it was more valued as a gem by the Hindus than any other. For instance,
it is called _ratnaraj_, “king of precious stones,” and _ratnanâyaka_,
“leader of precious stones;” another name, applied to a particular
shade of ruby is _padmarâga_, “red as the lotus.”[141]
The glowing hue of the ruby suggested the idea that an inextinguishable
flame burned in this stone. From this fancy came the assertion that the
inner fire could not be hidden, as it would shine through the clothing
or through any material that might be wrapped around the stone.[142]
If cast into the water the ruby communicated its heat to the liquid,
causing it to boil. The dark and the star rubies were called “male”
stones, the others, more especially, however, those of lighter hue,
being considered as “female” stones. All varieties served to preserve
the bodily and mental health of the wearer, for they removed evil
thoughts, controlled amorous desires, dissipated pestilential vapors,
and reconciled disputes.[143]
In the “Lapidaire” of Philippe de Valois, it is said that “the books
tell us the beautiful clear and fine ruby is the lord of stones; it is
the gem of gems, and surpasses all other precious stones in virtue.” In
the time of Marbodus (end of the eleventh century A.D.) the same proud
place was assigned to the sapphire. The ruby is spoken of in similar
terms in the “Lapidaire en Vers,” where it is called “the most precious
of the twelve stones God created when He created all creatures”. By
Christ’s command the ruby was placed on Aaron’s neck, “the ruby, called
the lord of gems; the highly prized, the dearly loved ruby, so fair
with its gay color.”[144]
As with diamonds, rubies also were divided by the Hindus into four
castes. The true Oriental ruby was a Brahmin; the rubicelle, a
Kshatriya; the spinel, a Vaisya, and lastly, the balas-ruby, a Sudra.
The possession of a _padmarâga_, or Brahmin ruby, conferred perfect
safety upon the owner, and as long as he owned this precious stone he
could dwell without fear in the midst of enemies and was shielded
from adverse fortune. However, great care had to be taken to preserve
this ruby of the first class from contact with inferior specimens,
as its virtue would thereby be contaminated, and its power for good
correspondingly diminished.[145]
The many talismanic virtues of the ruby are noted in the fourteenth
century treatise attributed to Sir John Mandeville.[146] Here the
fortunate owner of a brilliant ruby is assured that he will live in
peace and concord with all men, that neither his land nor his rank will
be taken from him, and that he will be preserved from all perils. The
stone would also guard his house, his fruit-trees, and his vineyards
from injury by tempests. All the good effects were most surely secured
if the ruby, set in ring, bracelet, or brooch, were worn on the left
side.
The gorgeous ruby, the favorite gem of Burma, where the finest
specimens are found, is not only valued for its beauty, but is also
believed to confer invulnerability. To attain this end, however, it is
not thought to be sufficient to wear these stones in a ring or other
piece of jewelry, but the stone must be inserted in the flesh, and thus
become, so to speak, a part of its owner’s body. Those who in this way
bear about with them a ruby, confidently believe that they cannot be
wounded by spear, sword, or gun.[147] As it is often remarked that the
most daring and reckless soldiers pass unscathed through all the perils
of war, we can understand that this superstition may sometimes appear
to be verified.
Sapphire
The sapphire is noted as a regal gem by Damigeron, who asserts that
kings wore it about their necks as a powerful defence from harm. The
stone preserved the wearer from envy and attracted divine favor.[148]
For royal use, sapphires were set in bracelets and necklaces, and
the sacred character of the stone was attested by the tradition
that the Law given to Moses on the Mount was engraved on tablets of
sapphire.[149] While we should probably translate here “lapis-lazuli”
instead of “sapphire,” all such passages were later understood as
referring to the true sapphire, which is not found in pieces of the
requisite size.
In the twelfth century, the Bishop of Rennes lavishes encomiums upon
this beautiful stone. It is quite natural that this writer should lay
especial stress upon the use of the sapphire for the adornment of
rings, for it was in his time that it was beginning to be regarded
as the stone most appropriate for ecclesiastical rings. The sapphire
was like the pure sky, and mighty Nature had endowed it with so great
a power that it might be called sacred and the gem of gems. Fraud
was banished from its presence and necromancers honored it more than
any other stone, for it enabled them to hear and to understand the
obscurest oracles.[150]
[Illustration: SAPPHIRE RING WITH ENCIRCLING DIAMONDS.
Presented to John Cardinal Farley on the occasion of his elevation to
the cardinalate.]
The traditional virtue of the sapphire as an antidote against poison
is noted by Bartolomæus Anglicus, who claims to have seen a test of
its power, somewhat similar to that recorded by Ahmed Teifashi of
the emerald. In John of Trevisa’s version this passage reads as
follows:[151]
His vertue is contrary to venym, and quencheth it every deale. And yf
you put an attercoppe[152] in a boxe and hold a very saphyre of Inde
at the mouth of the boxe ony whyle, by vertue thereof the attercoppe
is overcome & dyeth as it were sodenly, as Dyasc. sayth [pseudo
Dioscorides]. And this same I have assayed oft in many and dyvers
places. His vertue kepeth and savyth the syght, & clearyth eyen of
fylthe wythout ony greyf.
Voicing the general belief that the sapphire was endowed with power
to influence spirits, Bartolomæus says that this stone was a great
favorite with those who practised necromancy, and he adds: “Also
wytches love well this stone, for they wene that they may werke certen
wondres by vertue of this stone.”[153]
There was in the South Kensington Museum, in London, a splendid
sapphire of a peculiar tint. In the daylight it shows a beautiful rich
blue color, while by artificial light it has a violet hue and resembles
an amethyst. In the eighteenth century this stone was in the collection
of Count de Walicki, a Polish nobleman, and Mme. de Genlis used it as
the theme of one of her stories, entitled “Le Saphire Merveilleux.”
Here the sapphire is used as a test of female virtue, the change of
color indicating unfaithfulness on the part of the wearer. If the owner
of the stone wished to prove that the subject of the test was innocent,
she was made to wear the sapphire for three hours of daylight; but in
the opposite case the test was so timed that it began in daylight and
ended when the candles or lamps had been lighted. This sapphire, still
known as the “Saphire Merveilleux,” was for a time in the collection of
the Duke of Orleans, who bore the name of Philippe Egalité during the
French Revolution.
The star sapphire is that variety of sapphire in which, when the stone
is cut and rounded off horizontal with the dome of the crystal, the
light is condensed across the three lines of crystalline interference.
Three cross lines produce a star which moves as a source of light, or
as it is moved from the source of light. Star sapphires very rarely
possess the deep blue color of the fine blue sapphire; generally the
color is somewhat impure, or of a milky-blue, or else a blue-gray, or
sometimes almost a pure white. The blue-gray, gray, and white stones
frequently show a much more distinct star, possibly from the fact that
there are more inclusions between the layers of the crystals than with
the darker blue stones, as it is the set of interference bands that
produces the peculiar light. Just as the eye agate was used in some
countries to preserve against the Evil Eye, so the moving star is
believed by the Cingalese to serve as a protection and a guard against
witchcraft of all kinds.
The great Oriental traveller, Sir Richard Francis Burton, had a large
star sapphire or asteria, as it was called. He referred to it as his
talisman, for it always brought him good horses and prompt attention
wherever he went; in fact, it was only in those places where he
received proper attention that he would show it to the natives, a favor
they greatly appreciated, because the sight of the stone was believed
to bring good luck. The fame of Burton’s asteria travelled ahead of
him, and it served him well as a guiding-star. De Boot, writing in the
seventeenth century, states that such a stone was called Siegstein
(victory-stone) among the Germans.
[Illustration: Rubellite from the Shan Mountains,
China. Used as an idol’s eye in India
Star of India—Star Sapphire
Engraved Emerald—East Indian Carving—17th Century
GEMS FROM THE MORGAN-TIFFANY COLLECTION.]
The remarkable asteria, known as the “Star of India,” in the
Morgan-Tiffany Collection in the American Museum of Natural History,
has a more or less indefinite historic record of some three centuries,
but after its many wanderings it has now found a worthy resting-place
in the great Museum. Its weight is 543 carats.[154]
The asteria, or star sapphire, might be called a “Stone of Destiny,”
as the three cross-bars which traverse it are believed to represent
Faith, Hope, and Destiny. As the stone is moved, or the light changes,
a living star appears. As a guiding gem, warding off ill omen and
the Evil Eye, the star-sapphire is worn for the same reasons as were
the _oculus mundi_ and the _oculus Beli_. One of the most unique of
talismanic stones, it is said to be so potent that it continues to
exercise its good influence over the first wearer even when it has
passed into other hands.
Sard
The sard was regarded as a protection against incantations and sorcery,
and was believed to sharpen the wits of the wearer, rendering him
fearless, victorious, and happy.[155] The red hue of this stone was
supposed to neutralize the malign influence of the dark onyx, driving
away the bad dreams caused by the latter and dispelling the melancholy
thoughts it inspired.
Serpentine
The Italian peasants of to-day believe that pebbles of green serpentine
afford protection from the bites of venomous creatures. These stones
are usually green with streaks or veins of white, and the name was
derived from their fancied resemblance to a serpent’s skin. In addition
to their prophylactic powers, if any one has been bitten by such a
creature, the stone, when applied to the wound, is supposed to draw out
the poison. Here, as in the case of coral, the hand of man must not
have shaped the amulet; it should be in its natural state. As a general
rule, however, the belief that the touch of any iron instrument, such
as the tool of the gem-cutter, destroys the magic efficacy of the
substance, is less firmly held in regard to stones than in reference to
coral.[156]
Topaz
See Chrysolite.
Turquoise
While there was a tendency to attribute the virtues originally ascribed
to one particular stone to others of the same or similar color and
appearance, certain stones were regarded as possessing special virtues
not commonly attributed to others. A notable instance of this is the
quality supposed to inhere in the turquoise. This stone was known in
Egypt from a very early period and is later described by Pliny under
the name of _callais_. For Pliny, and for all those who derived their
information from him or from the sources he used, the turquoise only
participated in the virtues assigned to all blue or greenish-blue
stones; but from the thirteenth century, when the name turquoise was
first employed, we read that the stone possessed the power to protect
the wearer from injury by falling, more especially from horseback;
later, this was extended to cover falls from a building or over a
precipice. A fourteenth century authority, the “Lapidaire” of Sir
John Mandeville, states that the turquoise protected horses from the
ill-effects resulting from drinking cold water when overheated by
exertion, and it is said that the Turks often attached these stones
to the bridles and frontlets of their horses as amulets. They are
also so used in Samarcand and Persia. We might therefore be justified
in supposing that the turquoise was originally used in the East as a
“horse-amulet,” and the belief in its power to protect from falls may
have arisen from the idea that it rendered the horse more sure-footed
and enduring. As the horse was often regarded as a symbol of the sun
in its rapid course through the blue heavens, the celestial hue of the
turquoise may have caused it to be associated in some way with the
horse. We can only hazard this as a plausible conjecture.
Probably the earliest notice of the peculiar superstition in regard to
the turquoise—namely, that it preserves the wearer from injury in case
of falling—is contained in Volmar’s thirteenth century “Steinbuch,”
where we read:
Whoever owns the true turquoise set in gold will not injure any of his
limbs when he falls, whether he be riding or walking, so long as he
has the stone with him.[157]
Anselmus de Boot, court physician of Emperor Rudolph II, tells a
story of a turquoise that, after being thirty years in the possession
of a Spaniard, was offered for sale with the rest of the owner’s
property. Every one was amazed to find it had entirely lost its color;
nevertheless De Boot’s father bought it for a trifling sum. On his
return home, however, ashamed to wear so mean-looking a gem, he gave it
to his son, saying, “Son, as the virtues of the turquoise are said to
exist only when the stone has been given, I will try its efficacy by
bestowing it upon thee.” Little appreciating the gift, the recipient
had his arms engraved on it as though it had been only a common agate
and wore it as a signet. He had scarcely worn it a month, however,
before it resumed its pristine beauty and daily seemed to increase in
splendor. Could we accept this statement as true we would have here an
altogether unique instance of the recovery by a turquoise of the blue
color it had lost.
Not long after, the powers of De Boot’s turquoise were put to the test.
As he was returning to Bohemia from Padua, where he had just taken his
degree, he was forced to traverse a narrow and dangerous road at night.
Suddenly his horse stumbled and threw him heavily to the ground, but,
strange to say, neither horse nor rider was injured by the fall. Next
morning, while washing his hands, De Boot remarked that about a quarter
of his turquoise had broken away. Nevertheless the stone did not lose
its virtue. Some time afterward, when the wearer was lifting a very
heavy pole, he felt all at once a sharp pain in his side and heard
his ribs crack, so that he feared he had injured himself seriously.
However, it turned out that he had not broken any bones but had simply
strained himself; but, on looking at his turquoise, he saw that it had
again broken into two pieces.[158]
[Illustration: TURQUOISE NECKLACE, THIBET.
Field Museum, Chicago.]
A singular virtue ascribed to the turquoise was that of striking the
hour correctly, if the stone were suspended from a thread held between
the thumb and index-finger in such a way that a slight vibration would
make the stone strike against the side of a glass. De Boot states that
he made the experiment successfully, but he very sensibly explains the
apparent wonder by the unconscious effect of the mind on the body. The
expectation that the stone was going to strike a certain number of
times induced an involuntary movement of the hand.[159]
The turquoise seems to have been worn almost exclusively by men at the
beginning of the seventeenth century, for De Boot, writing in 1609,
said that it was so highly regarded by men that no man considered
his hand to be well adorned unless he wore a fine turquoise. Women,
however, rarely wore this gem.[160] This custom was much in vogue among
the Englishmen who travelled in the Orient, until a score of years ago.
The Persians fully appreciate the beauty and power of this, their
national stone, and they have a saying that to escape evil and attain
good fortune one must see the reflection of the new moon either on the
face of a friend, on a copy of the Koran, or on a turquoise,[161] thus
ranking this stone with two most precious things, a friend and the
source and warrant of religion. Possibly we should take this proverbial
saying to indicate that whoever has a true friend, a copy of the sacred
volume or a turquoise will be preserved from harm.
The turquoise of the Los Cerillos mines in New Mexico is rudely
extracted by building large fires at the base of the rock until it
becomes heated, when cold water is dashed over it, the sharp change of
temperature splitting up the rock. Some of the fragmentary material
thus secured is worked up in the region into heart-shaped ornaments, or
amulets, locally called malacates. The religious veneration with which
many of the New Mexico Indians still regard the turquoise was noted
by Major Hyde, when he explored the region in 1880, for some Pueblo
Indians from Santo Domingo, New Mexico, expressed strong disapproval of
his action in extracting turquoise from the old mine, as they looked
upon this as a sacred stone which should not pass into the possession
of those whose Saviour was not a Montezuma.[162]
The ruins called Los Muertos, situated nine miles from Tempe, Arizona,
have furnished a peculiarly interesting amulet or fetish of Zuñi
workmanship. This is a seashell which has been coated with black pitch,
in which are encrusted turquoises and garnets so disposed in mosaic as
to represent clearly enough the figure of a toad, the sacred emblem of
the Zuñis.[163]
The sacred character with which this stone was invested is shown
by the wealth of turquoise ornaments found in some of the burials,
notably in those of Pueblo Bonito, unearthed by Mr. George H. Pepper
in 1896.[164] This is one of the Chaco Cañon groups of ruins, in the
northwestern part of New Mexico. In one case nearly nine thousand beads
and pendants of turquoise were found on or about a single skeleton.
There was abundant evidence in the special care bestowed upon the
burial that the deceased must have been a man of high rank, and the
condition of the skull plainly indicated that he had met a violent
death. The 1980 beads found on the breast of the skeleton are believed
to have been strung as a necklace, and the position of other masses of
these beads renders it probable that they had been used for bracelets
or anklets, the strings having decayed and disappeared in the course of
time. The most interesting of the turquoise objects are, however, the
pendants worked into various forms designed to favor the entrance of
some guardian spirit into the stone. In this single burial were found
pendants shaped more or less roughly into the forms of a rabbit, a
bird, an insect (?), a human foot and a shoe. Around another burial in
the same chamber were strewn nearly six thousand turquoise beads and
pendants.[165] In all 24,932 beads were found in these burials.
Another very interesting object from Pueblo Bonito, and one having
probably a special ceremonial use and value, is a turquoise
basket,—that is to say, a cylindrical basket three inches in diameter
and six inches long, originally made of slender splints with a coating
of gum in which 1214 small pieces of turquoise have been set. These are
very closely set and form a complete mosaic covering for the object.
The legends of the Navahos contain allusions to “turquoise jewel
baskets,” and Mr. Pepper raises the question whether or no this can
refer to those made by the Pueblo Indians.[166]
The Apache name for the turquoise is _duklij_, which signifies either
a green or a blue stone, no distinction being made between the two
colors. This stone is highly prized for its talismanic virtues. Indeed
the possession of a turquoise was indispensable for a medicine-man,
as without it he would not receive proper recognition. That some of
the powers of the thunder-stone were ascribed to the turquoise by
the tribes appears from the fancy that a man who could go to the end
of a rainbow after a storm and search in the damp earth would find a
turquoise. One of its supposed powers was to aid the warrior or hunter
by assuring the accuracy of his aim, for if a turquoise were affixed
to a gun or bow the shot sped from the weapon would go straight to the
mark.[167]
A lady prominent in the London world is said to possess the power
of restoring to their pristine hue turquoises that have grown pale.
According to report, this lady is often called upon to use her peculiar
gift by friends whose turquoises have faded.[168] While the improvement
supposed to be noted may be more imaginary than real in many cases,
there is little doubt that this stone is exceptionally sensitive to the
action of certain emanations, and may, at times, be influenced by the
wearer’s general state of health. The writer believes that a turquoise,
like an egg, can never be restored to its original state.
IV
On the Use of Engraved and Carved Gems as Talismans
The virtue believed to be inherent in precious stones was thought to
gain an added potency when the stone was engraved with some symbol
or figure possessing a special sacredness, or denoting and typifying
a special quality. This presupposes a considerable development of
civilization, since the art of engraving on precious stones offers many
mechanical difficulties and thus requires a high degree of artistic and
mechanical skill. It is true that the earliest engraved stones, the
Babylonian cylinders and the Egyptian scarabs, were both designed to
serve an eminently practical purpose as well, namely, that of seals;
but in a great number of instances these primitive seals were looked
upon as endowed with talismanic power, and were worn on the person as
talismans.
The scarab, so highly favored by the Egyptians as an ornamental form,
is a representation of the _scarabæus sacer_, the typical genus of the
family _Scarabæidæ_. They are usually black, but occasionally show a
fine play of metallic colors. After gathering up a clump of dung for
the reception of the eggs, the insect rolls this along, using the hind
legs to propel it, until the material, at first soft and of irregular
form, becomes hardened and almost perfectly round. A curious symbolism
induced the Egyptians to find in this beetle an emblem of the world of
fatherhood and of man. The round ball wherein the eggs were deposited
typified the world, and, as the Egyptians thought that the scarabæi
were all males, they especially signified the male principle in
generation, becoming types of fatherhood and man. At the same time, as
only full-grown beetles were observed, it was believed these creatures
represented a regeneration or reincarnation, since it was not realized
that the eggs or larval and pupa stages had anything to do with the
generation of the beetle. Thus the scarab was used as a symbol of
immortality.
While, however, this was the popular view, it seems unlikely that such
close observers as were the more cultured Egyptians should have been
entirely unfamiliar with the real genesis of the _Scarabæus sacer_;
but, in this case also, there would have been no difficulty in finding
it emblematic of immortality in the various stages through which it
passed. The larval stage might well signify the mortal life; the pupa
stage, the intermediate period represented by the mummy, with which the
soul was conceived to be vaguely connected, in spite of its wanderings
through the nether-world; and, lastly, the fully developed beetle
could be regarded as a type of the rebirth into everlasting life,
when the purified and perfected soul again animated the original and
transfigured form in a mysterious resurrection.
Scarabs are frequently engraved with the hieroglyph ☥(_anch_, “life”)
and [hieroglyph] (_ha_, “increase of power”). The emblem of stability
[hieroglyph] (_tet_) is also employed, as well as many others. In
addition to these simple symbols, many scarabs bear legends supposed
to render them exceptionally luck-bringing. The following are
characteristic specimens.[169]
[3 hieroglyphs] _maat ankh neb_, “Lord of Truth and Life.”