THE SENTENCE
=1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences.=--Composition means putting
together or combining or grouping. The things that we combine are
words. There are three simple ways in which, according to the
customs or grammar of our language, words are combined:--
1. Into phrases.
2. Into clauses.
3. Into sentences.
A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a
predicate.
EXAMPLES. On the way. In the morning. By the fire. Sailing over the
sea.
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate. A clause in which the words do not make complete sense is
called a dependent or subordinate clause.
EXAMPLES. If I could go. When the sun rose. While I was speaking.
Which I saw.
A sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and
one predicate and making complete sense. A sentence is thus a single
clause or a group of clauses. In a group of clauses, a clause in
which the sense is complete is called an independent or principal
clause.
EXAMPLES. He started at once. If I could, I should start at once.
When the sun rose, the mist disappeared. While I was speaking, the
rain fell heavily.
Neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself.
Each is only a part of a sentence. The first rule of English
composition is that we must group our words in sentences.
EXCEPTION. Exclamatory words, phrases, or clauses, such as, Fudge!
Silence in the ranks! If I could only go!
=Exercise 1.=--Which are dependent clauses? phrases? sentences?
Fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences.
1. A little after noon. 2. I found the sea very calm. 3. If we had
kept on board. 4. We should have been all safe. 5. Taking off my
outer clothes. 6. When I came to the ship. 7. How to get on board.
8. I spied a small piece of rope. 9. By the help of that rope. 10.
That all the ship's provisions were dry. 11. When this was done.
12. Putting them together in the form of a raft. 13. I filled the
chests with provisions. 14. Toward the land. 15. My raft went very
well. 16. In the mouth of a little river. 17. On the right shore of
the creek. 18. I made a tent with the sail. 19. Near the sea. 20.
Protected from the heat of the sun.
=Exercise 2.=--Divide the following passages into sentences.
Supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks.
1. How late the chimney-swifts are abroad I cannot determine long
after I failed to detect any in the air I could hear them in my
chimney it was the same rustling sound I heard by day when I could
see them coming and going and I know that these birds were leaving
and returning when the night was very dark I think they can be
classed among the nocturnal species
2. Many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in June for comfort
a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight
stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well
advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after
a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the
men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows
were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter was
discussed in whispers again and again the noises were heard at last
when everybody was roused to a high pitch of excitement the long
stovepipe heated by the flames upon the hearth parted at a joint and
out flew a sooty and bedraggled little owl no one was superstitious
then but suppose the owl had made its way back to the chimney and
by this way escaped would not every person present have had vague
uncanny feelings would not the house from that time have been haunted
=Exercise 3.=--1. Write a short passage containing the phrases
and clauses used in Exercise 1.
2. Write a short passage containing the following phrases and
clauses:--
About noon--going toward my boat--on the sand--the print of a man's
naked foot--as if I had seen a ghost--up to a rising ground--to look
around--so frightened was I--behind me--every now and then--fancying
every stump to be a man.
=2. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences.=--According to the
custom or grammar of our language, we may group our words in
sentences in three ways. Sentences are, from the point of grammar,
of three kinds: simple, complex, and compound.
A simple sentence consists of a single clause.
EXAMPLES. The man fell. The birds sing most sweetly at morning and
at evening.
The subject or the predicate of a simple sentence, or both, may,
however, consist of several parts.
EXAMPLES. The man and the child fell. The man slipped and fell. The
man and the child slipped and fell.
A complex sentence contains one independent or principal clause and
one or more dependent or subordinate clauses.
EXAMPLES. It was nearly night when we heard the glad news. Before
help could reach the city, it had been captured by the enemy.
A compound sentence contains two or more independent or principal
clauses, either with or without dependent or subordinate clauses.
EXAMPLES. Every minute seemed a day; every hour was a year. Finally,
I dropped into an exhausted slumber, but I was awakened by the
sound of bells. The sun, which resembled a ball of fire, touched
the horizon and passed beneath it, and the darkness of the tropical
night came swiftly over us.
=Exercise 4.=--Which sentences are simple? complex? compound?
In the complex sentences, which clauses are dependent? In the
compound sentences, separate the independent clauses from each
other. Mention any dependent clauses which you find in the
compound sentences.
1. It was now near the beginning of the month of June, and we had
twelve weeks of bad weather before us.
2. Our rocky home was greatly improved by a wide porch, which I
made along the whole front of our rooms and entrances.
3. The weeks of imprisonment passed so rapidly that no one found
time hanging heavy on his hands.
4. As the rainy season drew to a close, the weather for a while
became milder.
5. Thunder roared, lightning blazed, torrents rushed toward the sea,
which came in raging billows to meet them.
6. Nature resumed her smiling aspect of peaceful beauty; and soon
all traces of the ravages of floods and storms disappeared beneath
the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics.
7. The recent storms had stirred the ocean to its depths.
8. We crossed the river for a walk along the coast, and presently
Fritz observed on a small island something which was long and
rounded, resembling a boat bottom upward.
9. The island being steep and rocky, it was necessary to be careful;
but we found a good landing place on the farther side.
10. The boys hurried by the nearest way to the beach where lay the
great object, which proved to be a huge stranded whale.
11. Look at these glorious shells and coral branches!
12. Did you notice the extreme delicacy of the shells?
13. We were soon ready to return to the boat, but Ernest had a fancy
for remaining alone on the island till we came back.
14. The more oil we could obtain the better, for a great deal was
used in the large lantern which burnt day and night in the recesses
of the cave.
15. It was unpleasant work to cut up blubber.
=Exercise 5.=--Expand the following simple sentences by
substituting clauses for the italicized words or phrases.
EXAMPLE. I consider him a _trustworthy_ man. I consider him a
man who can be trusted.
1. The _early_ bird catches the worm. 2. We started _before
sunrise_. 3. The _faithful_ steward received a reward. 4. I do
not doubt _your prudence_. 5. They lived in a _rose-embowered_
cottage. 6. Santa Claus came at _candle-lighting_ time. 7. We pity
the _friendless_. 8. The prayer of a _righteous man_ availeth
much. 9. We should share the burdens of the _heavy-laden_. 10. She
carried a dainty _lace-trimmed_ handkerchief. 11. We lingered in the
_lilac-scented_ garden. 12. A _kind-hearted_ man delights in the
happiness of others. 13. The traveler wore a _fur-lined_ coat. 14.
I enjoy driving a _spirited_ horse. 15. A _solemn-looking_ servant
opened the door.
=Exercise 6.=--Use single words in place of the italicized
phrases and clauses in the following sentences.
1. We were stepping _toward the west_. 2. A shout of _joy_ rang
through the woods. 3. The song _of the bluebird_ sounds from the
elm. 4. Her wedding gown, _which was made of silk_, was very
expensive. 5. Words of kindness cheer _those who are unhappy_. 6. We
listened to his tales, _which were often repeated_. 7. His deeds _of
mercy_ made him beloved. 8. A look _of sadness_ clouded the face _of
the leader_. 9. The lawyer _who is able_ secures many clients. 10.
He visited the country, _which had recently been discovered_.
=Exercise 7.=--Substitute, for the italicized words, phrases or
clauses with the same meaning.
EXAMPLE. _Contented_ people are happy (word). People _with
contented minds_ are happy (phrase). People _who are contented_
are happy (clause).
1. An _honest_ man is the noblest work of God. 2. A _friendly_ man
will have friends. 3. He is said to be a _good-natured_ man. 4.
A _beautiful_ child opened the garden-gate. 5. She wore a simple
_muslin_ frock. 6. The king wore his _golden_ crown. 7. He lived
a _noble_ life. 8. The garden is filled with _fragrant_ blossoms.
9. Old King Cole was a _merry_ old soul. 10. The queen made some
_delicious_ tarts. 11. He spoke _hastily_. 12. You have a very
_comfortable_ home. 13. He treated the boy _harshly_. 14. Take her
up _tenderly_. 15. Beware the fury of a _patient_ man.
=Exercise 8.=--Combine each set of simple sentences into one
complex sentence by changing one of them into a dependent clause.
1. The sun is in the west. Man ceases from labor. 2. The dew is
falling. You must not walk in the garden. 3. The clock struck
twelve. The door opened to admit Marley's ghost. 4. Mary has not
written to me. She has been gone a month. 5. The bee is very
industrious. It is always gathering honey. 6. I saw a little red
owl. It lives in a hollow tree. 7. We pitched our tents on the
shore. Then the sea winds blew. 8. We anchored in the bay. The water
was calm. 9. They lived in a village. It was many miles from a
railroad. 10. The poor suffered. The good man mourned.
=Exercise 9.=--Combine the simple sentences, making compound
sentences.
1. The wind blew freshly from the shore. The uneasy billows tossed
up and down. 2. Eustace sat under a tree. The children gathered
round him. 3. Cowards are cruel. The brave love mercy. 4. Charms
strike the sight. Merit wins the soul. 5. He invited his guests to
remain longer. They wished to start before the heat of the day. 6.
The heaven was above his head. The sand was beneath his feet. 7.
The water trickled among the rocks. A pleasant breeze rustled in
the dry branches. 8. The commander was badly wounded. His men were
scattered. 9. It was half-past eight in the evening. The conflict
had raged for an hour. 10. The heavens declare the glory of God. The
firmament showeth his handiwork.
=Exercise 10.=--Combine the following statements into simple
sentences. In each group express the idea of one statement by a
modifying word or phrase.
EXAMPLES. 1. She lay down. She was sorrowful. Sorrowfully she
lay down. 2. She had no shoes. She had to go barefoot. Having no
shoes, she had to go barefoot.
1. He looked back. He saw a cloud of dust. 2. He sprang to his
feet. He ran after the messenger. 3. He donned the white cockade.
He fought for the exiled prince. 4. We climbed the mountain. The
day was cool. 5. We started for home. The sun had set. 6. He lifted
his eyes. He looked toward heaven. He thanked God. 7. It was early
morning. He rowed across the lake. 8. He left early. He wished to
catch the train. 9. He was very studious. He won the scholarship.
10. I went for a ramble. I took little Annie with me. 11. John is a
blacksmith. He lives in the village. 12. He shoes horses. He does
it skillfully. 13. The bluebird sings. He tells us spring is here.
14. We feared to start. The night was stormy. 15. The watchman was
weary. He slept at his post.
=Exercise 11.=--Combine the following statements by using
_relative pronouns_.
EXAMPLES. The flames lit the wreck. They shone on the dead. The
flames _that_ lit the wreck shone on the dead.
1. We heard the roll of ponderous wheels. They roused us from our
slumbers. 2. Travelers are surprised at the beauty of the spot. They
occasionally come upon it by accident. 3. Our throats are choked
with the dust. It lies thick along the road. 4. He drank a cup of
cold water. This refreshed him. 5. Along came a flock of sheep.
They were being driven to market. 6. I went to live in a country
village. It was more than a hundred miles from home. 7. The water
gushed from a little spring. It sparkled in the sunshine. 8. The
villagers were kindly people. They welcomed strangers. 9. I watch
the sunrise stealing down the steeple. This stands opposite my
chamber window. 10. Up came a gallant youth. He wore a scarf of the
rainbow pattern crosswise on his breast. 11. He found under it a
slender little boy. The boy wailed bitterly. 12. The Puritan saw the
boy's frightened gaze. He endeavored to reassure him. 13. Here is a
little outcast. Providence hath put him in our hands. 14. A young
man was on his way to Morristown. He was a peddler by trade. 15. A
little canary bird sings sweetly. It hangs in its gilded cage at my
window.
=Exercise 12.=--Fill the blanks with conjunctions selected from
the following list.
and, also, likewise, moreover, besides, furthermore,
but, yet, however, nevertheless,
or, either, nor, neither,
therefore, hence, then, accordingly.
1. They had been friends in youth, ---- whispering tongues can
poison truth. 2. The waves beside them danced, ---- they outdid the
sparkling waves in glee. 3. The sun sank to rest; ---- we lingered.
4. I came, I saw, ---- I conquered. 5. He wanted to live, ---- he
wanted to work. 6. The owl has a backbone; ---- it is a vertebrate.
7. Our forest life was rough; ---- dangers closed us round. 8.
Knowledge comes; ---- wisdom lingers. 9. 'Tis winter now, ----
spring will blossom soon. 10. We had guns; ---- we had an abundance
of ammunition. 11. I go, ---- I return. 12. All the rivers run into
the sea; ---- the sea is not full. 13. It is storming; ---- we
will not go. 14. He forgave his enemy; ---- he was merciful. 15.
He is not tired, ---- he is lazy. 16. The day proved clear; ----
we began our journey. 17. They had ---- locks to their doors ----
bars to their windows. 18. I assured him of my willingness; ---- he
hesitated. 19. He proved himself honest; ---- I trusted him. 20. The
storm raged; ---- we pushed on.
=Exercise 13.=--Two ideas are sometimes stated as of equal
importance (compound sentence), when one is really dependent
upon the other (complex sentence).
EXAMPLE. "I was on my way to school yesterday morning, and I met
my cousin Raymond."
To revise such a sentence as this, decide which clause contains
the main idea, and make this the principal clause, putting the
subordinate idea in a subordinate clause.
_E.g._ "As I was on my way to school yesterday morning, I met my
cousin Raymond."
Reconstruct the following sentences, making them _complex_
instead of _compound_:--
1. The sun was hot, and we rested in the shade.
2. We visited Stratford, and here Shakspere lived.
3. The poor man was bent with age, and he staggered under the heavy
load.
4. The old woman lived in a little cottage, and it stood on the edge
of the woods.
5. I was walking along the country roads, and I saw some wild
strawberries.
6. The little boy carried a bundle, and it seemed very heavy.
7. The night was chilly, and we built a fire in the grate.
8. I wished to pass away the time, and I read a newspaper.
9. He was very ambitious, and he wished to become President.
10. She struck a match, and it burned with a feeble light.
=3. Variety in the Use of Sentences=:--All your sentences must be
simple, or complex, or compound; but there is no reason why you
should use one of the three kinds in preference to another. If you
examine a passage which you think interesting, you will be quite
likely to find that some sentences are simple, some complex, and
some compound. The variety is pleasing. If all the sentences had
been of one kind, the result would have been decidedly monotonous.
Pupils sometimes ask whether they should use long sentences or
short sentences. This question is really answered in the preceding
paragraph, for a simple sentence is usually shorter than a complex
or a compound sentence. The fact is that what we like is _variety_.
Until you are more experienced in composition, it will be well for
you, in general, to use comparatively short sentences,--that is,
sentences of not more than twenty-five or thirty words. You should
feel at liberty, however, to follow your own taste in such matters,
provided that your sentences are not regularly of about the same
length and about the same form, so that your writing is lacking in
variety.
Be particularly careful, moreover, to avoid the sentence which is so
long as not to be easily understood, such as the following:--
I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly,
and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a
painter could imagine, consisting of a boy and two girls, the
eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs, who were going
the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, until
my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness, so
that they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their
fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their
eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and
as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in
triumph at their escape.
See how much this passage is improved when the long sentence is
broken up into shorter sentences:--
I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly,
and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that
a painter could imagine. It consisted of a boy and two girls,
the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs. They were
going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door,
but my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness.
They remained for a moment playing on their lips with their
fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their
eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and
as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in
triumph at their escape.
=Exercise 14.=--I. Improve the following passage by combining
some of the sentences, making larger complex or compound
sentences:--
I explored an old cellar. I noticed a slight break in the wall.
The neck of a bottle projected from it. I drew it from its resting
place. It proved to be a quaint green glass bottle. It bore a label.
The label read "Currant Wine, 1802." I smacked my lips.
I handed the bottle to my companion to open. He pulled the cork out
with his teeth. We filled two tumblers. I thanked him. I raised the
glass to my lips. I took a deep draught. Instantly I bounded to my
feet. My bound would have done credit to an athlete. I made for the
spring-house.
"Seems to me," remarked the old tenant of the house,--"seems to me
that was horse liniment. I know the smell."
II. Improve the following passage by using a greater number of
sentences:--
Once upon a time there were two princes who were twins and they
lived in the pleasant vale of Argos, far away in Hellas, where they
had fruitful meadows and vineyards, sheep and oxen, and great herds
of horses and all that men could need to make them blest, and yet
they were wretched, because they were jealous of each other, and
from the moment they were born began to quarrel.
=Exercise 15.=--Improve the following by varying the length of
your sentences, making some long and some short:--
A sleep fell upon the whole castle. The beautiful princess slept in
her chamber. The king and the queen were in the great hall. They
fell fast asleep. The horses slept in their stalls. The dogs slept
in the yard. The pigeons slept on the roof. The very fire on the
hearth slept like the rest. The meat on the spit ceased roasting.
The wind ceased. Not a leaf fell from the trees about the castle.
Around about that place grew a hedge of thorns. At last the whole
castle was hidden from view. Nothing could be seen but the vane on
the roof.
Years after a king's son came into that country. He heard about the
enchanted castle. He came near the hedge of thorns. It changed into
a hedge of beautiful flowers. He passed through into the castle
yard. He saw the horses and the hunting dogs lying asleep. On the
roof, the pigeons were sitting with their heads under their wings.
He entered the kitchen. The flies on the wall were asleep. The cook
had her hand uplifted to strike the scullion. The kitchen maid had a
fowl in her lap ready to pluck.
He mounted higher. He saw the whole court asleep. The king and the
queen were asleep on their thrones. At last he came to the tower. He
went up the winding stair. He opened the door. He entered the room
of the princess.
He stooped and kissed the princess. She opened her eyes and looked
kindly at him. She rose. They went forth together. Then the king
and queen and whole court waked up. The horses rose and shook
themselves. The hounds sprang up and wagged their tails. The pigeons
flew into the field. The kitchen fire leaped up and cooked the meat.
The cook gave the scullion a box on the ear. He roared out. The maid
went on plucking the fowl.
The wedding of the prince and princess was celebrated with great
splendor. They lived happily ever after.
=4. Periodic Sentences.=--We have now discussed sentences with
regard to their grammatical structure and with regard to their
length. There is one more way in which they may be looked at; that
is, the degree to which the sense is suspended. This will require a
little explanation.
In each of the following sentences two vertical lines are placed at
the spot where the words first make complete sense.
1. Whenever he comes, he is warmly welcomed.||
2. He is warmly welcomed|| whenever he comes.
3. When Absalom died, David mourned.||
4. David mourned|| when Absalom died.
5. As the President passed, the soldiers saluted.||
6. The soldiers saluted|| as the President passed.
7. While there is life, there is hope.||
8. The sun shines|| on the just and the unjust.
9. The steam tug had long since let slip her hawsers,|| and gone
panting away with a derisive scream.
10. The ship seemed quite proud|| of being left to take care of
itself, and, with its huge white sails bulged out, strutted off like
a vain turkey.
When the words in a sentence are so arranged that the sense is
not immediately complete, the sense is said to be _suspended_. A
sentence in which the sense is suspended until the end, or near the
end, is called a _periodic_ sentence. A sentence in which the sense
is not suspended until the end, or near the end, is called a _loose_
sentence.
A periodic sentence, unless it is long and clumsy, often stimulates
the attention. You cannot understand it at all until you get near
the close, and this very fact keeps your interest alive and leads
your mind on.
In the following passage the sentences are periodic:--
In the midst of a garden grew a rosebush covered with roses.
In one of them, the most beautiful of all, there dwelt an elf.
So tiny was he that no human eye could see him. Behind every
leaf in the rose he had a bedroom. Oh, what a fragrance there
was in his rooms! The walls, which were made of the pale pink
rose leaves, were very clear and bright. Flying from flower to
flower, dancing on the wings of the butterflies, rejoicing in
the warm sunshine, he led a peaceful and happy life.
Here is the same paragraph, so written that none of the sentences is
periodic. Does not the paragraph seem a little flat?
A rosebush covered with roses grew in the midst of a garden. An
elf dwelt in one of them, the most beautiful of all. No human
eye could see him, he was so tiny. He had a bedroom behind every
leaf in the rose. Oh, there was a great fragrance in his rooms!
The walls were very clear and bright, and were made of the pale
pink rose leaves. He led a peaceful and happy life, flying from
flower to flower, dancing on the wings of the butterflies and
rejoicing in the warm sunshine.
The point here, as in the other similar matters we have discussed,
is that the mind likes variety in expression. You need not worry
yourself by thinking much about the form of your sentences; but you
should, if possible, get into the habit of varying them from time
to time. Let them be sometimes short and sometimes long; sometimes
simple, and sometimes complex or compound. And above all, when you
are revising what you have written, try to make sure that in some
cases the sense is sufficiently suspended to make your sentences
interesting.
=Exercise 16.=--In the passage quoted on page 00, mark the place
where the sense is complete in each simple or complex sentence.
In compound sentences mark the place in each independent clause.
=Exercise 17.=--Construct periodic sentences by placing phrases
before the following statements.
EXAMPLE. We idly floated. In among the lily pads we idly floated.
1. The child slept. 2. They eagerly searched. 3. The prisoner
escaped. 4. We explored the creek. 5. The boys laughed. 6. The
people rejoiced. 7. We despaired. 8. The girl fainted. 9. He
blithely sang. 10. She succeeded. 11. He failed. 12. He received his
diploma. 13. The soldiers retreated. 14. Mary turned.
=Exercise 18.=--Construct periodic sentences by placing
dependent clauses before the following statements.
EXAMPLE. They immediately started. When they heard the
signal-gun, they immediately started.
1. They landed. 2. I am happy. 3. We watched. 4. The coward fled. 5.
The raven croaked. 6. The flag will float. 7. The child died. 8. The
poor suffered. 9. Our president died. 10. The slaves were free. 11.
We quietly left. 12. They fled. 13. She returned. 14. We received
the message. 15. He encouraged us.
=Exercise 19.=--Construct periodic sentences by filling the
blanks in the following with phrases or clauses.
1. ---- the village smithy stands. 2. ---- he runs. 3. ---- lay
the little village. 4. ---- to grandmother's house we go. 5. The
moonlight ---- flooded the room. 6. ---- there was a honeysuckle
arbor. 7. ---- he reached home. 8. ---- yet I trust him. 9. ---- I
will help you. 10. ---- Washington ---- took command. 11. ---- rode
the six hundred. 12. ---- a youth ---- passed by. 13. A traveler
---- was found. 14. ---- he still grasped a banner. 15. The prisoner
---- made a confession.
=Exercise 20.=--Construct periodic sentences by filling in the
blanks with phrases or clauses.
1. Far away in the forest ----. 2. Out in the country ----. 3.
A city that is set on a hill ----. 4. With a look of delighted
surprise ----. 5. This young lad, hard as the world had knocked him
about, ----. 6. Yet, through all his fun, ----. 7. Though they spake
little ----. 8. Without any discussion, ----. 9. Looking about her
uneasily, ----. 10. Late that night, as I sat up pondering over all
that had happened, ----.
=Exercise 21.=--Rewrite the following sentences, making them
periodic.
1. The night wind swept by with a desolate moan. 2. The old shutters
swung to and fro, screaming upon their hinges. 3. The village
preacher's modest mansion rose near yonder copse, where once the
garden smiled. 4. The noble six hundred rode into the jaws of death.
5. A sound came from the land between the fitful gusts of wind. 6.
The silvery rain comes aslant like a long line of spears brightly
burnished. 7. The snow arrives, announced by all the trumpets of
the sky. 8. Great burdocks grew from the wall down to the water, so
high that little children could stand upright under the loftiest of
them. 9. The loveliest children ran about on the roads, playing with
the gay butterflies. 10. The clear sun shone warm on the first day
of spring in a little court yard. 11. An old castle looms over the
narrow road. 12. The ivy grows thickly over the crumbling red walls,
leaf by leaf, up to the balcony, and a beautiful girl stands there.
13. She glances up the road as she bends over the balustrade. 14.
The lighthouse of Inverkaldy stood on a little rocky island, quite
a distance from the mainland. 15. He rowed across the water with a
cheerful heart.
=5. Bad Sentences.=--Good sentences, then, are sentences that have
some variety in form and in length, and, in particular, that are
frequently periodic. You will soon learn to give to your writing the
little touch of grace or beauty that comes in this way.
But what are _bad_ sentences? What sorts of sentences should you try
not to make? There are really only three kinds of sentences which
are positively bad. The first is the "comma sentence."
=6. The "Comma Sentence."=--This name is sometimes given to
sentences in which two or more independent clauses, not connected
by conjunctions, are separated only by commas. You should guard
carefully against this fault. If two independent clauses be placed
in a single sentence, they should be connected by a conjunction or
separated by a semicolon.
When independent clauses in the same sentence are connected by a
conjunction, it is proper to use either a semicolon or comma. When
they are not connected by a conjunction, only the semicolon can be
used.
EXAMPLES. 1. It was late, and the moon shone brightly.
2. It was late; and the moon shone brightly.
3. It was late; the moon shone brightly.
4. It was late, the moon shone brightly. [Wrong.]
_Note for the Teacher._--Occasionally, in a compound sentence,
particularly when it consists of three or more short statements,
commas are used instead of semicolons. But it seems best to
encourage pupils to use the semicolon invariably. Insistence on
this practice will greatly strengthen the pupil's grasp of the
sentence and its structure.
=Exercise 22.=--Correct the following sentences:--
1. Everything has its time to flourish, everything passes away. 2.
It was late at night, the moon shone through the windows. 3. We are
in a rich, a happy house, all are cheerful and full of joy, 4. The
door opened and the maid came in, they all stood still, not one
stirred. 5. I was right, we were not of the smallest importance
to her. 6. I'm glad they are gone, now we can be comfortable. 7.
The frost had broken up, a soft plentiful rain had melted the
snowdrifts. 8. The window was a grand advantage, out of it one could
crawl on to the roof, and from the roof was the finest view in all
Nortonbury. 9. It was one of my seasons of excessive pain, I found
it difficult to think of anything but pain. 10. The stream lay so
low as to be invisible from where we sat, you could only trace the
line of its course by the small white sails.
=Exercise 23.=--Insert capitals and periods.
1. I left Salem House upon the morrow afternoon, I little thought
then that I left it, never to return, we traveled very slowly all
night, and did not get into Yarmouth before nine or ten o'clock in
the morning, I looked out for Mr. Barkis, but he was not there; and
instead of him a fat, merry-looking little old man in black, with
rusty little bunches of ribbons at the knees of his breeches, came
puffing up to the coach window, and said, "Master Copperfield?"
2. The conflict had raged for an hour, it grew more furious, from
deck to deck the combatants rushed madly, fighting like demons, the
_Richard_ and her crew suffered terribly, yet they fought on, she
had been pierced by several eighteen-pound balls below water, she
leaked badly, but she would not surrender.
=Exercise 24.=--Construct ten compound sentences in which
no connectives are used, and the clauses are separated by
semicolons.
=7. Sentences without Unity.=--We put into a sentence thoughts
that belong together. Indeed, a good sentence is a group of words
representing thoughts that have a close relationship in the
speaker's or writer's mind. A sentence thus constructed is said to
have _unity_; that is, "one-ness." A sentence in which the words
represent facts or thoughts that do not have such a relationship is
said to lack unity.
EXAMPLES. 1. The owl, which is a nocturnal bird, has round, staring
eyes, and superstitious people dislike to hear it hoot. [Two
thoughts not closely related.]
2. Columbus was assisted by Queen Isabella of Spain, and sailing
across the Atlantic Ocean with a fleet of three vessels, he
discovered a new world. [Two thoughts not closely related.]
3. Columbus was assisted by Queen Isabella, who pawned her jewels
and used the money thus procured in fitting out for him a fleet of
three vessels. [Thoughts closely related.]
4. William Penn settled Pennsylvania and made a treaty with the
Indians under a large elm, which is one of the most graceful of our
trees. [Thoughts not closely related.]
5. William Penn, who was himself a Quaker, founded Pennsylvania as
a place of refuge for the persecuted Quakers. [Thoughts closely
related.]
=Exercise 25.=--Rewrite the following sentences:--
1. The wild strawberry has a delicious flavor, and we enjoy picking
the berries, which belong to the rose family. 2. Mary has a new
beaver muff which her father bought for her in Montreal, the largest
city in Canada. 3. Sir Walter Raleigh was a favorite of Queen
Elizabeth, called the Virgin Queen, and he introduced tobacco into
England. 4. We visited the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where we saw
the picture called "The Horse Fair," and met Mary, who is certainly
the most discontented girl I know. 5. Once, a long time ago, in a
little cottage beside a dark wood, lived a naughty little boy, and
his mother told him repeatedly that the old witch that lived in the
wood would get him.
=8. The Formless Sentence.=--There is still one other sort of
sentence to be avoided; that is the ugly, shapeless sentence that
results from placing together a number of complete statements
loosely connected by _and_, _but_, or _so_. Sometimes this is
called the _and_ sentence or the _so_ sentence, because these two
connectives are so frequently used by inexperienced writers. Let us
call it the _formless_ sentence, meaning thereby a sentence which
is deficient in form, or the form of which is ugly or distasteful
to the trained eye and ear. You will have to acquire your sense or
taste for form in sentences by practice and experience; but you
will be helped by studying the sentences given below. Those in the
left-hand column are well-written; those in the right-hand column
are _formless_.
1. At half-past nine we 1. At half-past nine we
reached Charles's house, and reached Charles's house and
until half-past ten we were until half-past ten we were
busy thinking what to do. busy thinking what to do,
Finally, some one suggested until some one suggested a
a climb up the Palisades, and climb up the Palisades, and
we started off at eleven. so we started off at eleven.
2. As it was getting very 2. It was getting very
cloudy, we put on some of cloudy, so we put on some of
Charles's old clothes. Charles's old clothes.
3. When I returned, it 3. When I returned, it
had stopped raining, and the had stopped raining, and the
boys were receiving a lecture boys were receiving a lecture
from the farmer's wife. She from the farmer's wife,
told us that we had no right who told us that we had no
on her property, and a few right on her property, and
other things we didn't pay a few other things we didn't
much attention to. But pay much attention to, but
when she said that her husband one thing she told us was
was a magistrate, and that her husband was a magistrate,
that she could have us locked and that she could
up, we got away as quickly have us locked up, and so we
as we could. got away from there as
quickly as we could.
4. I had been traveling 4. I had been traveling
all day through the all day through the snow
snow with one companion, with one companion, who
who had now gone off to had now gone off to what
what our compasses told us our compasses told us was
was the south, in search of the south, in search of wood,
wood. I was hungry and and I was thoroughly hungry
thoroughly tired. More than and tired, for more than
once during the day I once during the day I had
had stepped on what seemed stepped on what seemed to be
to be firmly packed snow, firmly packed snow, only to
only to sink to my waist in sink to my waist in a soft
a soft drift, and it was always drift, and it was always with
with difficulty that difficulty that I had got out.
I had got out.
You will see, then, that there is certain "knack" which you must
acquire of giving a sentence a pleasing form. With a little
patience, you will soon learn it, and you will gain it all the more
easily by remembering that the ugly formless sentence, which you are
to avoid, is simply a _long loose_ sentence (see § 4).
=Exercise 26.=--Reconstruct the following sentences:--
1. There once reigned a queen, and in her garden were found the
most glorious flowers of all seasons and from all lands, but she
loved best the roses, and so she had the most various kinds of this
flower, and they grew against the earth walls, and wound themselves
round pillars and window frames, and all along the ceiling in all
the halls, and the roses were various in fragrance, form, and color.
2. Many years ago there lived an emperor, and he cared enormously
for new clothes, and he wanted to be very fine, so he spent all his
money for clothes, and he did not care about his soldiers, but only
liked to drive out and show his new clothes, and he had a coat for
every hour of the day, and just as they say of a king, "He is in
council," they said of him, "The emperor is in his wardrobe."
3. Napoleon's marshals came to him once in the midst of a battle and
said, "We have lost the day and are being cut to pieces," but the
great soldier drew out his watch, unmoved, and said, "It is only two
o'clock in the afternoon, and though you have lost the battle you
have time to win another," so they charged again and won a victory,
and we should enter our battle-fields of difficulty with the same
unconquerable spirit.
4. The highest courage is sustained courage, for the power of
continuance adds to all other powers, and to face danger, appreciate
the full demand and meet it to the end, is the height of brave
living, for most young hearts can respond to a sudden demand for
courage, but the long stretch finds them lacking.
5. A New York woman called on Emerson one morning and found the
philosopher reading in his study, while near him on a plate there
lay a little heap of cherry stones, and the visitor slipped one of
these stones into her glove. Some months later she met Emerson again
at a reception in Boston and recalled her visit to him and then she
pointed to the brooch she wore, a brooch of gold and brilliants with
the cherry stone set in the center and she said, "I took this stone
from the plate at your elbow on the morning of my call," and Emerson
replied, "Ah, I'll tell my amanuensis of that and he will be so
pleased, for he loves cherries, but I never touch them myself."
6. John was a boy who wanted to be a ventriloquist, and one day he
visited an old engineer in a factory and after a little conversation
he imitated the squeak of badly oiled machinery, and the old
engineer trotted to a certain valve and oiled it, so John let a few
minutes pass and then emitted another series of squeaks and the
engineer again oiled his machinery, and the third time John squeaked
the engineer saw through the joke and, walking up quietly behind
John, squirted a half-pint of oil down the back of his neck, saying,
"There! There'll be no more squeaking to-day."
=Exercise 27.=--Reconstruct the following sentences, putting the
underlined phrases in their proper places.
1. The musician was playing a sonata _with long hair_.
2. I saw at once that he was a villain _with half an eye_.
3. A woman desires a home for her _dog going abroad for the summer_.
4. The kind old gentleman lifted the trembling child _with a
gold-headed cane_.
5. A wreath was made by a little girl of _roses_.
6. The house was painted brown _with the tall flag-pole_.
7. We saw a magnificent cedar tree _entering the woods_.
8. We found some golden-rod _walking along the dusty road_.
9. We saw the lakes _climbing a tree_.
10. The old lady gave alms to a young beggar _with the white hair_.