of Madrid, an image of the Virgin of the Almudena, now in the possession
of the nuns of the Sacramento Convent, was concealed by the zealous
Christians, during the Moorish occupation, in a tower of the city wall.
Three hundred years after the sacred image was discovered and restored
to the Church. There is a similar legend concerning the sculpture of the
Holy Mother found at about the same date.
Upon the victory of Alfonso, the mosque was purified and dedicated to
the Vírgen de la Almudena, and on the site is the fine new Cathedral. A
mixed population of Christians, Jews, and Moors lived within the city
walls at this period, and the staple industries were the making of hemp,
linen, and cloth. One of the regulations of that day referred to the
muzzling of dogs, as may be seen from an inspection of the curious Fuero
de Madrid, which is preserved by the municipal authorities.
The city is mentioned only occasionally in Castilian annals. Sancho el
Bravo in vain sought health and strength from its bracing air.
Under Ferdinand IV. the Cortes first assembled in Madrid, to meet there
again in 1335 under Alfonso XI. The townsmen warmly espoused the cause
of Peter the Cruel. In 1403, Henry III. sent from the city an embassy to
Persia, under Gonzalez Clavijo, to negotiate with the potent warrior
sovereign Tamerlane. The emissaries were absent from Spain for two
years, and during the journey they visited Constantinople and Samarkand.
John II. and Henry IV. lived in the Royal Palace, and encouraged many
poets of Castile who were of their retinue. It is proved by municipal
documents that Madrid was not then so insanitary and neglected as some
writers have stated, for there were rules for the disposal of refuse,
and an order was made for the paving of some of the chief streets.
Upon the death of Henry IV., a faction supporting his daughter, Juana
(who is said to have been born here), seized the Alcázar, and held it
for several weeks against the Duque del Infantado. Isabella, however,
bore the town no grudge, and during her brilliant reign its prosperity
increased by leaps and bounds. It remained loyal to the crown during the
Comuneros rising, and was rewarded by a visit from Charles V. in 1524.
He had taken a fever, and at the advice of his physicians, came to
Madrid to regain health in this elevated, bracing region of Castile. A
year after, he was in conflict with Francis I. of France, and the French
king was a captive in Madrid. Attended by a few members of his Court,
Francis occupied a room in the old palace, then known as the Alcázar.
There is no doubt that he suffered keen humiliation during this
detention, and that he was harassed by fears for the future. His gaoler
was Alarcon, the valorous commander of the Spanish infantry, who appears
to have treated his royal prisoner with courteous consideration.
When Francis heard that the Emperor desired that he should relinquish
all claim to Italy and yield Burgundy, he seized his dagger, and swore
that he would rather die than consent to the terms. And although Alarcon
restrained him from plunging the dagger into his body, the King avowed
that he would sooner suffer lifelong imprisonment than bear the disgrace
of gaining freedom by the loss of power and dignity.
Lying on his bed, surrounded by counsellors, the French sovereign sank
into a condition of fever and extreme depression. At length he declared
his willingness to yield.
By the famous Treaty of Madrid, which was signed in 1526, Francis I.
abandoned his rights over parts of Italy and certain portions of
Holland and Belgium. The compact was solemnly celebrated at a religious
service, and the French and Spanish monarchs passed a few days together
before Francis crossed the frontier of Spain.
No sooner had he passed over the Bidassoa than Francis cried: “I am yet
a king!” Never had he intended to keep to the terms of the Treaty of
Madrid. His breach of faith alarmed Charles, who sent Lannoy and Alarcon
to France as his emissaries. Their errand was unavailing; Francis
offered a sum of money to the Emperor, but refused to cede Burgundy. And
so the bitter feud between Charles and Francis was continued.
Charles V. was a singular example of weakness, of obstinacy, and of
reason, with a bias for right and justice. He delighted in the quietude
of Aranjuez, and was fond of directing the work of the gardeners. The
emperor was athletic in his early manhood, and addicted to field sports.
He loved the sights and sounds of wild nature, and took pleasure in
roaming the forests. During his visits to Italy, he went to see many
famous pictures, and paid homage to Titian. His versatility was also
exhibited in his great taste for music and his knowledge of the
technique of the art.
He it was who first conceived the project of elevating Madrid to the
rank of capital. It was left, however, to his son to promulgate the
decree declaring the town to be _unica Corte_. The document, dated 1561,
has unfortunately been lost. Madrid had this advantage over Toledo,
Valladolid, and the other old capitals, that it was not identified with
any one in particular of the kingdoms that made up Spain, but with Spain
in general.
Philip II. held his Court at Madrid in 1561, but he preferred the
solitude of his palace of the Escorial. Under this monarch’s rule the
city was enlarged, the streets widened, and several squares built. At
this time a number of the surrounding forests were felled in order to
raise money for the royal exchequer. Don John of Austria, the natural
son of Philip IV. by the beautiful actress Calderona, lived in the Buen
Retiro. In “The Lady’s Travels into Spain,” written in 1679, we read
that it was against the custom to permit the illegitimate sons of
royalty to enter Madrid. Don John was therefore confined in the Buen
Retiro, “which is the Royal Seat at one of the farthest Parts of Madrid,
a little without the Gate.” Here the prince led a secluded existence.
“And he shew’d himself so little that he was never seen at any publick
Feast during the Life of the late King: but since, Times have changed,
and his Fortune stands on a different bottom.”
According to this very entertaining authoress, Don John was of middle
height, handsome, with “a most manly countenance.” His address was
polished and kindly, and he was reputed to be well learned in the arts
and sciences. He “took a great pleasure in the Mathematicks.” Madrid at
this time was renowned for the purity of its air and water. The water
was “so good and so light that the Cardinal Infante would drink no other
when he was in Flanders; and he caus’d it to be brought by Sea in
Earthen Jars well stop’d.” The streets of the city were poorly paved, so
that the horses often sank up to their knees and the coaches to the
butts of the wheels. There were no fortifications to Madrid at this
period, and the gates were not defended. Still, even at this time, there
were long and wide streets and many great houses. Eating houses
abounded, where the chief dishes were beans, garlic, leeks, and broth.
There was very little drunkenness. Men drank less than half a pint of
wine during the day, and the majority of women abstained altogether.
At this date it was the fashion to retain a large number of domestic
servants. The Duchess of Osuna kept about eight hundred attendants, and
every room seemed full of them. Only titled persons were allowed to
drive teams of four mules. If a commoner dared to appear on the streets
with such an equipage, he was liable to a fine, and the traces of his
carriage would be cut. The king’s team consisted of six mules.
The daughters of high families in Madrid were often placed in a sort of
service to friends of their relatives, who employed them in embroidery
and other needlework, for if the young women remained at home they spent
their time in idle chatter. The farthingale was worn, and it was often
of a huge size, and exceedingly troublesome to the wearers and to other
persons. Some women of fashion wore as many as a dozen skirts and
petticoats, except in the hot months, when they contented themselves
with seven or eight, some being of satin and others of velvet. As the
dresses were cut low, it was the custom to rouge the shoulders as well
as the cheeks.
The ladies of Madrid society used at this time to sit upon the floor,
with their legs crossed in the oriental fashion. They played ombre, took
but little outdoor exercise, toyed with their needles, and read very
little. At Mass the women carried enormous muffs, and each one had a
fan, which was used both in hot and cold weather.
The author who records these impressions of Madrid was the Countess
d’Aulnoy. It is the opinion of some modern Spanish chroniclers that her
accounts of the manners and customs of that period are over-coloured and
often incorrect.
It was in the reign of Philip III. that the first part of Cervantes’
“Don Quixote” was printed in a house in the Calle de Atocha, by Juan de
la Cuesta, and the great satire was published in 1605. Philip III.
removed the Court to Valladolid, where it was maintained for about four
years and then reinstated at Madrid. During the rule of Philip, the
Plaza Mayor was built.
The reign of his successor was inaugurated by the public execution of
the unfortunate Calderon, whose fall has been the theme of many
romances.
The marriage of the Infanta Maria, sister of Philip IV., to Charles of
England was arranged to be celebrated in Madrid, in March 1623. Charles
stayed in the Convent of San Jeronimo, and afterwards at the Royal
Palace, where he remained for five months, and was entertained with
bull-fights, _fêtes_, and balls. The English prince was, however,
prevented from marrying the Princess Maria through hindrances of a
political nature.
Philip IV. built the Palace of the Buen Retiro at Madrid, inspired by
the example of Fontainebleau. In this new royal residence many balls
were held, and much money expended upon festivities of a very luxurious
character. Meantime, the scaffolds of Madrid flowed with noble blood, as
a result of the abortive conspiracy to place the House of Braganza on
the throne of Spain and the Duke of Medina Sidonia on that of Andalusia.
Madrid suffered from the general distress which spread over Spain at
this period. In the surrounding villages the people were at the point of
starvation, and the food supply in the city was seriously threatened.
The outlook was so menacing that, in 1664, the President of Castile was
sent with a military force to compel the farmers to send their produce
to Madrid. In 1680 there was much destitution and suffering in the city,
and the people rose and formed bands for the purpose of pillage. Beggars
swarmed in Madrid, and desperate gangs of robbers prowled in the
surrounding country.
The change from the Austrian to the Bourbon rule proved the salvation of
Madrid. Charles III. was an enlightened sovereign, honest in his
convictions, and vigorous in his measures of reform. He improved the
army, and raised the position of Spain to a first-rate power. His policy
in regard to the American colonies was liberal and conciliatory. Charles
repealed unjust taxes, stood champion to the poor man, and advocated
humane principles of government. He encouraged the sciences, art, and
letters of Spain, he protected the press, and gave printers immunity
from military service. During the rule of Charles III. schools and
colleges were founded. He improved and adorned Madrid, though at one
time he entertained the idea of transferring the seat of government to
Seville; and caused parks and promenades to be laid out. Under the
direction of this monarch, canals were constructed, roads made, waste
lands reclaimed, and industries stimulated.
The people of Madrid have every reason to respect Charles III. To his
initiation they owe the fine Customs’ House, the Prado Gallery, the
General Hospital, the Alcalá Gateway, the Observatory, the Botanical
Gardens, and the Natural History Library. These and other institutions
and public buildings were established and erected during the reign of
this excellent king.
The history of Madrid becomes merged in that of the kingdom. The lead
taken on the “Dos de Mayo,” 1808, when the Puerta del Sol and the
adjoining streets were held with dauntless but futile courage by the
people of Madrid against the French, was the signal for the uprising of
the whole country against the intruder. The capital had well deserved
its headship by its vindication of the nation’s dignity and
independence. Every episode in its troubled history since that memorable
day has been described vividly and inimitably by the great epic
novelist, Galdós. Throughout the nineteenth century, the city had its
full share in the vicissitudes and discord, which so happily terminated
with the accession of King Alfonso XII. and the establishment of the
strongest and most enlightened government Spain had known for centuries.
The Chevalier de Bourgoanne, who recounted his “Travels in Spain” in
1789, said that Madrid contained at that time eighteen parishes,
thirty-five monasteries, thirty-one convents, thirty-nine colleges,
fifteen gates, and about 140,000 inhabitants. The number of inhabitants
now approaches 600,000. Since the eighteenth century Madrid has extended
its confines on all sides, and grown into a modern city of the first
rank.
The walls, never a very formidable defence, were taken down in 1868 to
enlarge Madrid. At this time the new Plaza de Toros was erected, the
Puerta del Sol widened, and the viaduct built across the Calle de
Segovia. The streets are now well paved with stone or asphalte, and
illuminated with gas and electric light. The chief market is in the
Plaza de la Cebada, built in 1870.
In several of the squares and promenades there are fountains, statues,
and monuments. One of the finest of the monuments is that erected in
memory of the heroes of the Dos de Mayo (the Second of May). It is of
granite, in the shape of an obelisk, surrounded by symbolical figures.
This monument was designed by Isidro Velazquez. A marble group in front
of one of the façades of the Museo del Prado represents Daoiz and
Velarde, the gallant artillery officers who fell on that occasion in
defence of the throne and country.
Madrid has always been a city of craftworkers and small traders, and
even to-day there are very few large industries or factories. There are
many small employers of labour and many persons trading with their own
plant and stock, and finding employment for their own families. The
number of well-appointed shops is steadily increasing, and there is an
effort to compete with the large shops of Paris and London, as will be
seen during a stroll through the chief thoroughfares radiating from the
Puerta del Sol.
The arms of the city are a tree in leaf, with a bear climbing up the
stem, and the escutcheon is surmounted by a crown. Madrid bears the
title, “Imperial y coronada, muy noble y muy leal y muy heroica.”
III
THE COURT AND SOCIETY IN MADRID
Since the reign of Philip II. Madrid has been the _unica Corte_, or seat
of the Court of Spain. Before the twelfth century, a Moorish Alcázar
stood on the site of the present royal palace, which was built by Henry
IV., added to by succeeding monarchs, and considerably enlarged by
Philip III. The original architects were Herrera, Toledo, and other
famous designers of the day; but this structure was burned down, and, in
1738, Giovanni Sachetti planned a still larger palace, which is said to
have cost £3,000,000 in the building and embellishment.
The modern Palacio Real is rectangular, and stands on an eminence
commanding a wide view of the undulating tableland and the distant
mountains of Castile. It is built of granite and has wide wings. The
chief façade is on the south side. The Princes’ Entrance is one of the
several doorways of the fine façade. On the north is another portal of
admirable design, leading to the great _patio_ or inner court. The court
is surrounded by a piazza on thirty-six arches with the same number of
arches above, forming a gallery; and in the square are statues of the
Roman Emperors who ruled in Spain.
The grand staircase is of white and black marble, with an allegorical
ceiling painting by the Italian Giacinto. In the sumptuous Throne-Room
the appointments and decorations are resplendent, and on the ceiling is
a picture representing the Majesty of Spain, painted by Tiepolo.
Gasparini designed the beautiful hall that bears his name, where the
ceiling is of porcelain, and the walls decked with satin upon which
flowers are worked. The State Dining-Room of marble contains fresco
paintings. The Royal Chapel has columns of marble, and above the altar
is a painting by Mengs. Near the Sacristy are stored the holy relics;
and in the Tapiceria there is a very fine collection of tapestries after
Dutch artists. Attached to the Royal Palace are the Armoury, of which
something will be said later, the Royal Stables, excellently appointed,
and the sequestered and beautiful gardens.
Such is the principal residence of King Alfonso of Spain. The royal
ceremonial is under the direction of the Master of the Household and the
Lord High Steward. These officers are always persons of high birth, who
are invested with the honours of the Order of Charles III. and the
Golden Fleece. The Chief Equerry of the royal household takes the
position of Master of the Palace when that functionary is absent, and
controls the King’s hunt, and directs several minor officials of the
Court.
The Chief Chaplain to the King is the Archbishop of Toledo. One of the
principal members of the household is the Keeper of the Queen’s
Wardrobe. Then come the Lords of the Bedchamber, Maids of Honour, and
the Mayordomos de Semana (of the Week). The military officer in command
is the General of the Royal Halberdier Guards, and this functionary
presides over the ceremony of opening the palace doors at six in the
morning and closing them at eleven at night. In Spain the royal
residences are regarded as fortresses, and protected by troops.
The Intendant-General of the Royal House and Patrimony holds a
responsible post, and administers the King’s estates and incomes. Other
officials are the Private Secretaries, the Director of the Royal
Stables, the Chief Physician, the Chief Chemist, the Chief Architect,
the Secretary of the Signet, the Secretary of the High Chamber, Keeper
of the Archives, the Chief Librarian, the Director of the Royal
Armoury, and the Chief of the Tapestry Collection. The gentlemen of the
Royal Household wear a badge of office in the form of a silver key, and
are clad in special uniforms for various occasions.
Pomp and ceremony attend the movements of the Spanish sovereign, and
there is an elaborate “Court Guide” embodying all the ordinances and
regulations governing the life at the palace. The rigidity of etiquette
in the Court of Spain has, however, been exaggerated in the accounts
written by strangers since the time of the Countess d’Aulnoy, for a
modern Spanish writer asserts that the Court is “more democratic than
most European Courts.”
This writer says: “Almost all the points of etiquette observed at
present by the persons who have access to the King and Queen and members
of their family are merely formulas of pure courtesy, with which those
who are aware of them comply, but which are not imposed at the Palace,
nor even mentioned to those who do not know them. Taking the glove off
the right hand in order to shake hands with the King; treating him as is
his due; rising when he rises and not speaking to him except in reply to
his questions; these are the chief points to be observed, and which
courtiers themselves sometimes forget without any notice being taken.”
Religious services and festivals are strictly observed in the Palace of
His Catholic Majesty, and attended by all members of his Court. The
chief solemnities are the Festival of the Immaculate Conception and
Nativity, Epiphany and Purification, Ash Wednesday, Annunciation and
Incarnation, Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Sunday,
Ascension Day, Whit Sunday, Holy Trinity, Corpus Christi, All Saints,
and the Patronage of our Lady. The public are admitted to the galleries
of the Royal Chapel during the celebration of these festivals and
services.
Uniform or court dress is worn by the King at these religious
celebrations, the Queen always wearing a black or white _mantilla_, and
a long train to her dress, which is borne by pages. The sovereign sits
under a canopy, and the princes and princesses are on either side of the
throne. Each grandee of the Court has his allotted seat.
The royal infants are baptized from a font in which St Dominic, the
immortal founder of the Friars Preachers, was christened. In the Royal
Chapel of the Palace the weddings of the princes and princesses are
celebrated, but the Kings are married in the Church of the Atocha.
Foreign ministers are received in the Ante-chamber. There is an annual
banquet for all the Diplomatic Corps. One of the court ceremonies is the
conferring of the title of Grandee in the Ante-chamber.
Every night the Spanish monarch is guarded in his slumbers by the
ancient corps of Monteros de Espinosa. These officers are bound to watch
the King nightly, and after his death, until his body is sent to the
Royal Panteon at the Palace of the Escorial.
The changing of the royal guard takes place every morning in the grounds
of the palace, and is an interesting military spectacle, which attracts
a large number of the natives of Madrid as well as visitors to the city.
It dates from the time of Charles III. A regimental band plays during
the ceremony under the windows of the palace.
The Queen Mother of King Alfonso XIII. is possessed of strong religious
fervour, and is a pattern to Madrid society in the observance of the
rules of the Church and the practice of charity. But piety is not one of
the Madrileño’s conspicuous traits, and there is a notable want of
restraint in his language! yet Valentin Gómez writes: “Religion is
charity, love, and it cannot be denied that, in this respect, although
the crust be hard and unsightly, the heart of Madrid is religious, and
great and good work has sprung from its practical religion.”
Ecclesiastical festivals form an essential part of the life of Madrid.
The Forty Hours is celebrated at thirty churches of the city. During
Holy Week there are impressive services and solemn processions in the
streets. Every one walks garbed in black; diversions of every sort and
all except indispensable business is suspended. A solemn hush reigns
over the feverish city. Traffic in the thoroughfares is forbidden on
Maundy Thursday and Good Friday, and the tramcars do not run during
certain hours. On Maundy Thursday the King washes the feet of twelve
indigent men and women in the palace, and the public attend the
ceremony. Good Friday is a day of grace, when the King, at his
discretion, exercises clemency towards criminals accused of capital
charges.
A _romeria_ or pilgrimage is celebrated in the morning of Good Friday,
when crowds visit the Cara de Dios, and afterwards promenade the
streets. Imposing processions also take place on Good Friday, which are
sometimes attended by the King and the Court dignitaries.
The Corpus Christi festivals are very important. A splendid procession
is formed by the chief clergy, members of the court, and military
officers. During these celebrations, fairs are held in the outskirts of
the city. There is a curious ceremony in memory of St John during June.
On the evening of June 23, the populace assemble in the Plaza de Madrid,
and at the stroke of midnight the devout dip their hands in the fountain
of Cybele, and scatter the water over the bystanders who are unable to
reach the basin.