precious stones, to retain its power as an amulet, must not have been
worked, and in Italy only such pieces are valued for this purpose
as have been freshly gathered from the sea or have been cast up by
the sea on the shore. To exercise all its power against spells, or
enchantments, coral must be worn where its brilliant color makes
it conspicuous; if, however, it should by accident be broken, the
separate pieces have no virtue, and the magic power ceases, as though
the spirit dwelling in the coral had fled from its abode. The peasant
women are careful to guard the corals they wear for a special purpose
from the eyes of their husbands, for the substance is believed to grow
pale at certain seasons, regaining its pristine hue after a short
interval of time. Indeed, the women believe that the coral shares their
indisposition with them. All this serves to show that a kind of vital
force is believed to animate the material, gaining or losing in vigor
according to certain conditions, and finally disappearing when the form
is broken. These beliefs are all clearly traceable to the animistic
ideas of primitive man.[73]
Diamond
The diamond is to the pearl as the sun is to the moon, and we might
well call one the “king-gem” and the other the “queen-gem.” The
diamond, like a knight of old,—brilliant and resistant, is the emblem
of fearlessness and invincibility; the pearl, like a lady of old,—pure
and fair to look upon, is the emblem of modesty and purity. Therefore
it does not seem unfitting that the diamond should be presented as a
token to the pearl, and that pearls should go with the diamond. The
virtues ascribed to this stone are almost all directly traceable either
to its unconquerable hardness or to its transparency and purity. It
was therefore thought to bring victory to the wearer, by endowing him
with superior strength, fortitude, and courage. Marbodus[74] tells us
it was a magic stone of great power and served to drive away nocturnal
spectres; for this purpose it should be set in gold and worn on the
left arm. For St. Hildegard the sovereign virtue of the diamond was
recognized by the devil, who was a great enemy of this stone because it
resisted his power by day and by night.[75] Rueus[76] calls it “a gem
of reconciliation,” as it enhanced the love of a husband for his wife.
Cardano[77] takes a more pessimistic view of the qualities of the
diamond. He says:
It is believed to make the wearer unhappy; its effects therefore are
the same upon the mind as that of the sun upon the eye, for the latter
rather dims than strengthens the sight. It indeed renders fearless,
but there is nothing that contributes more to our safety than prudence
and fear; therefore it is better to fear.
The diamond was often associated with the lightning and was sometimes
believed to owe its origin to the thunderbolt, but we do not recall
having seen elsewhere the statement made in an anonymous Italian
manuscript of the fourteenth century. Here it is expressly asserted
that the diamond is sometimes consumed or melted when it thunders.[78]
Certainly, that the same force that was supposed to have formed the
stone should be able to dissolve it, is not an illogical idea. That the
diamond can be entirely consumed at a high temperature was a fact not
known in Europe in the fourteenth century, and therefore the belief in
the destructive effect of the electric current must have arisen from
superstitious or poetic fancies, and not from any vague conception of
the true nature of the diamond.
In the Talmud we read of a gem, supposed to have been the diamond,
which was worn by the high priest.[79] This stone served to show the
guilt or innocence of one accused of any crime; if the accused were
guilty, the stone would grow dim, but if he were innocent, it would
shine more brilliantly than ever. This quality is also alluded to by
Sir John Mandeville, who wrote:
It happens often that the good diamond loses its virtue by sin and for
incontinence of him who bears it.
The Hindus classed diamonds according to the four castes. The Brahmin
diamond gave power, friends, riches and good luck; the Kshatriya
diamond prevented the approach of old age; the Vaisya stone brought
success, and the Sudra, all manner of good fortune. On the other hand,
in the treatise on gems by Buddhabhatta[80] we read:
A diamond, a part of which is the color of blood or spotted with red,
would quickly bring death to the wearer, even if he were the Master of
Death.
The Arabians and Persians, as well as the modern Egyptians, agree in
attributing to the diamond a wonderful power to bring good fortune, and
Rabbi Benoni, a mystic of the fourteenth century, treating of its magic
virtues, asserts that it produces somnambulism, and, as a talisman, so
powerfully attracts the planetary influences that it renders the wearer
invincible; it was also said to provoke a state of spiritual ecstasy.
An alchemist of the same century, Pierre de Boniface, asserted that the
diamond made the wearer invisible.
A curious fancy, prevalent in regard to many stones, attributed sex to
the diamond, and it is therefore not surprising that these stones were
also supposed to possess reproductive powers. In this connection Sir
John Mandeville wrote:
They grow together, male and female, and are nourished by the dew of
heaven; and they engender commonly, and bring forth small children
that multiply and grow all the year. I have oftentimes tried the
experiment that if a man keep them with a little of the rock, and
water them with May dew often, they shall grow every year and the
small will grow great.
The following lines from a translation of the celebrated Orphic poem,
written in the second century, show the high esteem in which the adamas
was held at that time:
The Evil Eye shall have no power to harm
Him that shall wear the diamond as a charm,
No monarch shall attempt to thwart his will,
And e’en the gods his wishes shall fulfil.
This probably refers either to colorless corundum, the so-called “white
sapphire,” or to quartz. The writer is disinclined to believe that the
ancients knew the diamond.
The ancient Hindu gem-treatise of Buddhabhatta asserts that the diamond
of the Brahmin should have the whiteness of a shell or of rock-crystal;
that of the Kshatriya, the brown color of the eye of a hare; that of
the Vaisya, the lovely shade of a petal of the _kadali_ flower; that
of the Sudra, the sheen of a polished blade. To kings alone the sages
assigned two classes of colored diamonds,—namely, those red as coral
and those yellow as saffron. These were exclusively royal gems, but
diamonds of all other shades could be set in royal jewels.[81]
A typical diamond is thus described in a Hindu gem-treatise:[82]
A six-pointed diamond, pure, without stain, with pronounced and sharp
edges, of a beautiful shade, light, with well-formed facets, without
defects, illuminating space with its fire and with the reflection of
the rainbow, a diamond of this kind is not easy to find in the earth.
According to a wide-spread superstition, the talismanic power of a
diamond was lost if the stone were acquired by purchase; only when
received as a gift could its virtues be depended on.[83] The same
belief is noted regarding the turquoise. The spirit dwelling in the
stone was thought to take offence at the idea of being bought and sold,
and was supposed to depart from the stone, leaving it nothing more than
a bit of senseless matter. If, however, the diamond (or turquoise) were
offered as a pledge of love or friendship, the spirit was quite willing
to transfer its good offices from one owner to another.
The Talmud shows us that the Jewish Rabbis sometimes endeavored to
enliven their exhaustive discussions of ritual and legal questions by
telling “good stories” to each other. One of these may be given as
illustrating at once the wild improbability of some of these recitals
and the belief in the wonderful magic virtues of the diamond:[84]
R. Jehudah of Mesopatamia used to tell: Once while on board of a ship,
I saw a diamond that was encircled by a snake, and a diver went to
catch it. The snake then opened its mouth, threatening to swallow the
ship. Then a raven came, bit off its head, and all water around turned
into blood. Then another snake came, took the diamond, put it in the
carcass, and it became alive; and again it opened its mouth, in order
to swallow the ship. Another bird then came, bit off its head, took
the diamond and threw it on the ship. We had with us salted birds, and
we wanted to try whether the diamond would bring them to life, so we
placed the gem on them, and they became animated and flew away with
the gem.
It is said that the first large diamonds discovered by Europeans in
South Africa were found in the leather bag of a sorcerer. Although
large stones or fragments of rock are usually the objects of adoration
as fetiches in Africa, any small stone that is wrapped in colored rags
and worn on the neck may be regarded in the same way.[85] Several
competent authorities state that these diamonds were the playthings of
some Boer children.
Al Kazwini relates as follows the marvellous tale of the Valley of
Diamonds:[86]
“Aristotle[87] says that no one except Alexander ever reached the
place where the diamond is produced. This is a valley, connected with
the land Hind. The glance cannot penetrate to its greatest depths and
serpents are found there, the like of which no man hath seen, and
upon which no man can gaze without dying. However, this power endures
only as long as the serpents live, for when they die the power leaves
them. In this place summer reigns for six months and winter for the
same length of time. Now, Alexander ordered that an iron mirror should
be brought and placed at the spot where the serpents dwelt. When the
serpents approached, their glance fell upon their own image in the
mirror, and this caused their death. Hereupon, Alexander wished to
bring out the diamonds from the valley, but no one was willing to
undertake the descent. Alexander therefore sought counsel of the wise
men, and they told him to throw down a piece of flesh into the valley.
This he did, the diamonds became attached to the flesh, and the birds
of the air seized the flesh and bore it up out of the valley. Then
Alexander ordered his people to pursue the birds and to pick up what
fell from the flesh.”
“Another writer states that the mines are in the mountains of Serendib
(Ceylon) in a very deep gorge, in which are deadly serpents. When
people wish to take out the diamonds they throw down pieces of flesh,
which are seized by vultures and brought up to the brink of the gorge.
There such of the diamonds as cling to the flesh are secured; these
are of the size of a lentil or a pea. The largest pieces found attain
the size of a half-bean.”
In his version of the tale, one form of which appears in the seventh
voyage of Sindbad the Sailor, Teifashi states that the finest corundum
gems were washed down the streams that flowed from Adam’s Peak, on the
island of Ceylon; in time of drought, however, this source of supply
ceased. Now it happened that many eagles built their nests on the top
of this mountain, and the gem-seekers used to place large pieces of
flesh at the foot of the mountain. The eagles pounced upon these and
bore them away to their nests, but were obliged to alight from time to
time in order to rest, and while the pieces of flesh lay on the rock,
some of the corundums became lightly attached to this, so that when the
eagles resumed their flight the stones dropped off and rolled down the
mountain side.[88]
These oft-repeated tales are explained by Dr. Valentine Ball as
originating in the Hindu custom of sacrificing cattle when new mines
were opened, and leaving on the spot a certain part of the meat as an
offering to the guardian deities. As these pieces of meat were soon
carried away by birds of prey, the legend arose that the diamonds were
obtained in this way. This custom still prevailed in some parts of
India when Dr. Ball wrote.[89]
The effect exercised by Hindu superstition on even the most enlightened
Europeans of our day may be recognized in the fact that the gifted
prima donna, Mme. Maeterlinck, the wife of the foremost living European
poet, has confessed that she wears a diamond suspended on her forehead
because her husband believes that this brings good fortune to the
wearer. This forehead-jewel is characteristically Hindu and enjoys in
India the reputation of being especially auspicious.
Emerald
The emerald was believed to foreshow future events,[90] but we do not
learn whether visions were actually seen in the stone, as they were
in spheres of rock-crystal or beryl, or whether the emerald endowed
the wearer with a supernatural fore-knowledge of what was to come. As
a revealer of truth, this stone was an enemy of all enchantments and
conjurations; hence it was greatly favored by magicians, who found all
their arts of no avail if an emerald were in their vicinity when they
began to weave their spells.[91]
[Illustration: SPECIMEN PAGE OF ITALIAN MANUSCRIPT OF THE FOURTEENTH
CENTURY.
Containing an Italian version of the “De Mineralibus” of Albertus
Magnus. On this page is the account of the emerald, set in a ring worn
by King Bela IV of Hungary (1235-1270), that was fractured when he
caressed his wife. Author’s library.]
To this supernatural power inherent in the stone, enabling it to
quicken the prophetic faculty, may be added many other virtues. If
any one wished to strengthen his memory or to become an eloquent
speaker, he was sure to attain his end by securing possession of a
fine emerald.[92] And not only the ambitious, but also those whose
hearts had been smitten by the shafts from Cupid’s bow found in this
stone an invaluable auxiliary, for it revealed the truth or falsity of
lover’s oaths. Strange to say, however, the emerald, although commonly
assigned to Venus, was often regarded as an enemy of sexual passion. So
sensitive was the stone believed to be in this respect that Albertus
Magnus relates of King Bela of Hungary, who possessed an exceptionally
valuable emerald set in a ring, that, when he embraced his wife while
wearing this ring on his finger, the stone broke into three parts.[93]
In Rabbinical legend it is related that four precious stones were given
by God to King Solomon; one of these was the emerald. The possession
of the four stones is said to have endowed the wise king with power
over all creation.[94] As these four stones probably typified the four
cardinal points, and were very likely of red, blue, yellow, and green
color respectively, we might conjecture that the other three stones
were the carbuncle, the lapis-lazuli, and the topaz.
After stating that the emerald sharpens the wits and quickens the
intelligence, Cardano declares that it therefore made people more
honest, for “dishonesty is nothing but ignorance, stupidity, and
ill-nature.” The same writer adds that the stone was believed to make
men economical and hence to make them rich, but of this he was very
sceptical, since the experience of others as well as his own showed
that the emerald possessed very little power in this direction.[95]
A talismanic emerald, once the property of the Mogul emperors of Delhi,
has recently been shown in Europe. The stone is of a rich deep green,
and weighs 78 carats. Around the edge in Persian characters runs the
inscription: “He who possesses this charm shall enjoy the special
protection of God.”
Emerald sharpened the wits, conferred riches and the power to predict
future events. To evolve this latter virtue it must be put under the
tongue. It also strengthened the memory. The light-colored stones were
esteemed the best and legend told that they were brought from the
“nests of griffons.”[96]
Gypsum
Gypsum when fibrous—the fibres being long and straight—is known
as “satin spar.” This material is frequently cut rounded, or _en
cabochon_, across the fibres; sometimes it is cut in the form of beads,
or of pear-shaped drops, which are mounted in ear-rings, scarf-pins,
or necklaces. The material is frequently found in Russia, England, and
elsewhere, and is cut in England or Russia. Some of the cut stones are
mounted in brass, or gilded brass, and sold as luck stones at Niagara,
the claim being made that the “satin spar” was taken from beneath the
Falls at great peril, as occasionally small deposits of this kind of
gypsum are found under the Falls.
From time to time small consignments of this material have been sent to
Japan, as the Japanese value it possibly on account of its purity, or
owing to the fact that it has the effect of the cat’s-eye. It is quite
cheap, and at the same time very soft, so that it can be scratched with
the finger-nail. That found in Russia is of a golden-yellow or salmon
color, and is worked into various ornaments, the one popular form being
egg-shaped, and, because of their form, such objects are frequently
given as Easter gifts. The same material is also known in Egypt, and is
cut in the same egg form, the ornaments being called “Pharaoh’s eggs,”
although just which Pharaoh this refers to is not stated. They are also
believed to possess qualities of protection and to bring good fortune.
Hematite
The virtues of the hematite were praised in an ancient gem-treatise
written by Azchalias of Babylon for Mithridates the Great, King of
Pontus (d. 63 B.C.), a sovereign who was passionately fond of precious
stones, and possessed a splendid collection of them, both engraved
and unengraved. Azchalias, as cited by Pliny[97] taught that human
destinies were influenced by the virtues inherent in precious stones,
and asserted that the hematite, when used as a talisman, procured for
the wearer a favorable hearing of petitions addressed to kings and a
fortunate issue of lawsuits and judgments. It is a red oxide of iron,
which when abraded shows a red streak; whence the name hematite, from
the Greek _haima_, “blood.” As an iron ore and hence associated with
Mars, the god of war, this substance was also considered to be an
invaluable help to the warrior on the field of battle if he rubbed his
body with it. Probably, like the loadstone, it was believed to confer
invulnerability.
The high degree of skill possessed by the Pueblo workers is strikingly
shown in a finely inlaid hematite cylinder found in Pueblo Bonito.
The inlays are of turquoise and are designed to make the cylinder a
conventional representation of a bird. The wings are indicated by
turquoise inlays of pyramidal outline, curved so as to follow the
curvature of the cylinder, the head being figured by a conical piece of
turquoise attached to one end. This conical termination bore a small
bird-figure carved in relief.[98] When we consider the difficulties the
Indian workers had to overcome in the execution of this artistic task
with the tools at their command, we can well realize that this object,
probably an amulet, must have been considered very valuable, and was
most likely the property of some one of high rank in the tribe or
community.
Jacinth
The jacinth was more especially recommended as an amulet for
travellers, because of its reputed value as a protection against the
plague and against wounds and injuries, the two classes of perils most
feared by those who undertook long journeys. Moreover, this stone
assured the wearer a cordial reception at any hostelry he visited.[99]
It was said to lose its brilliancy and grow pale and dull if the wearer
or any one in his immediate neighborhood became ill of the plague. In
addition to these qualities the jacinth augmented the riches of the
owner, and endowed him with prudence in the conduct of his affairs.[100]
St. Hildegard, the Abbess of Bingen (d. 1179), gives the following
details as to the proper use of the _jachant_ (jacinth):[101]
If any one is bewitched by phantoms or by magical spells, so that he
has lost his wits, take a hot loaf of pure wheaten bread and cut the
upper crust in the form of a cross,—not, however, cutting it quite
through,—and then pass the stone along the cutting, reciting these
words: “May God, who cast away all precious stones from the devil ...
cast away from thee, N., all phantoms and all magic spells, and free
thee from the pain of this madness.”
The patient is then to eat of the bread; if, however, his stomach
should be too feeble, unleavened bread may be used. All other solid
food given to the sick person should be treated in the same manner. We
are also told that if any one has a pain in his heart, the pain will be
relieved provided the sign of the cross be made over the heart while
the above mentioned words are recited.
The wearer of a jacinth was believed to be proof against the lightning,
and it was even asserted that wax that had been impressed by an image
graven on this stone averted the lightning from one who bore the seal.
That the stone really possessed this power was a matter of common
report, it being confidently declared that in regions where many were
struck by lightning, none who wore a jacinth were ever harmed. By a
like miracle it preserved the wearer from all danger of pestilence even
though he lived in an air charged with the disease. A third virtue was
to induce sleep. Of this, Cardano states that he was in the habit of
wearing rather a large jacinth, and had found that the stone “seemed to
dispose somewhat to sleep, but not much.” He adds, in explanation of
its slight efficacy, that his stone was not bright red, nor of the best
sort, but of a golden hue, differing much from the best.[102]
Jade
The name jade includes two distinct minerals, nephrite and jadeite.
The former is a silicate of magnesia, of exceedingly tough structure,
and ranks 6.5 in the scale of hardness, while jadeite, a silicate of
alumina, is more crystalline and not as tough as nephrite and has a
hardness of 7. A variety having a rich emerald-green hue is called by
the Chinese _fei ts’ui_, “Kingfisher plumes”; it is also denominated
Imperial jade.
The original form of the Chinese character _pao_, signifying
“precious,” consists of the outline of a house, within which are the
symbols of jade beads, shell, and an earthen jar. This shows that at
the very early time when these characters were first used, the Chinese
already collected jade and employed it for personal adornment.[103]
The oldest form of the ideograph for “king”, [3 “beads” on a vertical
string], appears to be the symbol for a string of jade beads, which are
even now used in China as insignia for high rank and authority.[104]
Jade amulets of many different forms are popular with the Chinese. One
representing two men is called “Two Brothers of Heavenly Love,” and
is often given to friends. A phœnix of jade is a favorite ornament
for young girls and is bestowed upon them when they come of age. To a
newly-wedded pair is given the figure of a man riding on a unicorn and
holding castanets in his hand; this signifies that an heir will be born
in due time.
Such is the fondness of the Chinese for jade that those who can afford
the luxury of its possession are wont to carry with them small pieces,
so that they may have them always at hand; for they believe that, when
handled, something of the secret virtue of the substance is absorbed
into the body. When struck, jade is thought to emit a peculiarly
melodious sound, which for the Chinese poet resembles the voice of the
loved one; indeed, jade is termed the concentrated essence of love.
Fashioned into the form of a butterfly, a piece of jade acquires a
special romantic significance in China, because of a Chinese legend
which relates that a youth in his eager pursuit of a many-hued
butterfly made his way into the garden of a rich mandarin. Instead of
being punished for his trespass, the youth’s unceremonious visit led
to his marriage with the mandarin’s daughter. Hence the figure of a
butterfly is a symbol of successful love, and Chinese bridegrooms are
wont to present jade butterflies to their fiancées.