lucernarum accensu_ (from the lighting, or the light, of lamps). The
author of the poem “Lithica” says that the diamond (_adamas_), like
the crystal, when placed on an altar, sent forth a flame without the
aid of fire.[240] If this did not refer to the use of rock-crystal as
a burning-glass, we might see in the passage an indication that the
phosphorescence of the diamond had already been noted before the second
or third century of our era.
From the Lydian river Tmolus a marvellous stone was taken which was
said to change color four times a day. This surpasses the properties of
the “saphire merveilleux” which changed its hue at night. Only innocent
young girls could find the Lydian stone, and while they wore it they
were defended from outrage.[241] Is it possible that the ancient writer
intended to hint at the proverbial fickleness of woman, when stating
that this changeable stone could only be discovered by one of the fair
sex?
The temple of the Syrian goddess Astarte contained an image of this
divinity crowned with a diadem in which was set a luminous stone.
Such was the splendor of the light emitted by this gem that the whole
sanctuary was lighted up as though with a myriad of lamps. Indeed, the
stone itself bore the name _lychnos_ (“lamp”). In the daytime this
light was fainter, but was still very noticeable, as a fiery glow.[242]
Two fabulous stones are noted by pseudo-Aristotle, and one of these,
the “sleeping-stone,” must have possessed marvellous soporific power.
It was a luminous stone of a bright ruddy hue, and shone in the
darkness with a bright light. If a small quantity of this stone were
hung about a person’s neck, he would sleep uninterruptedly for three
days and nights, and, when awakened on the fourth day, he would still
be almost overcome by sleep. The other stone, of a greenish hue, had
the opposite quality and induced prolonged wakefulness; so long as it
was worn, sleep was banished. Our author gravely states that “some
men who must watch at night suffer greatly from lack of sleep.” If,
however, they wore the “waking-stone,” they suffered no inconvenience
from their enforced vigils.[243] Evidently this stone would be a
precious possession for night-watchmen, and a more satisfactory
guarantee for their employers than “timeclocks” or other tests of
wakefulness.
In his commentary on Marbodus, Alardus of Amsterdam relates the history
of a wonderful luminous stone, a “chrysolampis,” which, with many other
precious stones, was set in a marvellous golden tablet dedicated to
St. Adelbert, apostle of the Frisians and patron of the town of Egmund
(d. 720-730), by Hildegard, wife of Theodoric, Count of Holland. The
gift was made to the Abbey of Egmund, where the saint’s body reposed.
Alardus tells us that the “chrysolampis” shone so brightly that when
the monks were called to the chapel in the night-time, they could read
the Hours without any other light. This wonderful stone was stolen by
one of the monks, whom Alardus terms “the most rapacious creature who
ever went on two legs”; but, fearing to keep so valuable a gem with
him, he cast it into the sea and it was never recovered.[244]
Strange tales were told of a luminous “carbuncle” on the shrine of St.
Elizabeth (d. 1231) at Marburg. This stone was set above the statuette
of the Virgin, and it was said to emit fiery rays at night. However,
Creuzer informs us that it was only a very brilliant rock crystal of a
yellowish-white hue. The shrine was an elaborate work of art in silver
gilt, and was literally covered with precious stones to the number of
824, besides two large pearls and a great many smaller ones. All these
gems were stripped from their settings when the shrine was taken from
Marburg to Cassel in 1810.[245]
At the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1891, the writer saw what was called
“The Ring of St. Elizabeth,” purporting to be set with her miraculously
luminous ruby. The stone in the setting proved, however, to be a large
almost flat carbuncle garnet of no great brilliancy, set in a narrow
rim of gold.
After noting the reports of medieval travellers regarding the wonderful
luminous rubies of the sovereigns of Pegu and repeating the tale that
the night was illumined by their splendor, Cleandro Arnobio adds that
it did not appear that any such rubies were to be found in his day.
Nevertheless, he had heard from an ecclesiastic of a certain jewel that
shone brightly at night. This stone, however, was not a ruby, but was
of a pale citron hue, and hence Arnobio inclines to believe that it was
either a topaz or a yellow diamond.[246] This probably refers to the
Marburg “carbuncle.”
The luminous “ruby” of the King of Ceylon is noted by Chau Ju-Kua,[247]
a Chinese writer of about the middle of the thirteenth century and
hence a contemporary of the Arab Teifashi. He says: “The king holds
in his hand a jewel five inches in diameter, which cannot be burned
by fire, and which shines in the night like a torch.” This gigantic
luminous gem was also believed to possess the virtues of an elixir of
youth, for we are told that the king rubbed his face with it daily and
by this means would retain his youthful looks even should he live more
than ninety years.
The glories of Emperor Manuel’s (ca. 1120-1180) throne are celebrated
by the Hebrew traveller Benjamin of Tudela, who visited Constantinople
in 1161 A.D. This splendid throne was of gold studded with precious
stones and, suspended from the canopy by gold chains, hung a
magnificent golden crown set with jewels of incalculable value and so
bright and sparkling that their glitter rendered needless any other
illumination at night.[248]
When Henry II of France (1519-1559) made his solemn entry into the
city of Boulogne, a stranger from India presented to the sovereign a
luminous stone. It was rather soft, had a fiery brilliance, and could
not be touched with impunity. According to De Thou, this story was
vouched for by J. Pipin, who saw the stone himself and described it in
a letter to Antoine Mizauld, a writer on occult themes, well known in
his day.[249]
Although Garcias ab Orta did not believe in the tales current in his
time regarding luminous rubies, he relates a story of such a stone told
to him by a gem-dealer. This man stated that he had purchased a number
of fine but small rubies from Ceylon, and had spread them out over
a table. When he gathered them up again, one of the stones remained
hidden in a fold of the table-cloth. In the night he remarked something
like a flame emanating from the table. Lighting a candle, he approached
the table and found there the small ruby; when this was removed and
the candle extinguished, the light was no longer visible. Garcias
admits that the gem-dealers were fond of telling good stories, but he
concludes with the dictum, “we must trust in them nevertheless.”[250]
Not only the ruby, but the emerald also had the reputation of being
a luminous stone, for, besides the shining “emerald” pillar in the
temple of Melkart at Tyre, Pliny records the tale of a marble lion,
with eyes of gleaming emeralds, which was set over the tomb of “a
petty king called Hermias.” This tomb was on the coast, and the
flashing light from the emerald eyes frightened away the tunny-fish,
to the great loss of the fishermen.[251] Whether the eyes of the
magnificent chryselephantine statue of Athene by Phidias were supposed
to be luminous we do not know, but they were incrusted with precious
stones.[252]
The collection of works by the English alchemists, published by Elias
Ashmole, contains the tale of a worthy parson who lived in a little
town near London, and who wished to immortalize himself by building
across the Thames a bridge which would always be lighted at night.
After relating several expedients which suggested themselves to him,
the poet continues:
At the laste he thought to make the light,
For the Bridge to shine by nighte,
With _Carbuncle Stones_, to make men wonder,
With double reflexion above and under:
Then new thought troubled his Minde
_Carbuncle Stones_ how he might finde;
And where to find wise men and trewe,
Which would for his interest pursue,
In seeking all the Worlde about,
Plenty of Carbuncles to find out;
For this he took so mickle thought,
That his fatt flesh wasted nigh to naught.[253]
It is scarcely necessary to add that the poor parson never realized his
dream, but the story shows how popular was the belief that carbuncles
or rubies shone with their own light.
A luminous or phosphorescent stone, which has been named the Bologna
stone, is the subject of a treatise published by the physician Mentzel
in 1675.[254] The writer describes various experiments made to test
the peculiar qualities of this mineral, which is partly a radiated or
crystalline sulphate of barytes, and phosphoresces when calcined. It
was sometimes called the “lunar stone” (_lapis lunaris_), because,
like the moon, it gave out in the darkness the light it received from
the sun. Mentzel also relates that the stone was first discovered, in
1604, by Vincenzio Casscioroli, an adept in alchemy, who believed that
it would be a great aid in the transmutation of the baser metals into
gold, on account of its solar quality. The place of its occurrence was
Monte Paterno, near Bologna, where it appeared in the fissures of the
mountain, after torrential rains.
[Illustration: TITLE PAGE OF ROBERT BOYLE’S WORK ON THE ORIGIN AND
VIRTUES OF GEMS.
Printed in Cologne in 1680.]
The various phenomena of fluorescence and phosphorescence undoubtedly
explain some at least of the legends regarding luminous stones,
superstition or fantasy having here as in most other cases a certain
substratum of fact. This class of physical phenomena has been made
the subject of special investigation by the author, as many as
13,000 specimens of various minerals having been subjected to the
most searching tests in order to determine their qualities in this
respect.[255] His interest in this field of research was greatly
stimulated by a fortuitous happening. In 1891 his wife, while hanging
up a gown in a closet one evening, saw that the diamond in a ring she
was wearing gave off a faint streak of light which was very noticeable
in the dark, and this fact led to a long series of experiments on
the fluorescence, phosphorescence, and triboluminescence of the
diamond.[256] More than two centuries before, Robert Boyle made a
similar set of experiments at night with a diamond which must have been
an Indian stone, and which he describes as table cut, about one-third
of an inch long and somewhat less in width; he remarks that it was a
dull stone of very bad water, having a blemish with a whitish cloud
covering nearly a third of the stone.[257]
The “Journal des Sçavans” for 1739 gives certain tests of the luminous
quality of diamonds made by Mons. Du Fay. In order successfully to
observe this phenomenon, he prescribes that the experimenter shall
remain in a darkened room for fifteen minutes, taking the additional
precaution of closing one or both of his eyes. The diamond to be
tested should be exposed to the sun’s rays, or to strong daylight, for
less than a minute, and when taken into darkness the luminosity, if
observable, lasts twelve or thirteen minutes at longest. Not all
diamonds show this quality, and nothing in their form or appearance
serves to determine their possession of it. However, Mons. du Fay
observed that the yellow diamonds, of which he tried a considerable
number, were luminous. A single emerald, out of twenty that were
tested, proved to be luminous.[258]
[Illustration: 1. Self-print of upper diamond of No. 4 by
phosphorescence, produced by rubbing briskly with stick covered by
woolen cloth. Exposure one-half minute.
2. Self-print, both diamonds, after one minute’s exposure to
ultra-violet light, electric action eliminated.
3. Self-print, upper diamond. Exposure one-fourth minute.
4. Upper: blue-white Tiffanyite diamond, 14.86 carats; Bagagem Mine,
Brazil. Lower: purple-black diamond, 13.35 carats; Brazil.
5. Self-print, both diamonds; different position.
6. Aspect of both diamonds (No. 4), one minute’s exposure, ultra-violet
light; blue-white phosphorescing white, purple-black having red glow.]
Boyle’s experiments led to the discovery that some diamonds, when
rubbed against wood or other hard substances, and even against cloth or
silk, will emit a ray of light which seems to follow them; this is what
is called triboluminescence.
The power of absorbing sunlight or artificial light and then giving
it off in the dark is only possessed by certain diamonds. These are
Brazilian stones, slightly milky in tint, or blue-white as they are
often termed, and it is an included substance and not the diamond
itself that possesses the power of storing up light and then giving it
out. Willemite, kunzite, sphalerite (sulphide of zinc) and some other
minerals possess the same power. Their peculiar property may be due to
the presence of a slight quantity of manganese or to that of some of
the uranium salts. That it is only the ultra-violet rays that are thus
absorbed by these diamonds is proved by the fact that the phenomenon
is not observable when a thin plate of glass is interposed between the
sunlight or artificial light and the diamond, as glass is not traversed
by these rays. The still undetermined substance to whose presence in
diamonds of this type the special class of phenomena must be due,
was named by the author tiffanyite, in honor of the late Charles L.
Tiffany (1812-1902), founder of the firm of Tiffany & Company.[259]
On the other hand all diamonds phosphoresce when exposed to the rays of
radium, polonium, or actinium, even when glass is interposed. Treating
of some of the aspects of phosphorescence in diamonds, Sir William
Crookes says:[260]
In a vacuum, exposed to a high-tension current of electricity,
diamonds phosphoresce of different colours, most South African
diamonds shining with a bluish light. Diamonds from other localities
emit bright blue, apricot, pale blue, red, yellowish-green, orange,
and pale green light. The most phosphorescent diamonds are those
which are fluorescent in the sun. One beautiful green diamond in my
collection, when phosphorescing in a good vacuum, gives almost as much
light as a candle, and you can easily read by its rays. But the time
has hardly come when diamonds can be used as domestic illuminants!
By permission of Mrs. Kunz, wife of the well-known New York
mineralogist, I will show you perhaps the most remarkable of all
phosphorescing diamonds. This prodigy diamond will phosphoresce in
the dark for some minutes after being exposed to a small pocket
electric light, and if rubbed on a piece of cloth a long streak of
phosphorescence appears.
The luminescence produced by heat is wonderfully marked in the case
of chlorophane, a variety of fluorite. A Siberian specimen of a pale
violet color emitted a white light merely from the heat of the hand;
boiling water caused it to give out a green light, which was so greatly
intensified when the specimen rested on a live coal that the radiance
could be discerned from a considerable distance. Similar phenomena were
observable in the case of chlorophane from Amelia Court House, Va.,
and the writer found that specimens from this source also exhibited
strong triboluminescence, resulting either from contact with one
another, or with any hard substance.[261]
As the terms fluorescence and phosphorescence are sometimes rather
carelessly employed, it may be well to note here that while both terms
are used to denote the luminescence of a non-luminous body resulting
from the action of light rays, of the electric current, or of radiant
energy of any kind, as well as from heat, fluorescence signifies a
luminosity which only continues so long as the exciting cause is
present, while phosphorescence means a luminosity persisting for a
longer or shorter period after the exciting cause has ceased to operate
directly. The latter term therefore denotes a luminous energy stored up
in the formerly non-luminous body and emitted by it for a certain time,
at the expiration of which it again becomes non-luminous. Other special
designations of induced luminosity in minerals are triboluminescence,
the emission of light as a result of friction and thermoluminescence, a
term used to denote light-emission excited by moderate heating, even by
the warmth of the hand.
An old treatise in Greek, said in its title to come from “the sanctuary
of the temple,” and containing material, partly of Egyptian origin,
may help us to understand something of the processes employed by a
temple priest to impress the common people by the sight of luminous
gems. The writer of the treatise declares that for the production of
“the carbuncle that shines in the night” use was made of certain parts
(he says “the bile”) of marine animals whose entrails, scales and
bones exhibited the phenomenon of phosphorescence. If properly treated,
precious stones (preferably carbuncles) would glow so brightly at night
“that anyone owning such a stone could read or write by its light as
well as he could by daylight.”[262]
In the _Annales de Chimie et Physique_, the great French chemist,
M. Berthelot, discusses this matter and expresses the following
opinion[263]
“The texts leave no room for doubt as to the employment by the
ancients of precious stones rendered phosphorescent in the dark by
the superficial application of tinctures composed of materials whose
phosphorescent quality is known to us. Although this luminescence, due
to an application of organic oxidizable materials, could not well be
durable, still it might be made to last several hours, perhaps several
days, and it could always be renewed by repeating the application.”
The use of jewelled ornaments to heighten by their luminosity in
obscurity or in darkness the effect produced by a sacred image, and
to stimulate religious awe in the beholder, is testified to by the
ultra-Protestant traveller, Fynes Moryson, Gent., who went to Italy
in 1594. Of his visit to the Santa Casa in Loreto, he says that he
himself and two Dutchmen, his companions, were permitted to enter the
inner chapel of the sanctuary, “where,” he proceeds, “we did see the
Virgin’s picture, adorned with pretious Jewels, and the place (to
increase religious horror) being darke, yet the Jewels shined by the
light of wax candles.” Although there is no question here of naturally
luminous gems, this might have been the impression produced upon a
more sympathetic pilgrim.[264]
Writing of the traditions in regard to luminous stones, Sir Richard F.
Burton says, “There may be a basis of fact to this fancy, the abnormal
effect of precious stones upon mesmeric sensitives.”[265] However,
while some instances are recorded of psychic impression produced by
precious stones on the minds of persons possessing a highly sensitive
nervous system, it seems likely that some legends of luminous stones
had their origin in the refractive powers of cut gems, by means of
which a dim and distant light would be reflected from the surface of
the stones and would seem to spring from them. Quite possibly, in other
instances, there was a disposition to cater to the popular belief
by placing a light so that the hidden beams traversed the stone and
appeared to emanate from it.
VI
On Crystal Balls and Crystal Gazing
We have evidence of the use of crystal balls as means of divination
in medieval times, and “scrying” in some of its many forms was by no
means rare in the Greek and Roman periods. The essential requisite for
the exercise of this species of divination is a polished surface of
some sort upon which the scryer shall gaze intently; for this purpose
mirrors, globules of lead or quicksilver, polished steel, the surface
of water, and even pools of ink, have been employed and have been found
to insure quite as satisfactory results as the crystal ball. The points
of light reflected from the polished surface (_points de repère_)
serve to attract the attention of the gazer and to fix the eye until,
gradually, the optic nerve becomes so fatigued that it finally ceases
to transmit to the sensorium the impression made from without and
begins to respond to the reflex action proceeding from the brain of the
gazer. In this way the impression received from within is apparently
projected and seems to come from without. It is easy to understand that
the results must vary according to the idiosyncrasy of the various
scryers; for everything depends upon the sensitiveness of the optic
nerve. In many cases the effect of prolonged gazing upon the brilliant
surface will simply produce a loss of sight, the optic nerve will be
temporarily paralyzed and will as little respond to stimulation from
within as from without; in other cases, however, the nerve will be only
deadened as regards external impressions, while retaining sufficient
activity to react against a stimulus from the brain centres. It is
almost invariably stated that, prior to the appearance of the desired
visions, the crystal seems to disappear and a mist rises before the
gazer’s eye.
[Illustration: ROCK-CRYSTAL BALL PENETRATED BY CRYSTALS OF RUTILE.
MADAGASCAR.]
The Achaians, as Pausanius relates, frequently used a mirror to divine
diseases or to learn whether there was danger of sudden death. Of the
Temple of Demeter, or Ceres, at Patras, he writes:[266]
In front of the temple of Demeter there is a well. A stone wall
separates this well from the temple, but steps lead down to it from
the outside. Here there is an infallible oracle, although it does not
answer all questions, but only those touching diseases. They attach a
slender cord to a mirror and let it down into the well, balancing it
carefully so that the water does not cover the face, but only touches
the rim. Then, after making a prayer to the goddess and burning
incense to her, they look into the mirror, and it shows whether the
sick person will die or recover. Such is the power of truth in this
water.
This sacred well with its oracle of the magic mirror must have been in
Lucian’s mind when, in his description of the palace of the Moon-King,
he says:[267]
Another wonderful thing I saw in the palace. Suspended over a rather
shallow well there is a large mirror, and anyone who goes down into
this well will hear every word that is spoken on earth, while, if he
gazes on the mirror, he will see there every city and every nation
just as clearly as though he were looking down upon them from a slight
elevation. At the time I was there, I saw my native country and its
inhabitants. Whether I myself was seen by them in turn, I am not sure.
Lucian adds, with a fine touch of irony, “Anyone who doubts this
assertion needs only to go there himself and he will find out that
I speak the truth.” As no one has yet made a trip to the moon, the
assertion is still uncontradicted.
In their religious legends the ancient Mexicans taught that their
god Tezcatlipuco had a magic mirror in which he saw everything that
happened in the world.[268] He was sometimes named Necocyautl, “sower
of discord,” because he often stirred up war and strife among men,
but he was also lord of riches and prosperity, which he bestowed
and took away again at his will. To the influence of this divinity
were attributed many omens and certain strange visions, announced by
repeated knockings.[269]
In the Orphic poem “Lithica,” a magic sphere of stone is described.
The substance is called “sideritis” or “ophitis,” and is said to be
black, round, and heavy; possibly some metal, rather than a stone, is
designated by these names. Helenus, the Trojan soothsayer, is said to
have used this sphere to foretell the downfall of his native city.
He fasted for twenty-one days and then wrapped the sphere in soft
garments, like an infant, and offered sacrifices to it until, by the
magic of his prayers, “a living soul warmed the precious substance.”
A strange variety of divination by means of mirrors placed on the heads
of boys, who, with eyes blindfolded, were supposed to perceive forms
or signs of some description in the mirrors, is noted by Spartianus
in his life of the Emperor Didius Julianus (ca. 133-193). This ruler
is said to have resorted to this form of divination, and the boy
entrusted with the task is asserted to have announced the approaching
accession of Septimius Severus (146-211) and the dethronement of Didius
Julianus.[270]