemy of the kingdom is the chief of Koondooz; and
if the city of Balkh has been wrested from him, he has conceded it to
policy, and not to fear. He retains the name of that ancient city on
his coin, and there is little amity between the states. The King of
Bokhara entertains designs on Koondooz; but the country is distant,
and it is very doubtful if he could make an impression upon it, though
his formidable title of Commander of the Faithful would secure to
Bokhara the aid of the Moollahs and a large army. The enmity of the
Khan of Khiva terminated with the death of Mahommed Ruheem Khan, the
late chief, who sent an ambassador on his death-bed to ask forgiveness.
The sons of the two parents, who were ever at war with one another,
are now united. The injuries which Khiva inflicted on the kingdom,
determines its influence over the destinies of Bokhara. With an
inferior power, the chief of that state plundered its caravans, robbed
its subjects, obstructed its commerce, and laid waste its territories.
The intervening deserts protected him from reprisal, though a vigorous
monarch might successfully invade his territories from the Oxus. If the
Khan of Khiva continues friendly, the King will be able to extend his
power to the eastward, where he has long meditated an expedition.
~With China, Cabool, and Turkey.~
The connexion of Bokhara with China, Cabool, and Turkey, is friendly;
and all of them have sent ambassadors. Last year an envoy from China
was deputed to solicit the assistance of the King, in maintaining
the peace of the western frontier of China, from the inroads of the
Khan of Kokan. His majesty wisely declined all interference, but the
chastisement which the Chinese inflicted on the inhabitants of that
state some years ago, may relieve the emperor at Pekin from any alarm
regarding his frontiers. The commercial relations between Bokhara
and China are on a footing favourable to both states; but the Uzbeks
are not permitted, more than other nations, to pass beyond Yarkund,
Cashgar, and their tributary towns. While the monarchy existed in
Cabool, the intercourse between that kingdom and Toorkistan was
friendly and frequent, for the Afghans possessed the province of Balkh.
The number of Afghans in Bokhara is considerable, and the whole Indian
trade is carried on by their intervention. There is, however, no
intercourse between the King of Bokhara and the chiefs who have risen
on the ruins of the Cabool monarchy: the Uzbeks despise the friendship
of Persia, from the hatred which they have for the heretical doctrines
entertained by that people. Their only intercourse is commercial,
and but few of them engage in trade, which is left to the Persians or
Mervees, who are of the Shiah creed. The liberality of the present
minister of Bokhara has contributed to soften the asperity of feeling
between the Persians and Uzbeks, but it is difficult to say on which
side the greatest animosity subsists. The Persians have far the
greatest cause, since they are constantly seized and sold into slavery.
The fame of the Ottoman empire has extended to Bokhara, but the people
have very imperfect notions of the weakness of the Porte. They believe
the sultan to be the most potent monarch of the globe, and I have been
frequently interrogated as to the extent of tribute which the different
European nations rendered to him. We can comprehend the reasons for
this assiduous attention of Bokhara, even on religious grounds; but
the countries are far apart, and their intercourse is limited to empty
expressions of devotion and attachment to one another.
~Connexion with Russia.~
From the time of Peter the Great, there has subsisted a continued
communication between Bokhara and Russia, and it has been based on
the reciprocal advantages of commerce. The land route between the
countries was first opened in the reign of that monarch, and, during
the last seventy years, the transit has been uninterrupted. In the
reign of Alexander, and about the year 1820, the Russians endeavoured
to cultivate a closer connexion, and despatched an embassy to Bokhara.
They had failed in the preceding year to open the road between the
Caspian and Khiva. It is but fair to believe, that some of the views
of this mission were commercial, but they were likewise connected
with political ends. The embassy was well received at the capital.
A mission was sent in return to St. Petersburgh, and several others
have since followed it. From that period, the subjects of Russia have
ceased to be sold into slavery in Bokhara; it is supposed that these
missions have had reference to the affairs of Khiva, but Russia will
require no foreign aid to coerce that chiefship. The Russians have
also established a friendly feeling with the chief of Kokan: they
have impressed the whole of the Uzbeks with high notions of their
power, to the detriment of all other European nations; but they have
yet to eradicate, by their future conduct, other opinions, which
have been as universally adopted, that they want truth and honour in
their diplomacy. Setting aside the physical obstacles which present
themselves to the Russians making a conquest of Bokhara, the people are
generally inimical to them. It is even probable that Bokhara, with all
her pretended amity, would succour Khiva, if attacked by the Czar.
Should these countries ever be subdued from that quarter, it would be
found most difficult to retain them, or control the wandering tribes
around. Regular troops would be useless, and irregulars could not
subdue a race who had no fixed places of abode. It is not, however, to
be concealed, that the court of St. Petersburgh have long cherished
designs in this quarter of Asia.
CHAP. X.
ON THE STATE OF KHIVA, OR ORGUNJE.
~Limits of the principality.~
The delta of the Oxus, or Amoo, before falling into the Aral, forms
the state of Khiva, which is more generally called Orgunje by the
inhabitants. It is the ancient Kharasm, and occurs in Arrian, under the
name of the country of the Chorasmi. It lies about 200 miles W.N.W. of
Bokhara. It is a small, but fertile principality. The inhabited part
is about 200 miles from north to south, and half that distance from
east to west. It is surrounded on all sides by deserts; and, claims
a superiority over these that extends its power to the Caspian, and
brings it into contact with Persia. It has, of late years, established
a supremacy over the Toorkmun hordes, south of the Oxus, and holds
Merve, which lies on the high road between Khorasan and Bokhara.
There are but two places of note in the country, Orgunje and Khiva;
the former is the commercial capital, and the latter the residence of
the Khan. Orgunje is situated about six miles from the Oxus, and is
the larger place, having a population of about 12,000 souls; Khiva
is a modern town, about half that size. Circumstances, which have
been detailed in my narrative, prevented our visiting the capital of
Khiva, though we travelled for some time in the countries subject to
it, and met a portion of its army in the deserts westward of Merve. I
shall only, therefore, give a brief outline of the power and politics
of Khiva, as far as they came under my own observation, or have been
detailed to me by the people. The work of General Mouravief, who was
despatched to Khiva in 1820, contains full information regarding the
statistics of that country.
~Khan of Khiva. Sketch of his rise.~
The Khan of Khiva is an Uzbek, and rules with all the sway that the
lords of that tribe arrogate to themselves. There are no chiefs or
nobles to interfere with him. Though the principality is small, it is
entirely independent; and, during the rule of the late chief, waged
a continued war against the kingdom of Bokhara. The name of that
personage was Mahommed Ruheem Khan, a man of daring spirit and great
enterprise, who acquired the chiefship by the murder of two brothers,
and retained it for a period of twenty-two years by acts of severe
justice, and perhaps cruelty. He is often upbraided by his neighbours
for his tyranny; but the principality of Khiva acquired an ascendancy
under him which it had never before held, and it is not surprising
that he was more feared than loved. He fell a victim to a malignant
disease about eight years since, and charged his family, on his
death-bed, to heal the difference with Bokhara. Before his demise, he
despatched an ambassador to the King, and solicited forgiveness for the
quarrels which he had so perseveringly promoted, and the injuries he
had inflicted on the commerce of that kingdom; since then the states
have lived in amity with one another. Ruheem Khan left a family of
six sons, the eldest of whom, Ullah Kholi, succeeded him, and is the
present Khan of Khiva. He is about forty years of age, and a much
milder man than his father. He lives in great concord with the other
members of his family, and still preserves all the power which his
parent had acquired.
~Power and military strength of Khiva.~
The injuries which the Khivans have inflicted on the neighbouring
countries have given them a greater importance than they deserve, for
at best they are but an organised banditti, protected by the natural
strength of their country. The situation of Khiva, between Russia and
Bokhara, makes it the entrepôt of commerce between these kingdoms,
which extends its influence. Orgunje itself has no internal trade, and
is thinly peopled. It is doubtful if the population amounts to 200,000
souls. Till the time of Ruheem Khan, it was considered a dependency
of Bokhara; but there is no proof of its allegiance being other than
nominal. The Khan can raise a force of 10,000 men, and has a park of
nine pieces of ordnance. His troops are either Uzbeks or Toorkmuns,
who are armed in the same manner as the levies in Bokhara: some of the
latter carry bows and arrows. The great object of the Khan of Khiva
is to subdue the Toorkmun tribes between his territories and Persia,
as well to increase his revenue as his power. The position of Khiva
has enabled him to exert a greater influence over these wanderers than
either Persia or Bokhara; who are thus set at defiance by a body of
robbers, holding an oäsis in the desert. In the summer of 1832, the
Khan of Orgunje marched his whole military force from Khiva to Merve,
and levied contributions on the Tuka, the greatest of the Toorkmun
tribes. He fixed a custom-house both there and at Shurukhs, a town
held by the Toorkmun tribe of Salore, which is within three marches
of Meshid, in Persia; and he now levies duties on the caravans which
pass both these places. This advance of the Orgunje army is creditable
to the military genius of the Khan. The journey from Khiva to Merve
amounts to fifteen marches, and is almost destitute of water, which he
procured by digging wells at every stage as he advanced. He commanded
in person, and gave out that he had taken the field to resist the
Persians, under Abbas Mirza, who threatened him from Meshid. He was
accompanied by a vast herd of camels, bearing water and provisions for
his troops. About 2000 of these perished from thirst in the steppe. His
father surpassed him in this achievement, since he entirely crossed
this desert to Persia; he, however, lost the greater portion of his
horses in the undertaking, and was compelled to leave his guns in the
sand, where one of them still remains.
~Predatory habits of the Khivans. Revenues.~
The chiefs of Khiva have not generally aimed at such combined attacks
as here represented, but confined themselves to a marauding life;
they continually send detachments to plunder in Persia, and seize the
inhabitants. The Khan receives a fifth of all the booty so captured.
The power of Khiva over the Toorkmuns gives them great facility in
these forays, which are conducted with great success. They also seize
upon the subjects of Russia on the Caspian Sea; and both Persians and
Russians are sold in this country as slaves. They supply the kingdom of
Bokhara, and the whole of Toorkistan, with these Persian captives; and
I have it on undoubted information, that there are about 2000 Russian
slaves in Khiva. It is impossible to give any estimate of the number
of Persians, but both nations are on the increase. The Russians are now
not sold out of Khiva, as the King of Bokhara entered into an agreement
with the emperor to discourage their purchase in his territories. While
the Khivans are thus robbing in every direction, they yet grant a
protection to the caravans that pass their territories, on the payment
of fixed duties.
Hindoos and Armenians pass through Khiva, but neither they nor foreign
merchants, though Mahommedans, feel at ease while in the country. The
bales are opened, the caravans are delayed, and much property has been
at times extorted; where the chief sets the example of plunder, the
people will not be very honest. The Khan demands duties at the port
of Mangusluck, on the Caspian, which lies opposite Astracan, and he
sometimes enforces them from the caravans which pass the Sir, or Sihon,
eastward of the Aral.
The connexion between the Khan and the Russians, regarding the
improvement of trade, is mentioned in the chapter that treats on
commerce. It is impossible to form any but a vague estimate of the
revenue of Khiva: little of it is derived from lawful sources, and
the Khan supports his army and himself chiefly at the expense of his
neighbours.
~Affairs of Khiva and Russia.~
The affairs of Khiva have excited considerable attention in the Russian
cabinet, which has attempted, without success, to form a connexion with
it, as well for the advancement of commercial ends, as the suppression
of the odious practice of enslaving her subjects. There is great
hostility to Russia in the minds of the Khivans, and it would be most
dangerous to appear in the character of a Russian in their country; but
the Khan is only able to exhibit this hostile feeling from the strength
of his position.
CHAP. XI.
ON THE NORTH-EASTERN FRONTIERS OF PERSIA, AND THE COUNTRY OF THE
KOORDS AND TOORKMUNS.
~Extent of Persian power over the Toorkmuns.~
It will now be necessary to give a short sketch of those Toorkmun
tribes east of the Caspian Sea which lie on and beyond the
north-eastern frontier of Persia.
Their country has been partly described in the chapter on Toorkmania;
and various incidents illustrative of their national character occur
in the narrative of our journey. They stretch from Balkh to the
Caspian, and are composed of predatory hordes, with no king, and a
most imperfect government to control them. The only portion which owe
allegiance to the crown of Persia are the tribes of Goklan and Yamood,
the least powerful of all the Toorkmuns.
They occupy the south-eastern banks of the Caspian, having their
country westward bounded by the rivers Goorgan and Atruk, and extending
about 140 miles eastward of that sea. The Yamoods are farthest to the
westward, and consist of 20,000 families. They are succeeded by the
Goklans, who amount to 9000 families; the only tribe of Toorkmuns who
inhabit a hilly country. These two tribes have been reduced to their
present state of dependence within the last thirty years. A guard of
about 1000 of them attends on the King of Persia, but the rest of the
tribe occupy their native seats, and pay a small tribute in horses or
kind to a Persian Governor, who is stationed on the river Goorgan.
~Koord and other chiefs of the Persian frontier.~
The country which lies between these Toorkmuns and the city of Meshid
is occupied by the tribe of Koords and other chiefs, who are nominally
subjects of Persia. They acknowledge the supremacy of that crown, but
commit every act of devastation and plunder, if not restrained by
superior force. The Koords were fixed in this part of Persia by Shah
Abbas, to strengthen the frontier; but they have proved a complete
curse on its peace. The greatest of these chiefs held the fortress of
Koochan (also called Kabooshan), and had a force of 8000 men. This
place was captured by Abbas Meerza in the autumn of 1832. Near Koochan
is the smaller chiefship of Boojnoord, ruled by a Koord, who can raise
about 3000 horse. In this neighbourhood lies Kelat, the chief of which
is an Afshar Toork, who can muster about 2000 horse. Next in importance
to the chief of Koochan is he of Toorbut, Mahommed Khan Kuraee[38],
who occupies a portion of the country between Meshid and Herat. He can
raise about 6000 men, and is the most notorious freebooter in Khorasan.
About eighty miles eastward of Meshid lies the town of Shurukhs, a
Toorkmun settlement, already mentioned as at present owing allegiance
to Khiva. It submits to Persia, when the Prince at Meshid is able to
enforce his commands. There are 2000 families at Shurukhs of the Salore
tribe. This completes the enumeration of the chiefs on the boundaries
of Persia.
~Weakness of the Persian frontier.~
This frontier of Persia must be considered exceedingly weak, since the
whole of these tribes are imperfectly subjugated, and acknowledge its
authority with extreme reluctance. The Toorkmuns view the Persians in
the most odious light, from their religious opinions; and the only real
advantage which the Shah may be said to have gained over the two tribes
near Persia consists in their having discontinued their incursions into
the kingdom. This only applies to a very small division of them, for
the Salores of Shurukhs, and all the other Toorkmuns, carry on their
inroads with a fierce and daring spirit. Their brethren, even on the
S.E. shores of the Caspian, frequently exhibit proofs of discontent,
and have, as I formerly observed, formed connexions with Russia, that
time may improve to the advantage of themselves and that empire. They
are not bound by the possession of houses and cities to the lands which
they inhabit, and their strength lies in the great facility with which
they can move from one country to another. The Koords, on the contrary,
are established on these frontiers as citizens. They have exhibited
much bravery, and considerable military knowledge in making their
strongholds on the plains instead of the hills. The fortress of Koochan
is a place of great strength; it is built of mud, and the tenacious
nature of the soil is favourable to that kind of fortification, which
is common all over Khorasan. These Koords, though Shiahs, form secret
connexions with their Toorkmun neighbours, and connive at the capture
of the Persians and plunder of the provinces. Their country, although
it yields a sufficiency for the consumption of the people, is poor.
It does not, therefore, hold out any allurement to the government to
retain it; and, since it possesses many strongholds, the chiefs, who
are generally in rebellion, can defy every force but an extraordinary
one, such as has lately been sent to attack them. Hitherto they have
parried off such attacks, by giving tribute, and promising future
allegiance; but no sooner have the troops retired, than they have
relapsed into the old state of rebellion and defiance. Nor is it likely
that the present expedition of the Prince Royal into Khorasan, though
much more formidable than any that has preceded it, will effect any
permanent settlement of that part of Persia. Khorasan is a province
which requires the presence of a foreign force to maintain its
tranquillity; but it does not yield revenues to defray the expenses
that would be incurred by such an arrangement. This is a line of policy
that will not, therefore, be pursued by a court like Persia, which does
not lay out the revenues of one province on another.