THE LOCKS
Ships that pass Panama way will climb up and down a titanic marine
stairway, three steps up into Gatun Lake and three steps down again.
These steps are the 12 huge locks in which will center the operating
features of the Isthmian waterway. The building of these locks
represents the greatest use of concrete ever undertaken. The amount
used would be sufficient to build of concrete a row of six-room
houses, reaching from New York to Norfolk, via Philadelphia,
Baltimore, Washington and Richmond--houses enough to provide homes for
a population as large as that of Indianapolis.
The total length of the locks and their accessories, including the
guide walls, approximates 2 miles. The length of the six locks through
which a ship passes on its voyage from one ocean to the other is a
little less than 7,000 feet.
If one who has never seen a lock canal is to get a proper idea of what
part the locks play in the Panama Canal, he must follow attentively
while we make an imaginary journey through the canal on a ship that
has just come down from New York. Approaching the Atlantic entrance
from the north, we pass the end of the great man-made peninsula,
jutting out 11,000 feet into the bay known as Toro Point Breakwater.
It was built to protect the entrance of the canal, the harbor, and
anchorages from the violent storms that sweep down from the north over
that region. Omitting our stops for the payment of tolls, the securing
of supplies, etc., we steam directly in through a great ditch 500 feet
wide and 41 feet deep, which simply permits the ocean to come inland 7
miles to Gatun. When we arrive there we find that our chance to go
farther is at an end unless we have some means of getting up into the
beautiful lake whose surface is 85 feet above us. Here is where the
locks come to our rescue. They will not only give us one lift, but
three.
When we approach the locks we find a great central pier jutting out
into the sea-level channel. If our navigating officers know their duty
they will run up alongside of this guide wall and tie up to it. If
they do not they will run the ship's nose into a giant chain, with
links made of 3-inch iron, that is guaranteed to bring a 1,000-ton
ship, going at the rate of 5 knots per hour, to a dead standstill in
70 feet. When we are once safely alongside the guide wall, four quiet,
but powerful locomotives, run by electricity, come out and take charge
of our ship. Two of them get before it to pull us forward, and two
behind it to hold us back. Then the great chain, which effectively
would have barred us from going into the locks under our own steam, or
from colliding with the lock gates, is let down and we begin to move
into the first lock.
Starting at the sea-level channel, the first, second, and third gates
are opened and our ship towed into the first lock. Then the second
and third gates are closed again, and the lock filled with water, by
gravity, raising the ship at the rate of about 2 feet a minute,
although, if there is a great rush of business, it may be filled at
the rate of 3 feet a minute. When the water in this lock reaches the
level of the water in the lock above, gates four and five are opened,
and we are towed in. Then gate four is closed again, and water is let
into this lock until it reaches the level of the third one. Gates six,
seven, and eight are next opened, and we are towed into the upper
lock. Gates six and seven are now closed, and the water allowed to
fill the third lock until we are up to the level of Gatun Lake. Then
gates nine and ten are opened, the emergency dam is swung from athwart
the channel, if it happens to be in that position, the fender chain
like the one encountered when we entered the first lock, and like the
ones which protect gates seven and eight, is let down, the towing
engines turn us loose, and we resume our journey, with 32 miles of
clear sailing, until we reach Pedro Miguel. Here, by a reverse
process, we are dropped down 30-1/3 feet. Then we go on to Miraflores,
a mile and a half away, where we are lifted down 54-2/3 feet in two
more lifts. This brings us back to sea level again, where we meet the
waters of the Pacific, and steam out upon it through a channel 500
feet wide and 8 miles long.
Having learned something of the part the locks play in getting us
across the Isthmus, by helping us up out of one ocean into Gatun Lake
and then dropping down into the other ocean, it will be interesting to
note something of the mechanism. A very good idea of how a lock looks
may be gathered from the accompanying bird's-eye view of the model of
Pedro Miguel Lock.
[Illustration: FROM A MODEL OF PEDRO MIGUEL LOCK]
It will be seen that there are two of them side by side--twin locks,
they are called, making them like a double-track railway. The lock on
the right is nearly filled for an upward passage. The ship will be
seen in it, held in position by the four towing engines, which appear
only as tiny specks hitched to hawsers from the stem and stern. Behind
the ship are the downstream gates. They were first opened to admit the
ship, and then closed to impound the water that flows up through the
bottom of the lock. Ahead are the upstream gates, closed also until
the water in the lock is brought up to the level of the water in the
lake. Then the gates will be opened, the big chain fender will be
dropped down, and the ship will be towed out into the lake and turned
loose. On the side wall of the right lock there is a big bridge set on
a pivot so that it can be swung around across the lock and girders let
down from it to serve as a foundation upon which to lay a steel dam if
anything happens to the locks or gates. On the other lock the bridge
has been swung into position, and the steel girders let down. Great
steel sheets will be let down on live roller bearings on these
girders, and when all are in place they will form a watertight dam of
steel. Between this bridge and the reader is a huge floating tank of
steel, which may be used to dam all the water out of the locks when
that is desired.
Referring to the next figure we see a cross section of the twin locks.
The side walls are from 45 to 50 feet thick at the floor. At a point
24-1/3 feet above the floor they begin to narrow by a series of 6-foot
steps until they are 8 feet wide at the top. The middle wall is 60
feet wide all the way up, although at a point 42-1/2 feet above the
lock floor room is made for a filling of earth and for a three-story
tunnel, the top story being used as a passageway for the operators,
the second story as a conduit for electric wires, and the lower story
as a drainage system.
[Illustration: A CROSS-SECTION OF LOCKS, GIVING AN IDEA OF THEIR
SIZE]
In this figure D and G are the big 18-foot culverts through which
water is admitted from the lake to the locks. Each of these three big
culverts, which are nearly 7,000 feet long, is large enough to
accommodate a modern express train, and is about the size of the
Pennsylvania tubes under the Hudson and East Rivers. H represents the
culverts extending across the lock from the big ones. Each of them is
big enough to accommodate a two-horse wagon, and there are 14 in each
lock. Every alternate one leads from the side wall culvert and the
others from the center wall culvert. F represents the wells that lead
up through the floor into the lock, each larger in diameter than a
sugar barrel in girth. There are five wells on each cross culvert, or
70 in the floor of each lock.
[Illustration: CONCRETE MIXERS, GATUN]
[Illustration: A CENTER WALL CULVERT, GATUN LOCKS]
[Illustration: THE MACHINERY FOR MOVING A LOCK GATE]
The flow of the water into the locks and out again is controlled by
great valves. The ones which control the great wall tunnels or
culverts are called Stoney Gate valves, and operate something like
giant windows in frames. They are mounted on roller bearings to make
them work without friction. The others are ordinary cylindrical
valves, but, having to close a culvert large enough to permit a
two-horse team to be driven through it, they must be of great size.
When a ship is passing from Gatun Lake down to the Atlantic Ocean, the
water in the upper lock is brought up to the level of that in the
lake, being admitted through the big wall culverts, whence it passes
out through the 14 cross culverts and up into the locks through the 70
wells in the floor. Then the ship is towed in, the gates are shut
behind it, the valves are closed against the water in the lake, the
ones permitting the escape of this water into the lock below are
opened, and it continues to flow out of the upper lock into the lower
one until the water in the two has the same level. Then the gates
between the two locks are opened, the ship is towed into the second
one and the operation is repeated for the last lock in the same way.
The gates of the locks are an interesting feature. Their total weight
is about 58,000 tons. There are 46 of them, each having two leaves.
Their weight varies from 300 to 600 tons per leaf, dependent upon the
varying height of the different gates. The lowest ones are 47 feet
high and the highest ones 82 feet, their height depending upon the
place where they are used. Some of these are known as intermediate
gates, and are used for short ships, when it is desired to economize
on both water and time. They divide each lock chamber into two smaller
chambers of 350 and 550 feet, respectively. Perhaps 90 per cent of all
the ships that pass Panama will not need to use the full length
lock--1,000 feet. Duplicate gates will always be kept on the ground as
a precaution against accident. Each leaf is 65 feet wide and 7 feet
thick. The heaviest single piece of steel in each one of them is the
lower sill, weighing 18 tons. It requires 6,000,000 rivets to put them
together. In the lower part of each gate is a huge tank. When it is
desired that the gate shall have buoyancy, as when operating it, this
tank will be filled with air. When closed it is filled with water. The
gates are opened and closed by a huge arm, or strut, one end of which
is connected to the gate and the other to a huge wheel in the manner
of the connecting rod to the driver of a locomotive. Leakage through
the space between the gate and the miter sill on the floor of the lock
is prevented by a seal which consists of heavy timbers with flaps of
rubber 4 inches wide and half an inch thick. A special sealing device
brings the edges of the two leaves of a gate together and holds them
firmly while the gates are closed.
Remembering that these gates are nothing more than Brobdingnagian
double doors which close in the shape of a flattened V, it follows
that they must have hinges. And these hinges are worth going miles to
see. That part which fastens to the wall of the lock weighs 36,752
pounds in the case of the operating gates, and 38,476 pounds in the
protection gates. These latter are placed in pairs with the operating
gates at all danger points--so that if one set of gates are rammed
down, another pair will still be in position. The part of the hinge
attached to the gate was made according to specifications which
required that it should stand a strain of 40,000 pounds before
stretching at all, and 70,000 pounds before breaking. Put into a huge
testing machine, it actually stood a strain of 3,300,000 pounds before
breaking--seven times as great as any stress it will ever be called
upon to bear. The gates are all painted a lead gray, to match the
ships of the American Navy. Those which come into contact with sea
water will be treated with a barnacle-proof preparation.
Now that we have described the locks, we may go back and see them in
course of construction. The first task was getting the lock building
plant designed and built. At Gatun the plant consisted of a series of
immense cableways, an electric railroad, and enormous concrete mixers.
Great towers were erected on either side of the area excavated for the
locks, with giant cables connecting them. These towers were 85 feet
high, and were mounted on tracks like steam shovels, so that they
could be moved forward as the work progressed. The cables connecting
them were of 2-1/2-inch lock steel wire covered with interlocking
strands. They were guaranteed to carry 6 tons at a trip, 20 trips an
hour, and to carry 60,000 loads before giving way. They actually did
better than the specifications called for as far as endurance was
concerned.
The sand for making the concrete for Gatun came from Nombre de Dios
(Spanish for Name of God), and the gravel from Porto Bello. The sand
and gravel were towed in great barges, first through the old French
Canal, and later through the Atlantic entrance of the present canal.
Great clamshell buckets on the Lidgerwood cableways would swoop down
upon the barges, get 2 cubic yards of material at a mouthful, lift it
up to the cable, carry it across to the storage piles and there dump
it. In this way more than 2,000,000 wagon loads of sand and gravel
were handled.
A special equipment was required to haul the sand, gravel, and cement
from the storage piles to the concrete mixers. There were two circular
railroads of 24-inch gauge, carrying little electric cars that ran
without motormen. Each car was stopped, started, or reversed by a
switch attached to the car. Their speed never varied more than 10 per
cent whether they were going empty or loaded, up hill or down. When a
car was going down hill its motor was reversed into a generator so
that it helped make electricity to pull some other car up the hill.
The cars ran into a little tunnel, where each was given its proper
load of one part cement, three parts sand, and six parts gravel--2
cubic yards, in all--and was then hurried on to the big concrete
mixers. These were so arranged in a series that it was not necessary
to stop them to receive the sand, gravel, and cement, or to dump out
the concrete.
On the emptying sides of the concrete mixers there were other little
electric railway tracks. Here there were little trains of a motor and
two cars each, with a motorman. The train, with two big 2-cubic-yard
buckets, drew up alongside two concrete mixers. Without stopping their
endless revolutions the mixers tilted and poured out their contents
into the two buckets, 2 yards in each. Then the little train hurried
away, stopping under a great cable. Across from above the lock walls
came two empty buckets, carried on pulleys on the cableway. When they
reached a point over the train they descended and were set on the
cars, behind the full buckets. The full buckets were then attached to
the lifting hooks, and were carried up to the cable and then across to
the lock walls, where they were dumped and the concrete spread out by
a force of men. Meanwhile the train hustled off with its two empty
buckets, ready to be loaded again.
On the Pacific side the concrete handling plant was somewhat
different. Instead of cableways there were great cantilever cranes
built of structural steel. Some of these were in the shape of a giant
T, while others looked like two T's fastened together. Here the
clamshell dippers were run out on the arms of the cranes to the
storage piles, where they picked up their loads of material. This was
put in hoppers large enough to store material for 10 cubic yards. The
sand and stone then passed through measuring hoppers and to the mixers
with cement and water added. After it was mixed it was dumped into big
buckets on little cars drawn by baby steam locomotives, which looked
like overgrown toy engines. These little fellows reminded one of a lot
of busy bees as they dashed about here and there with their loads of
concrete, choo-chooing as majestically as the great dirt train engines
which passed back and forth hard by. The cranes would take their
filled buckets and leave empty ones in exchange, and this was kept up
day in and day out until the locks were completed. When the plant was
removed from Pedro Miguel to Miraflores, a large part of the concrete
was handled directly from the mixers to the walls by the cranes
without the intermediary locomotive service.
The cost of the construction of the locks was estimated in 1908 at
upward of $57,000,000. But economy in the handling of the material and
efficiency on the part of the lock builders cut the actual cost far
below that figure. On the Atlantic side about a dollar was saved on
every yard of concrete laid--about $2,000,000. On the Pacific side
more than twice as much was saved.
Before the locks could be built it became necessary to excavate down
to bed rock. This required the removal of nearly 5,000,000 cubic yards
of material at Gatun. Then extensive tests were made to make certain
that the floor of the locks could be anchored safely to the rock.
These tests demonstrated that by using the old steel rails that were
left on the Isthmus by the French, the concrete and rock could be tied
together so firmly as to defy the ravages of water and time. A huge
apron of concrete was built out into Gatun Lake from the upper locks
at that place, effectively preventing any water from getting between
the rocks and the concrete lying upon them.