Transcriber's note: Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold
text by =equal signs=.
Italics have replaced underlined words.
Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals.
Minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have
been retained as printed.
Mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where
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The cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the
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* * * * *
ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION
BY
DOROTHEA F. CANFIELD
FORMERLY SECRETARY OF THE HORACE MANN SCHOOLS
AND
GEORGE R. CARPENTER
PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND ENGLISH COMPOSITION
IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO. LTD.
1918
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1906,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1906. Reprinted July,
1907; February, August, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911;
March, 1913; September, 1914; June, 1915; March, twice, November,
1916.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
The authors have endeavored to provide an unusually rich collection
of material for work in composition,--material well arranged, well
graded, well adapted for use in the seventh and eighth grades, and
accompanied by a clear and suggestive statement of the grammatical
and rhetorical principles involved. For skilled advice and
assistance in connection with Chapters II-VI we are greatly indebted
to Miss Jennie F. Owens, of the Jersey City Training School.
D. F. C.
G. R. C.
NEW YORK CITY, July, 1906.
CONTENTS
PAGE
TABLE OF SECTIONS ix
TABLE OF EXERCISES xiii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. THE SENTENCE 4
III. THE PARAGRAPH 29
IV. WORDS 49
V. CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE 69
VI. WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES 88
VII. ORAL COMPOSITION 102
VIII. THE DIARY 106
IX. THE LETTER 112
X. NARRATION 137
XI. DESCRIPTION 155
XII. NARRATION (_continued_) 188
XIII. EXPOSITION 199
XIV. ARGUMENT 214
XV. SECRETARIAL WORK 225
XVI. VERSIFICATION 234
XVII. PUNCTUATION 247
APPENDIX:
A. RULES FOR SPELLING 269
B. MODEL OF CONSTITUTION 271
INDEX 273
TABLE OF SECTIONS
[The roman numerals refer to chapters; the arabic, to sections.]
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. THE SENTENCE: =1.= Phrases, clauses, and
sentences.--=2.= Simple, complex, and compound
sentences.--=3.= Variety in the use of
sentences.--=4.= Periodic sentences.--=5.=
Bad sentences.--=6.= The "comma" sentence.--=7.=
Sentences without unity.--=8.= The formless sentence 4
III. THE PARAGRAPH: =9.= The use of the paragraph.--=10.=
The beginning.--=11.= Unity in the paragraph.--=12.=
The body of the paragraph.--=13.= Too
many paragraphs.--=14.= The end of a paragraph.--=15.=
Quotations 29
IV. WORDS: =16.= How we learn words.--=17.= The size
and character of the English vocabulary.--=18.=
Increasing one's vocabulary.--=19.= Synonyms.--=20.=
Accuracy in the use of words.--=21.= Figures
of speech.--=22.= Mistakes in the use of words.--=23.=
Spelling.--=24.= Slang.--=25.= Errors in the forms
of words 49
V. CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE: =26.= Writing
in which the ideas are already at hand.--=27.=
Condensation.--=28.= Method in condensation.--=29.=
Expansion.--=30.= The purpose of expansion.--=31.=
Paraphrase.--=32.= Paraphrase of complete compositions 69
VI. WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES: =33.= Whole compositions.--
=34.= Outlines.--=35.= Essentials in a whole
composition.--=36.= How to plan an essay 88
VII. ORAL COMPOSITION: =37.= The great essential.--=38.=
How to be heard.--=39.= Pronunciation.--=40.=
A plan necessary 102
VIII. THE DIARY: =41.= The value of a diary.--=42.=
Contents of a diary.--=43.= Imaginary
diaries.--=44.= The class diary 106
IX. THE LETTER: =45.= Various kinds of letters.--=46.=
Friendly letters.--=47.= Letters of social
intercourse.--=48.= Formal invitations.--=49.=
Telegrams.--=50.= Business letters.--=51.=
Notices.-- =52.= Appeals.--=53.= Petitions.--=54.=
Advertisements 112
X. NARRATION: =55.= The essentials of a good narrative.--
=56.= Autobiography.--=57.= Biography.--=58.=
History.--=59.= Plain reporting of facts.--=60=.
Conversation 137
XI. DESCRIPTION: =61.= Observation.--=62.= General
scientific description.--=63.= Specific scientific
description.--=64.= Technical terms.--=65.= Literary
description.--=66.= Description of people.--=67.=
Longer description.--=68.= Description of
conditions.--=69.= Description by contrast.--=70.=
Description of events.--=71.= Picture making of
scenes of action.--=72.= Travel.--=73.= Descriptions
of an hour 155
XII. NARRATION (_Continued_): =74.= Historical stories.--
=75.= Fictitious stories.--=76.= The beginning.--
=77.= The ending.--=78.= The body 188
XIII. EXPOSITION: =79.= General principles.--=80.=
Explanation of a material process.--=81.= Explanation
of games.--=82.= Exposition of abstract ideas.--=83.=
Exposition by example.--=84.= Exposition by
repetition.--=85.= Exposition by contrast.--=86.=
Exposition by a figure of speech 199
XIV. ARGUMENT: =87.= General principle.--=88.= The
introduction.--=89.= The reasons.--=90.= The
outline.--=91.= The plea.--=92.= Other forms 214
XV. SECRETARIAL WORK (=93=) 225
XVI. VERSIFICATION (=94=) 234
XVII. PUNCTUATION: =95.= General theory of punctuation.--
=96.= The period.--=97.= The question mark.--=98.=
The exclamation point.--=99.= The semicolon.--=100.=
The colon.--=101.= The comma.--=102.= Parentheses
and brackets.--=103.= The dash.--=104.= The
apostrophe.--=105.= Quotation marks.--=106.=
Italics.--=107.= The hyphen.--=108.= Capitals.--
=109.= List of common abbreviations 247
TABLE OF EXERCISES
CHAPTER II. THE SENTENCE
EXERCISES PAGES
1-3. Distinguishing and constructing phrases, clauses,
and sentences 5, 6
4-13. Distinguishing and constructing simple, complex,
and compound sentences 7-13
14, 15. Variety in the form and length of sentences 15, 16
16. Distinguishing the periodic sentence 19
17-21. Constructing the periodic sentence 19-21
22-24. Distinguishing and correcting the "comma"
sentence 22, 23
25. Correcting sentences that are without unity 24
26, 27. Reconstructing formless sentences 26-28
CHAPTER III. THE PARAGRAPH
28. Noting the force of topic sentences 33
29. Supplying topic sentences 34
30. Writing short paragraphs from topic sentences 35
31. Noting when and why paragraphs lack unity 36
32. Making notes for paragraphs suggested by topic
sentences 40
33. Correcting bad division into paragraphs 41
34. Making notes for paragraphs suggested by summary
sentences 43
35. Making summary sentences for paragraphs indicated
by notes 44
36-38. Use of quotation marks 46-48
CHAPTER IV. WORDS
39-45. Increasing the vocabulary 51, 52
46-52. Synonyms 53-57
53. Distinguishing between similar words 59
54-60. Metaphors and similes 60-62
61-62. Slang 64
63-66. Errors in the forms of words 65-67
CHAPTER V. CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE
67. Condensing paragraphs 70
68-69. Condensing longer passages 75-77
70. Expanding short and suggestive statements 79
71. Expanding for the sake of clearness 80
72-73. Paraphrasing short passages 82-84
74. Paraphrasing complete poems 87
CHAPTER VI. WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES
75-76. Preparing outlines 96, 101
CHAPTER VII. ORAL COMPOSITION
CHAPTER VIII. THE DIARY
77. Imaginary diaries 109
CHAPTER IX. THE LETTER
78. Friendly letters 118
79. Letters of social intercourse 121
80. Formal invitations 123
81. Telegrams 124
82-84. Business letters 126, 128, 129
85-87. Notices 131, 132
88. Appeals 134
89. Petitions 135
90-91. Advertisements 135, 136
CHAPTER X. NARRATION
92. Fables 138
93. Autobiographical sketches 141
94-96. Biographical sketches 142, 143
97. Historical sketches 150
98. Reporting facts 152
99. Fables told by conversation 153
100-101. Imaginary conversations 153, 154
CHAPTER XI. DESCRIPTION
102. Practice in accurate observation 157
103-104. General scientific description 162
105-107. Specific scientific description 163, 164
108-109. Literary description 168, 169
110-111. Description of people and animals 170, 171
112. Longer descriptions 173
113, 114. Description of conditions 175, 176
115. Description by contrast 177
116. Description of events 179
117, 118. Picture making of scenes of action 180, 181
119. Sketches of travel 185
120. Descriptions of an hour 187
CHAPTER XII. NARRATIVE (_Continued_)
121, 122. Historical stories 190, 191
123. Fictitious stories 193
124. Completing stories, when the beginning is given 194
125. Completing stories, when the ending is given 196
126. Completing stories, when the plot is suggested 198
CHAPTER XIII. EXPOSITION
127-129. Explanation of processes 203, 204
130-131. Explanation of games, sports, etc. 206
132. Explanation by comparison and example 209
133. Explanation (general) 211
134. Explanation of proverbs and quotations 212
135. Explanations of national festivals 213
CHAPTER XIV. ARGUMENT
136. Statement and definition of subject 216
137. Pleas 221
138. Argument (general) 222
139. Giving reasons for personal preference 223
CHAPTER XV. SECRETARIAL WORK
140-141. Minutes, official letters, etc. 228, 230
CHAPTER XVI. VERSIFICATION
142. Arranging verse in stanza form 240
Completing rhymes 241
143-144. Putting fables into verse 243
145. Writing letters, invitations, and stories in verse 245
CHAPTER XVII. PUNCTUATION
146. The semicolon 251
147. The colon and the semicolon 252
148. The comma 257
149. Punctuation of direct quotations 260
150. Punctuation of partial quotations 262
151. Punctuation of quotations within quotations 262
152. Capital letters 265
153. Review of punctuation 266
ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
For several years you have written, from time to time, short
compositions. These have been letters, or stories, or descriptions,
or explanations of ideas you had in mind, or summaries of your
lessons in history or geography. You have now come to a point
in your education where it will be well for you to take up
_composition_ as a separate subject, studying it as you would
geography or history. Let us begin by asking ourselves what it is.
What is composition?
What geography and history are, it is easy to see. Geography is the
subject that has to do with the world as a place. We learn the names
that men have given to the parts of the world, large and small; and,
with regard to each country, what are its climate and the nature of
its soil, its products and manufactures, its cities, and mountains,
and rivers. History is the subject that has to do with the actions
of the inhabitants of the world. We learn what were the chief
nations that have existed or still exist, what were the important
events that took place in each nation, as time went on, and who were
the great men that shaped its destinies. Any one who knew about all
the main events in the life of all the great nations would be a
very learned person indeed; but you have already read or studied
some very important things in the history of Greece or Rome, or the
United States, and thus have a general idea of the history of one or
more of these nations.
Since the beginning of time men have been talking to one another,
and many thousand years ago they found a way of communicating with
one another by written signs or letters; and not so many hundred
years ago they discovered printing, which enables one person to
communicate with many people in different places at the same time.
All over the world, then, people are speaking words or writing
words, and other people are hearing or reading these words and
trying to understand the thoughts intended to be expressed by them.
We have various words to express combinations of spoken or written
words, such as _talk_ or _conversation_, _speech_, _oration_,
_address_, _lecture_, _sermon_, _letter_, _telegram_, _essay_,
_novel_, _poem_, and very many others.
Now, it is obvious that a person may wish to express his ideas and
yet not be successful in doing so. Words may be combined so as to
express thoughts well or to express them badly. _Composition is
the subject that has to do with the best expression of thought by
language._
But how, then, does composition differ from grammar? Grammar is
really a part--a small part--of composition. Each language has
certain customs with regard to the forms which words have under
various circumstances, and to the order in which the parts of a
sentence are placed, as well as a system of names for different
kinds of words and sentences and parts of sentences. This body of
customs or rules we call grammar. But grammar takes into account
mainly the form of a sentence, and pays little or no attention to
its meaning. Composition, on the other hand, deals mainly with words
as expressions of thought.
In our study of composition, then, we are to learn how to combine
or group our words so as best to express our ideas. There are three
ways of gaining skill in composition:--
1. By following a rule or theory.
2. By practice.
3. By imitation.
There are certain rules in composition which are based on the
experience of many writers and speakers. These you will learn as we
go on. These rules will not be of very much value to you, however,
unless you put them into _practice_. If you want to learn how to
swim, you can get the general idea from a friend or a teacher; but
that general idea will not enable you to swim. You must learn to
swim by swimming. In the same way, you must learn composition by
_composing_. Keep trying to express your ideas; let your teachers
and friends tell you how clearly they understand you, take their
criticism to heart, and _try again_.
The third way to learn composition is by imitation, and that is a
very good way indeed. When you think that some one else writes well,
try to write like him or her. Imitation is the greatest possible
help in learning how to do anything well.