[258] _Curtius_ (iii. 27) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 34) give a graphic

description of a direct charge made by Alexander upon Darius, and a

sanguinary conflict between Alexander’s body-guard and the Persian

nobles, in which the Great King’s horses were wounded and became

unmanageable, whereupon Darius got out, mounted a horse, and fled.

We learn from Plutarch (_Alex._, 20) that Chares affirmed Alexander

came into hand-to-hand conflict with Darius, and that he received

a wound in the thigh from that king’s sword. Plutarch says that

Alexander wrote to Antipater that he had been wounded in the thigh

with a dagger, but did not say by whom. He also wrote that nothing

serious had resulted from the wound. The account of Arrian is far the

most trustworthy. Callisthenes stated that Alexander made a direct

attack upon Darius (_Polybius_, xii. 22). We know from Xenophon that

the Persian kings were in the habit of occupying the centre, and that

Cyrus directed Clearchus to make the attack against the person of his

brother Artaxerxes at the battle of Cunaxa. Polybius seems to have

been ignorant of this custom of the Persian kings when he wrote his

criticism on the statement of Callisthenes.

[259] ἀφείλετο. On this word see Donaldson (_New

Cratylus_, sect. 315). Cf. Aeschўlus (_Persae_, 428); _Thucydides_ (iv.

134); Xenophon (_Hellenics_, i. 2, 16).

[260] The victories of the Greeks and Macedonians over the Persians

were materially aided by the pusillanimity of Xerxes and Darius.

Compare the conduct of Xerxes at Salamis (_Herodotus_, viii. 97;

Aeschўlus, _Persae_, 465-470, with Mr. Paley’s note) and that of Darius

at Arbela (_Arrian_, iii. 14).

[261] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 36) and _Curtius_ (iii. 29) agree with Arrian

as to the number of slain in the army of Darius. Plutarch (_Alex._, 20)

gives the number as 110,000.

[262] _Justin_ (xi. 9) agrees with Arrian, that the wife of Darius was

also his sister. Grote speaks of the mother, wife, and sister of Darius

being captured, which is an error. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 38) and _Curtius_

(iii. 29) say that the son was about six years of age.

[263] Cf. Xenophon (_Cyropaedia_, ii. 1, 3; vii. 5, 85).

[264] Damascus,—the Hebrew name of which is Dammesek,—a very ancient

city in Syria, at the foot of the Antilibanus, at an elevation of 220

feet above the sea, in a spacious and fertile plain about 30 miles in

diameter, which is watered by three rivers, two of which are called in

the Bible Abana and Pharpar. It has still a population of 150,000. The

emperor Julian, in one of his letters, calls it “the Eye of all the

East.”

[265] About £730,000.

[266] B.C. 333; end of October or beginning of November.

[267] Alexander erected three altars on the bank of the Pinarus, to

Zeus, Heracles, and Athena (_Curtius_, iii. 33). Cicero, who was

proconsul of Cilicia, speaks of “the altars of Alexander at the foot

of Amanus,” and says that he encamped there four days (_Epistolae ad

Diversos_, xv. 4).

[268] About £12,000.

[269] This distinguished general saved Alexander’s life in India,

in the assault on the city of the Mallians. After the king’s death,

he received the rule of the lesser or Hellespontine Phrygia. He was

defeated and slain by the Athenians under Antiphilus, against whom he

was fighting in alliance with Antipater, B.C. 323. See _Diodorus_,

xviii. 14, 15; Plutarch (_Phocion_, 25).

[270] Compare _Diodorus_, xvii. 37, 38; _Curtius_, iii. 29-32.

[271] Named Sisygambis.

[272] In a letter written by Alexander to Parmenio, an extract from

which is preserved by Plutarch (_Alex._, 22), he says that he never saw

nor entertained the desire of seeing the wife of Darius, who was said

to be the most beautiful woman in Asia; and that he would not allow

himself to listen to those who spoke about her beauty. Cf. _Ammianus_

(xxiv. 4, 27), speaking of Julian: “Ex virginibus autem, quae speciosae

sunt captae, ut in Perside, ubi feminarum pulchritudo excellit,

nec contrectare aliquam voluit, nec videre: Alexandrum imitatus et

Africanum, qui haec declinabant, ne frangeretur cupiditate, qui se

invictos a laboribus ubique praestiterunt.”

[273] Thapsacus is understood to be identical with the city called

Tiphsach (passage) in 1 Kings iv. 24; which is there said to have been

the eastern boundary of Solomon’s empire. It is generally supposed that

the modern Deir occupies the site of the ancient Thapsacus; but it has

been discovered that the only ford in this part of the river is at

Suriyeh, 165 miles above Deir. This was probably the site of Thapsacus.

From the time of Seleucus Nicator the city was called Amphipolis

(_Pliny_, v. 21). See _Stephanus_ of Byzantium, _sub voce_ Amphipolis.

Cf. Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 4, 11).

[274] The Euphrates is the largest river of western Asia, and rises in

the mountains of Armenia. It unites with the Tigris, and after a course

of 1,780 miles flows into the Persian Gulf. It is navigable by boats

for 1,200 miles. The annual inundation, caused by the melting of the

snow in the mountains of Armenia, takes place in the month of May. The

Euphrates, Tigris, and Eulaeus had formerly three separate outlets into

the Persian Gulf; but the three now unite in a single stream, which is

called Shat-el-Arab. The Hebrew name for the river which the Greeks

called Euphrates, was Pĕrath (rapid stream). It is called in the Bible,

the _Great River_, and _the River_ (Gen. xv. 18; Exod. xxiii. 31; _et

passim_). In Jeremiah xiii. 4-7, the word _Pĕrath_ stands for Ephrath,

another name for Bethlehem; in our Bible it is mis-translated. See

Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_.

[275] The term _Cĕnaan_ was applied to the lowland plain from Aradus

to Gaza. The northern portion, from Aradus to Carmel, is known to

us under its Grecian name of Phoenicia, which is probably derived

from the Greek _phoinix_ (a palm-tree), which grew abundantly in the

country, and was the emblem of some of its towns. Others derive it from

another Greek word _phoinix_ (red dye), which formed one of its most

important manufactures. The Phoenicians applied the term Cenaan to

their land in contrast to the highlands to the west, which they called

_Aram_ (highland), the Hebrew name for Syria. The country of Phoenicia

was 120 miles long and with an average breadth of 12 miles, never

exceeding 20 miles. The chief cities of Phoenicia were Tyre, Sidon,

Aradus, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, and Accho or Ptolemais. Its central

position between the eastern and western countries, early developed

its commercial power, and its intercourse with foreign nations at an

early period produced an advanced state of civilization and refinement.

The Phoenicians were a Semitic nation like the Israelites; and their

language bears a remarkable affinity with the Hebrew, as is seen by

fragments of the Carthaginian language preserved in Plautus. In an

inscription discovered at Marseilles in 1845, out of 94 words 74

were found in the Hebrew Bible. The Phoenicians were asserted by the

Greeks to have communicated to them the knowledge of letters; and this

statement is corroborated by the similarity of the Hebrew and ancient

Greek letters. Their colonies spread from Cyprus to Crete and the

Cyclades, thence to Euboea, Greece, and Thrace. The coasts of Asia

Minor and Bithynia were dotted with their settlements, and they carried

their commerce into the Black Sea. They also had colonies in Sicily,

Sardinia, Ivica, and Spain, where they founded Cadiz. The northern

coast of Africa was lined with their colonies, the most flourishing of

which was Carthage, which rose to be one of the great powers of the

world. Strabo says that they had 300 colonies on the western coast of

Africa. They visited the coasts of England for tin; and thus, to quote

the words of Humboldt, “the Tyrian flag waved at the same time in

Britain and the Indian Ocean.” _Herodotus_ (iv. 42, 43) says that under

the patronage of Necho, king of Egypt, they circumnavigated Africa; but

he states that he does not believe it was a fact. The reason which he

assigns for his disbelief is, that the navigators alleged that the sun

was on their right hand, which is the strongest argument in favour of

the truth of their statement. In Isaiah xxiii. 11, Phoenicia is called

Cĕnaan, where the English Bible has erroneously, _the merchant city_.

In the Bible the word _Cĕnaanim_ is frequently used for _merchants_,

because the Phoenicians were the principal commercial people of

antiquity (Job xli. 6; Prov. xxxi. 24; Isaiah xxiii. 8; Hos. xii.

7; Zeph. i. 2; Zech. xiv. 21). Tripolis consisted of three distinct

cities, 600 feet apart, each having its own walls, but all united in

a common constitution with one place of assembly. These cities were

colonies respectively of Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus. Tripolis was a

flourishing port on a headland which is a spur of Lebanon. It is now

called Tripoli, and is still a large town. See Dr. Smith’s _Dictionary

of Classical Geography_.

[276] The oldest towns in Cyprus,—Citium, Amathus, and Paphus,—were

Phoenician colonies. These were afterwards eclipsed by the Greek

colonies, Salamis, Soli, and New Paphus. In Hebrew the island is

called _Ceth_, and the inhabitants _Cittim_. Gesenius says, that upon

a Sidonian coin _Ceth_ in Cyprus, which the Greeks called Citium, is

described as a Sidonian colony. _Diodorus_ (xvi. 42) says there were

nine kings in Cyprus. It is probable that the kings of the Hittites

mentioned in 1 Kings x. 29, were from Cyprus. Also the Hittite women

whom Solomon married were probably Cyprians (1 Kings xi. 1). The kings

of the Hittites of whom the Syrians were afraid were also Cypriotes (2

Kings vii. 6); and the _land of the Hittites_ mentioned in Judges i.

26, probably means Cyprus. Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerome understand

these passages to refer to Cyprus. In Isaiah xxiii. 1, the _land

of Cittim_ refers to Cyprus, which belonged to Tyre, the revolt of

which the prophet announced. This revolt is confirmed by Menander

(_Josephus_, ix. 14, 9).

[277] Agis III. was ultimately defeated and slain by Antipater, B.C.

330. See _Curtius_, vi. 1 and 2; Grote’s _Greece_, vol. xii. pp.

102-106.

[278] About £7,300.

[279] Now Cape Matapan. Cf. _Propertius_, iii. 2, 11; _Tibullus_, iii.

3, 13; Homer (_Hymn to Apollo_, 411).

[280] The Cretans were very early civilized and powerful, for we read

in Homer of their 100 cities. Before the Trojan war lived the famous

king Minos, who is said to have given laws to Crete, and to have been

the first potentate who possessed a navy, with which he suppressed

piracy in the Aegean Sea. The Cretans gradually degenerated, so that

we find in the New Testament St. Paul quoting from their own poet,

Epimenides: “Always liars and beasts are the Cretans, and inwardly

sluggish” (Titus i. 12). The lying propensity of the Cretans is proved

from the fact that the verb _to Cretize_, was used in Greek with the

meaning “to speak falsely.” In Hebrew, Crete is called _Caphtor_

(cypress). It is mentioned in Jer. xlvii. 4. It was the native land

of a tribe of Philistines called Caphtorim (Gen. x. 14; Deut. ii. 23;

1 Chron. i. 12). The fact that the Philistines came partly from Crete

is also affirmed in Amos ix. 7. Another branch of the Philistines came

from Casloach in Egypt. The Caphtorim emigrated originally from Egypt

to Crete, from which island they were probably driven by the Greeks.

Tacitus asserts that the inhabitants of Palestine came from Crete

(_Historiae_, v. 2); and the early name of Gaza was Minoa, after the

famous king of Crete. Another Hebrew name for Crete is Cĕrēth, whence

the inhabitants were called _Cĕrēthim_. They are mentioned in Ezek.

xxv. 16, and Zeph. ii. 5; where the Septuagint and the Syriac have

_Cretans_. We find the Philistines, who were partly emigrants from

Crete, called Cerethim in 1 Sam. xxx. 14. From among these Cerethim

and Philistines David chose his body-guard, which was composed of men

skilled in shooting and slinging (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, xx. 7, 23; 1

Kings i. 38, 44; 1 Chron. xviii. 17).

[281] From _Diodorus_ (xvii. 48) it appears that Agis went personally

to Crete, and compelled most of the cities to join the Persian side. We

also learn that the deputies of the Greeks assembled at the Isthmian

games at Corinth sent an embassy to Alexander to congratulate him on

his victory at Issus, and to present him with a golden wreath. (See

also _Curtius_, iv. 22.)

[282] Coele-Syria, or Hollow Syria, is, in its more limited sense,

the country between the ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libănus, in which

Damascus and Baalbek are situated; in its wider meaning, it comprises

the whole of Northern Syria, in opposition to the countries of

Phoenicia and Palestine.

[283] Aradus is an island lying two or three miles from the mainland of

Phoenicia. According to Strabo, a State was founded in it by refugees

from Sidon. For a long time the island was independent, under its own

kings; and even after it fell under the sway of the Macedonian kings

of Syria, and subsequently under that of the Romans, it retained a

great deal of its commercial prosperity. Aradus appears in Hebrew

under the form _Arvad_. It is evident from Ezek. xxvii. 8, 11, that

its inhabitants were skilful sailors and brave warriors. They sent out

colonies to Aradus south of Carmel, the island of Aradus near Crete,

and the islands in the Persian gulf. The present name of this island is

Ruad. The Aradians inhabited the mainland opposite the island, as well

as the island itself.

[284] Artaxerxes Ochus reigned B.C. 359-338.

[285] Perinthus was a Samian colony on the Propontis. For the siege by

Philip, see _Diodorus_, xvi. 74-76.

[286] Impartial historians deny that Philip’s murderers were bribed;

they committed the murder from private resentment.

[287] Ochus was poisoned about B.C. 338, by the eunuch Bagoas, who

placed upon the throne Arses, one of the king’s sons, killing all the

rest. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, vi. 8). Two years afterwards,

Bagoas put Arses and all his children to death; thus leaving no direct

heir of the regal family alive. He then placed upon the throne one of

his adherents, named Darius Codomannus, a descendant of one of the

brothers of Artaxerxes Mnemon. Bagoas soon afterwards tried to poison

this Darius; but the latter, discovering his treachery, forced him to

drink the deadly draught himself (_Diod._, xvii. 5; _Justin_, x. 3).

From _Arrian_, iii. 19, we learn that Bistanes, a son of Ochus, was

alive after the battle of Arbela.

[288] Aeschines, in his speech against Ctesiphon (p. 634), asserts

that Darius sent 300 talents to Athens, that the Athenians refused

them, and that Demosthenes took them, reserving 70 talents for his own

private use. Deinarchus repeats this statement in his speech against

Demosthenes. (pp. 9-14). If Demosthenes had really acted thus, it is

strange Alexander knew nothing about it.

[289] This statement of Arrian is confirmed by _Curtius_ (iii. 34), who

says that Parmenio captured the treasure, not in the city, but from

fugitives who were conveying it away.

[290] In giving the names of the captured Grecian envoys, _Curtius_

(iii. 35) seems to have confounded this with a future occasion,

mentioned in _Arrian_ (iii. 24).

[291] The great Iphicrates had been adopted by Alexander’s grandfather,

as is stated in a note on Book I. chap. 23.

[292] Byblus is said by _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) to have been situated on a

height not far from the sea. It was reported to be the oldest city in

the world. It possessed a considerable extent of territory, including

Berytus, and was an independent State for a long period, the last king

being deposed by Pompey. On a Byblus coin of Alexander’s time appears

the name _Einel_, which is the king Enylus mentioned by _Arrian_ (ii.

20). Byblus was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis, or Thammuz,

who was supposed to have been born there. In the Bible it appears under

its Hebrew name _Gebal_ (mountain-district). The inhabitants of Gebal

are said in Ezek. xxvii. 9 to have been skilled in building ships. In

Josh. xiii. 5 the northern boundary of the Holy Land is said to reach

as far as the land of the Giblite, or inhabitant of Gebal. In 1 Kings

v. 18 the word translated in our Bible _stone-squarers_ ought to be

rendered _Giblites_. The Arabs still call the place Jebail. Cf. Milton

(_Paradise Lost_, viii. 18).

[293] Sidon, or in Hebrew _Tsidon_ (fortress), is called in Gen. x. 15,

19 the firstborn son of Canaan, _i.e._ it was the first city founded

by the Canaanites or Phoenicians. It lay about twenty miles south of

Tyre, on a small promontory two miles south of the river Bostremus. We

read in _Homer_ that it was famous for its embroidered robes and metal

utensils, and from other ancient writers we find that it manufactured

glass and linen and also prepared dyes. Before the time of David it

fell under the rule of Tyre; but when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria,

invaded Phoenicia, it revolted from Tyre and submitted to the invader.

It was governed by its own kings under the Babylonian and Persian

empires; and under the latter power it reached its highest prosperity,

surpassing Tyre in wealth and importance. In the expedition of Xerxes

against Greece, the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole

fleet, and their king obtained the highest place under Xerxes in the

council. But they revolted against Ochus, king of Persia, and being

betrayed to him by their own king Tennes, they burnt their city and

ships. It is said that 40,000 persons perished in the fire and by the

sword, B.C. 351. (_Diodorus_, xvi. 43-45). No doubt this barbarous

treatment of Ochus induced the Sidonians to take the side of Alexander.

The city was already built and again flourishing when that king

appeared on the scene. Near the site of the ancient city is the present

town of Saida, with a population of about 5,000. Cf. Homer (_Iliad_,

vi. 289; xxiii. 741); _Lucan_, iii. 217.

[294] At Sidon, Alexander deposed the reigning king Strato, a friend

of the Persians; and a poor man, named Abdalonymus, distantly related

to the regal family, was put into his place (_Curtius_, iv. 3, 4).

_Diodorus_ (xvii. 47) tells the same story, but applies it to Tyre,

probably by mistake.

[295] The Hebrew name for Tyre is _Tsor_ (rock). In Isa. xxiii. 4 it

is called the fortress of the sea; and in ver. 8, “Tsor, the crowning

one,” because Tyre gave rulers to the Phoenician cities and colonies.

Valuable information about the power, trade, and customs of Tyre

is derived from Ezek. xxvi-xxviii.; and we learn the fact that she

employed mercenaries like her colony Carthage (Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11). In

the classical writers the name is corrupted into _Tyrus_, and sometimes

into _Sarra_. Tyre was unsuccessfully besieged for five years by

Shalmaneser. It was also besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar,

and in the end an alliance was formed, by which the Tyrians retained

their own king as a vassal of the king of Babylon. This arrangement was

continued under the kings of Persia.

[296] _Curtius_ (iv. 7) tells us that the envoys also brought to

Alexander a golden wreath, together with abundant supplies for his army.

[297] This king must have brought home his ships for the defence of

Tyre, for he was in the city when it was captured. See chap. 24.

[298] The Phoenician god _Melkarth_ (lord of the city), whom the

Syrians called _Baal_ (lord), was supposed to be identical with the

Grecian Heracles, or Hercules, who was the mythical ancestor of the

Macedonian kings. _Curtius_ (iv. 7) tells us that Alexander affirmed

he had been ordered by an oracle to sacrifice in Tyre to Heracles.

Gesenius informs us that a Maltese inscription identifies the Tyrian

Melkarth with Heracles.

[299] Who was the son of Labdacus.

[300] See _Herodotus_, ii. 43, 44.

[301] The district comprising all the south-west of Spain outside the

pillars of Heracles, or Straits of Gibraltar, was called Tartessis,

of which the chief city was Tartessus. Here the Phoenicians planted

colonies, one of which still remains under the name of Cadiz. The

Romans called the district Baetica, from the principal river, the

Baetis or Guadalquivir. The Hebrew name for this region is _Tarshish_,

of which Tartessus is the Greek form. Tarshish was the station for the

Phoenician trade with the West, which extended as far as Cornwall.

The Tyrians fetched from this locality silver, iron, lead, tin, and

gold (Isa. xxiii. 1, 6, 10, lxvi. 19; Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12,

xxxviii. 13). Martial, Seneca, and Avienus, the first two of whom were

Spaniards, understood Tartessus to stand for the south-west of Spain

and Portugal. The word Tarshish probably means _sea-coast_, from the

Sanscrit _tarischa_, the sea. Ovid (_Met._, xiv. 416); _Martial_, viii.

28; _Silius_, xiii. 673.

[302] Of Miletus. Herodotus knew his writings well, but they have not

come down to us. See _Herod._ (ii. 143; v. 36 and 125).

[303] The Iberians were originally called Tibarenes, or Tibari. They

dwelt on the east of the Black Sea, and west of Colchis, whence they

emigrated to Spain. This nation is called _Tubal_ in the Hebrew Bible;

in Isa. lxvi. 19 the Iberians of western Europe are referred to.

[304] An island near Cadiz, now called Leon. Cf. Hesiod (_Theogonia_,

287-294); _Herodotus_, iv. 8.

[305] Now called Arta.

[306] Arrian omits to mention that the Tyrians pointed out to him that

his wish to sacrifice to Hercules might be gratified without entering

their city, since at Palaetyrus, on the mainland, separated from Tyre

only by a narrow strait, was a temple of that deity more ancient than

that in Tyre. See _Curtius_, iv. 7; _Justin_, xi. 10. We learn from

_Arrian_, i. 18, that when Alexander offered sacrifice to the Ephesian

Diana he marched to the temple with his whole army in battle array.

No doubt it was this kind of thing the Tyrians objected to. Alexander

actually did the same at Tyre after its capture. (See chapter 24.)

[307] For this use of ἐνύπνιον, cf. Homer (_Iliad_, ii. 56);

Aristophanes (_Wasps_, 1218).

[308] Cf. _Arrian_, i. 11 and 25 supra.

[309] The island was about half a mile from the mainland, and about a

mile in length.

[310] We learn from _Diodorus_ (xvii. 40) that the breadth of this mole

was about 200 feet.

[311] _Curtius_ (iv. 10) says that the timber was procured from

Lebanon, and the stones from Old Tyre on the mainland.

[312] Cf. _Polyaenus_ (iv. 3).

[313] Cf. Cæsar (_Bell. Gall._, vii. 24)—reliquasque res, quibus ignis

excitari potest, fundebant. Krüger has unnecessarily altered ἐπὶ ταύτῃ

into ἐπ’ αὐτήν (_i.e._ πρῷραν).

[314] _Curtius_ (iv. 12) says that the stern was loaded with stones and

sand.

[315] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 42) and _Curtius_ (iv. 12) say that a great

tempest helped to demolish the palisade.

[316] We learn from Josephus (_Antiquities of the Jews_, ix. 14), on

the authority of Menander, that when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, four

centuries before Alexander’s time, besieged Tyre, the other Phoenicians

supplied him with ships in like manner.

[317] This was a state vessel, or guardship, similar to the _Paralus_

and _Salaminia_ at Athens. See _Alciphron_, Bk. I. Epistle 11, with

Bergler’s note.

[318] See _Arrian_, ii. 2 supra.

[319] _Curtius_ (iv. 11) says that about thirty of the Macedonians

collecting timber in Lebanon were killed by a party of wild Arabs,

and that a few were also captured by them. _Lebanon_ is a Hebrew word

meaning _white_, like _Alpes_. It was so called on account of its white

cliffs, just as Britain is called by Aristotle, _Albion_, the Celtic

for white.

[320] Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 24) gives us, on the authority of

Chares, some details of daring valour on the part of Alexander in this

expedition.

[321] Cleander was put to death by Alexander for oppression in

exercising his duties as governor of Media. See _Arrian_, vi. 27 infra.

[322] In regard to this manœuvre, see _Herodotus_, vi. 12;

_Thucydides_, i. 49, with Arnold’s note.

[323] συμπεπηγμέναι:—“In the best authors πέπηγα is used as the perf.

pass. of πήγνυμι” (_Liddell & Scott_). Cf. v. 12, 4; 24, 4, infra.

[324] Cf. Plautus (_Mercator_, iv. 2, 5), _hortator remigum_.

[325] Amathus was a town on the south coast of Cyprus. It is now called

Limasol. Cf. _Herodotus_, v. 104-115; Tacitus (_Ann._, iii. 62); Vergil

(_Aeneid_, x. 51).

[326] Curium was also a town on the south coast of Cyprus.

[327] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 45) says, that after Admetus was killed,

Alexander recalled his men from the assault that night, but renewed it

next day.

[328] Agenor, the father of Cadmus, was the reputed founder of Tyre and

Sidon. See _Curtius_, iv. 19.

[329] The Tyrians had been encouraged in their resistance by the

promise of aid from their colony Carthage. But the Carthaginians

excused themselves on the ground of their own difficulties in

contending with the Greeks. The Tyrians however despatched their women,

children, and old men to Carthage for safety. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 40,

41; _Curtius_, iv. 8 and 15. We learn from _Diod._, xx. 14, that the

Carthaginians were in the habit of sending to the Tyrian Hercules the

tenth of their revenues.

[330] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 46) and _Curtius_ (iv. 19) state that 2,000

Tyrians who had escaped the massacre were hanged on the seashore by

Alexander’s order.

[331] The end of July and beginning of August B.C. 332. _Diodorus_

(xvii. 46) tells us that the siege lasted seven months. See also

_Curtius_ (iv. 20) and Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 24). We find from

_Strabo_ (xvi. 2) that Tyre again became a flourishing city.

[332] About £2,440,000.

[333] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 54) puts the arrival of this embassy after

Alexander’s conquest of Egypt. _Curtius_ (iv. 21) says that the name of

the daughter whom Darius offered to Alexander was Statira.

[334] The term Palestine is derived from _Pĕlesheth_, the name given

in Hebrew to the coast district in the south-west of Palestine, the

inhabitants of which were called _Pĕlishtim_, or Philistines. As this

tract of country lay directly between Phoenicia and Egypt, it became

known to the Greeks sooner than the rest of the Holy Land, and they

called it Syria Palaestinē. The name was gradually extended until

it became the usual one for all the Holy Land among Greek and Latin

writers. An interesting account of Alexander’s visit to Jerusalem and

his dealings with the Jews is found in Josephus (_Antiquities_, xi. 8).

[335] Nearly two miles and a half. _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) says that the city

was only seven stades from the sea.

[336] Gaza is the Greek form of the Hebrew name _Azzah_ (fortress). Its

position on the border of Egypt and Palestine has given it importance

from the earliest times. It was one of the five cities of the

Philistines; and retained its own king till a late period, as we learn

from Zechariah ix. 5. It was the scene of a battle between Richard I.

and the Saracens. It is now called Guzzeh, with a population of 15,000.

[337] Compare _Arrian_, i. 11 and 25; ii. 18. Plutarch (_Alex._, 25)

says that the bird was entangled and caught among the nets and cords.

See also _Curtius_, iv. 26.

[338] A stadium equalled 606-3/4 feet.

[339] Cf. _Thucydides_, ii. 76 (description of the siege of Plataeae).

[340] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 48) says that the siege of Gaza lasted two

months. _Polybius_ (xvi. 40) speaks of the resolution and valour of

the Gazaeans. We learn from _Curtius_ (iv. 28) and from _Dionysius_ of

Halicarnassus (_De Compositione Verborum_, pp. 123-125) that Alexander

treated the brave Batis with horrible cruelty. He ordered his feet to

be bored and brazen rings to be put through them, after which the naked

body was tied to the back of a chariot which was driven by Alexander

himself round the city, in imitation of the treatment of Hector by

Achilles at Troy. Cf. _Arrian_, vii. 14. Dionysius quotes from Hegesias

of Magnesia, who wrote a history of Alexander, not now extant. Curtius

says that nearly 10,000 of the Persians and Arabs were slain at Gaza.

_Strabo_ (xvi. 2) says that in his time (_i.e._ in the reign of

Augustus) the city still remained desolate, as it was left by Alexander.

[341] Pelusium is identical with the Hebrew _Sin_ (a marsh) the most

easterly city of Egypt, which is called in Ezekiel xxx. 15, the

_strength of Egypt_, because it was the key to that country from its

frontier position. Cf. _Herodotus_, iii. 5. _Strabo_ (xvii. 1) says

it was situated near marshes. It stood east of the Pelusiac branch of

the Nile, about 2-1/2 miles from the sea. This mouth of the river was

choked up with sand as early as the first century of the Christian era

(_Lucan_, viii. 465). Sennacherib advanced as far as this city, and

here Cambyses defeated the Egyptians, B.C. 525. Iphicrates the Athenian

advanced to Pelusium with the satrap Pharnabazus, B.C. 373. Cf. Vergil

(_Georgic_, i. 228); _Martial_, xiii. 9; _Silius_, iii. 375.

[342] _Curtius_ (iv. 22) says that this fleet was under the command of

Hephaestion.

[343] His predecessor, Sabaces, was slain at Issus. See _Arrian_, ii.

11 supra.

[344] _Curtius_ (iv. 29) says that Mazaces surrendered to Alexander

treasure to the amount of 800 talents, nearly £200,000.

[345] Memphis, the capital of Egypt, is called in the Hebrew Bible,

_Noph_. In Hosea ix. 6 it is called _Moph_. The Egyptian name was

_Mĕnoph_, of which both Moph and Noph are contractions. The name

signifies _place of Ftah_, the Egyptian name for Vulcan. Memphis

stood on the west bank of the Nile, and is said by _Herodotus_ (ii.

99) to have been founded by Menes. It had a circumference of fifteen

miles. Its numerous temples were famous and are mentioned in the poems

of Martial, Ovid, and Tibullus. It never recovered the devastation

committed by Cambyses, who was exasperated by its resistance. The rise

of Alexandria as the capital under the Ptolemies, hastened the decline

of Memphis. At Gizeh, near Memphis, are the three great pyramids, being

of the height respectively of 460, 446, and 203 feet. Not far off are

six smaller ones. Near the second pyramid is the Sphinx, cut out of the

solid rock, which was probably an object of worship. Cf. _Apollodorus_,

ii. 4.

[346] Heliopolis is known in Hebrew as _On_, which is an Egyptian

word meaning _Sun_. It is mentioned in Gen. xli. 45, 50; xlvi. 20.

In Ezek. xxx. 17, it is called _Aven_, which is the same word in

Hebrew as On, with a variation of the vowels. In Jer. xliii. 13 it

is called _Beith-Shemesh_, which in Hebrew means _House of the Sun_,

a translation of the Egyptian name. The Greeks called it Heliopolis,

_City of the Sun_. The great temple of the Sun and its priesthood

are described by Herodotus and Strabo. There are still remaining

a beautiful obelisk of red granite nearly 70 feet high, and the

brick wall of the temple 3,750 feet long by 2,370 feet broad. Cf.

_Apollodorus_, ii. 4.

[347] The word Nile never occurs in the Hebrew Bible; but that river is

called _Yeor_ (river). In Amos viii. 8 it is called _Yeor Mitsraim_,

the river of Egypt; but it is usually called simply _Yeor_, the river.

In Isa. xxiii. 3 the corn of Egypt is called the _harvest of Yeor_, or

the Nile. In like manner Avon, Ganges, Rhine, mean _river_. The Greek

name _Neilos_, or Nile, means a _bed with a stream_, and was originally

applied to the land of Egypt, as the valley of the Nile. It rises in

the lake Victoria Nyanza, and has a course of 3,300 miles. In Isa.

xxiii. 3 and Jer. ii. 18 the Nile is called _Shichor_ (turbid). In

Homer (_Odys._, iv. 477, etc.) the river is called Egypt as well as the

country. Cf. _Ammianus_, xxii. 15.

[348] The Bull of Memphis, sacred to _Ftah_, the god of fire. See

_Herodotus_, iii. 27, 28; _Strabo_, xvii. 1; _Ammianus_, xxii. 14; Ovid

(_Met._, ix. 690).

[349] Now Aboukir, about 13 miles north-east of Alexandria, near the

westernmost mouth of the Nile. Cf. Aeschўlus (_Supp._, 311; _Prom._,

846); _Strabo_, xvii. 1, 17; Tacitus (_Ann._, ii. 60).

[350] Usually called Lake Mareotis, now Mariût. Cf. Vergil (_Georgic_,

ii. 91).

[351] We learn, from _Curtius_ (iv. 33), that Alexander at first

resolved to build the city on the island of Pharos, but finding it too

small, built it on the mainland.

[352] A goddess representing the moon, and wife of Osiris the sun-god.

[353] Cf. _Strabo_ (xvii. 1); Plutarch (_Alex._, 26); _Diodorus_ (xvii.

52); _Curtius_ (iv. 33); _Ammianus_ (xxii. 16).

[354] We find from _Valerius Maximus_ (i. 4) and _Ammianus_, l.c.,

that his name was Dinocrates.

[355] Krüger substitutes ἐπενόει for ἐποίει, comparing iv. 1, 3, and 4,

1 infra.

[356] See _Arrian_, ii. 2 supra.

[357] Methymna was, next to Mitylene, the most important city in Lesbos.

[358] Chares was an Athenian who had been one of the generals at the

fatal battle of Chaeronea. _Curtius_ (iv. 24) says that he consented to

evacuate Mitylene with his force of 2,000 men on condition of a free

departure.

[359] On an island in the Nile, of the same name, opposite Syene. It

served as the southern frontier garrison station.

[360] The temple of Jupiter Ammon was in the oasis of Siwah, to the

West of Egypt. Its ruins were discovered by Browne in 1792. This oasis

is about 6 miles long and 3 broad. The people called Libyans occupied

the whole of North Africa excluding Egypt. In Hebrew they are called

_Lubim_ (sunburnt). See 2 Chron. xii. 3; xvi. 8; Dan. xi. 43; Nah. iii.

9. Cf. _Herodotus_, ii. 32; iv. 168-199.

[361] King of the island Seriphus. Cf. _Herodotus_, ii. 91.

[362] The gigantic son of Poseidon and Ge.

[363] King of Egypt, who was said to have sacrificed all foreigners

that visited the land.

[364] Perseus was the grandfather of Alemena, the mother of Hercules.

[365] About 183 miles. This city lay at the extreme west of Egypt, in

Marmarica.

[366] “For some distance onward the engineers had erected a line of

telegraph poles to guide us, but after they ceased the desert was

absolutely trackless. Our guides were the stars—had the night been

overcast the enterprise would have been impossible—and we were steered

by a naval officer, Lieutenant Rawson, who had doubtless studied on

previous nights the relation of these celestial beacons to the course

of our march. The centre of the line was the point of direction;

therefore he rode between the centre battalions (75th and 79th) of the

Highland Brigade. Frequently in the course of the night, after duly

ascertaining what dark figure I was addressing, I represented to him

that his particular star was clouded over; but he always replied that

he had another in view, a second string to his bow, which he showed

me, and that he was convinced he had not deviated in the least from

the proper direction. And he was right, his guidance was marvellously

correct; for his reward, poor fellow, he was shot down in the assault,

mortally wounded. Here we were adrift, but for the stars, in a region

where no token existed on the surface by which to mark the course—any

more than on the ocean without a compass—and the distance to be

traversed was many miles.”—Sir Edward Hamley: “The Second Division at

Tel-el-Kebir,” _Nineteenth Century_, December, 1882.

[367] _Strabo_ (xvii. 1) quotes from Callisthenes, whose work on

Alexander is lost. He agrees with Aristobulus about the two ravens.

Callisthenes is also quoted by Plutarch (_Alex._, 27) in regard to this

prodigy. _Curtius_ (iv. 30) says that there were _several ravens_; and

_Diodorus_ (xvii. 49) speaks of _ravens_.

[368] Nearly five miles. Cf. _Lucan_, ix. 511-543.

[369] This _Fountain of the Sun_, as it is called, is 30 paces long

and 20 broad; 6 fathoms deep, with bubbles constantly rising from the

surface. Cf. _Herodotus_, iv. 181; _Lucretius_, vi. 849-878; _Ptolemy_,

iv. 5, 37.

[370] This is what we call sal ammoniac, known to chemists as

hydrochlorate of ammonia. The _dactylos_ was the smallest Greek measure

of length, about 7/10 of an inch.

[371] We learn from _Strabo_ (xvii. 1), on the authority of

Callisthenes, that the declaration of the oracle of Ammon was confirmed

by those of Apollo at Branchidae near Miletus, and of Athena at

Erythrae in Ionia. Plutarch (_Alex._, 28) and _Arrian_ (vii. 29) assert

that Alexander set afloat the declaration that he was the son of Zeus

to overawe the foreigners over whom he was extending his rule.

[372] Ewald and others think that Heroöpolis was identical with the

Raamses of the Bible. Raamses, or Rameses, is a Coptic word meaning

“the son of the sun.”

[373] A city founded by the Milesians on the Canopic branch of the

Nile. It remained a purely Greek city, being the only place where

Greeks were allowed to settle and trade in Egypt. Cf. _Herodotus_, ii.

97, 135, 178, 179.

[374] Cf. Tacitus (_Historiae_, i. 11).

[375] We learn, from _Curtius_ (iv. 34), that Alexander went to Samaria

to chastise the inhabitants, who had burnt his deputy, Andromachus, to

death.

[376] From early times the Athenians kept two sacred vessels for state

purposes, the one called the _Paralus_ and the other _Salaminia_. In

the earliest times the former was used for coasting purposes, and the

latter for the journey to Salamis. Hence their respective names. See

Dr. Smith’s _Dict. of Antiquities_. Aeschines, in his oration against

Ctesiphon (p. 550), asserts that he was informed by the seamen of the

_Paralus_ that Demosthenes on this occasion sent a letter to Alexander

soliciting pardon and favour.

[377] Cf. Aelian, _Varia Historia_, i. 25; _Curtius_, iv. 34.

[378] Beroea was a city of Macedonia, on the Astraeus, a tributary of

the Haliacmon, about 20 miles from the sea.

[379] Other historians call this queen Cleopatra. She was the daughter

of a Macedonian named Attalus. Plutarch (_Alex._, 9 and 10) says that

she was cruelly put to death by Olympias during Alexander’s absence.

_Justin_ (ix. 7; xi. 2) states that Olympias first slew her daughter on

her mother’s bosom and then had Cleopatra hanged; while Alexander put

to death Caranus, the infant son of Philip and Cleopatra. _Pausanias_

(viii. 7) says that Olympias caused Cleopatra and her infant son to be

roasted on a brazen vessel. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xiii. 35).

[380] This king was brother of Alexander’s mother Olympias, and husband

of Cleopatra the daughter of Philip and Olympias. He crossed over into

Italy to aid the Tarentines against the Lucanians and Bruttians, but

was eventually defeated and slain near Pandosia, B.C. 326.

[381] June-July, B.C. 331.

[382] We learn, from _Curtius_ (iv. 37), that Alexander took eleven

days to march from Phoenicia to the Euphrates.

[383] _Curtius_ (iv. 37) says that Tigris is the Persian word for

_arrow_; and that the river was so named on account of the swiftness

of its current. The Hebrew name is Chiddekel, which means _arrow_.

See Gen. ii. 14; and Dan. x. 4, where it is called _the great river_.

The name Tigris is derived from the Zend _Tighra_, which comes from

the Sanscrit _Tig_, to sharpen. It is now called Dijleh. It joins

the Euphrates 90 miles from the sea, and the united stream is called

Shat-el-Arab. Its entire length is 1,146 miles. In ancient times the

two rivers had distinct mouths. So the Rhon formerly had several

mouths. See _Livy_, xxi. 26. _Strabo_ (iv. 1, 8) says that Timaeus gave

it five mouths; Polybius gives it two; others give seven.

[384] This eclipse occurred September 20th, B.C. 331.

[385] The part of Assyria lying between the Upper Tigris and the Lycus

was called Aturia.

[386] Called Carduchi by Xenophon. These mountains separate Assyria and

Mesopotamia from Media and Armenia.

[387] Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 38).

[388] Arachosia comprised what is now the south-east part of

Afghanistan and the north-east part of Beloochistan.

[389] Aria comprised the west and north-west part of Afghanistan and

the east part of Khorasan.

[390] Parthia is the modern Khorasan. Hyrcania was the country south

and south-east of the Caspian Sea. The Tapurians dwelt in the north

of Media, on the borders of Parthia between the Caspian passes. Cf.

_Ammianus_, xxiii. 6.

[391] The Cadusians lived south-west of the Caspian, the Albanians on

the west of the same sea, in the south-east part of Georgia, and the

Sacesinians in the north-east of Armenia, on the river Kur.

[392] The Red Sea was the name originally given to the whole expanse of

sea to the west of India as far as Africa. The name was subsequently

given to the Arabian Gulf exclusively. In Hebrew it is called

_Yam-Suph_ (Sea of Sedge, or a seaweed resembling wool). The Egyptians

called it the Sea of Weeds.

[393] The Uxians occupied the north-west of Persis, and Susiana was the

country to the north and west of Persis.

[394] The Sitacenians lived in the south of Assyria. ἐτετάχατο

is the Ionic form for τεταγμένοι ἦσαν.

[395] The Greeks called this country Mesopotamia because it lies

between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. In the Bible it is called

Paddan-Aram (the plain of _Aram_, which is the Hebrew name of Syria).

In Gen. xlviii. 7 it is called merely _Paddan_, the plain. In Hos.

xii. 12, it is called the _field of Aram_, or, as our Bible has

it, the _country of Syria_. Elsewhere in the Bible it is called

_Aram-naharaim_, Aram of the two rivers, which the Greeks translated

Mesopotamia. It is called “_the Island_,” by Arabian geographers.

[396] _Curtius_ (iv. 35 and 45) states that Darius had 200,000

infantry, 45,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots; _Diodorus_ (xvii.

53) says, 800,000 infantry, 200,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots;

_Justin_ (xi. 12) gives 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse; and Plutarch

(_Alex._, 31) speaks of a million of men. For the chariots cf. Xenophon

(_Anab._, i. 8, 10); _Livy_, xxxvii. 41.

[397] This is the first instance on record of the employment of

elephants in battle.

[398] This river is now called Ghasir, a tributary of the Great Zab.

The village Gaugamela was in the district of Assyria called Aturia,

about 69 miles from the city of Arbela, now called Erbil.

[399] About 7 miles.

[400] Xenophon (_Anab._, iii. 4, 35) explains why this was so.

[401] σφεῖς here stands for αὐτοί.

[402] See note 252 to ii. 10 supra.

[403] These people were a Scythian tribe leading a nomadic life east

of the Caspian. They are called Daoi by _Herodotus_, i. 125; Dahae

by _Ammianus_, xxii. 8, 21; _Livy_, xxxv. 48; xxxvii. 38; Vergil

(_Aeneid_, viii. 728); _Pliny_, vi. 19; _Strabo_, xi. 7. They are

mentioned in Ezra iv. 9 as subjects of Persia. The district is now

called Daikh. See Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_, sub voce דֶּֽה.

[404] A title of honour. Curtius says that they numbered 15,000.

[405] Cf. _Herodotus_, vii. 41.

[406] This people lived to the south of the Caspian.

[407] “Several names of various contingents stated to have been present

in the field are not placed in the official return—thus the Sogdiani,

the Arians, and the Indian mountaineers are mentioned by _Arrian_ as

having joined Darius (iii. 8); the Kossaeans by _Diodorus_ (xvii. 59);

the Sogdiani, Massagatae, Belitae, Kossaeans, Gortyae, Phrygians, and

Kataonians, by _Curtius_ (iv. 12).”—_Grote_.

[408] This distinguished general succeeded Antipater as regent of

Macedonia, but was overcome by Cassander, the son of the former, and

became subordinate to him.

[409] There were thus six taxeis, or brigades of foot Companions, as

they were called, in the phalanx of infantry at the battle of Arbela.

Arrian’s description of the battle at the Granicus (i. 14) seems to

be erroneous in some of the words of the text; yet it may be gathered

from it that there were also six taxeis in Alexander’s phalanx on that

occasion also.

[410] See Arrian’s _Tactics_, 29.

[411] Cf. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 57).

[412] See Donaldson’s _New Cratylus_, sect. 178.

[413] Cf. _Curtius_, iv. 35. “Equitibus equisque tegumenta erant ex

ferreis laminis serie inter se connexis.”

[414] Compare the uselessness of the Persian scythed chariots at the

battle of Cunaxa. See Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 8). So also at the

battle of Magnesia between Scipio and Antiochus. See _Livy_, xxxvii. 41.

[415] πεφρικυῖα, imitated from Homer (_Iliad_, iv.

282). Cf. Vergil (_Aeneid_, x. 178, _horrentibus hastis_); _Livy_,

xliv. 41 (_horrendis hastis_).

[416] _Curtius_ (iv. 58, 59) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 60) describe quite

an Homeric battle, Darius hurling a spear at Alexander, and Alexander

hurling his at Darius and killing his charioteer. They say that the

Persians mistook the fall of the Charioteer for that of the king, and

fled, carrying Darius with them.

[417] _Curtius_ (iv. 59) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 60) say that so thick a

cloud of dust was raised by the mighty mass of fugitives, that nothing

could be clearly distinguished, and that thus the Macedonians lost the

track of Darius. The noise of the shouting and the cracking of whips

served as guides to the pursuers.

[418] Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, whom these Persians were

especially anxious to liberate from the custody of the Macedonians,

refused to go with them. See _Diodorus_ and _Curtius_.

[419] Arrian does not say much about this vigorous charge of Mazaeus,

the commander of the Persian right wing. See _Curtius_ (iv. 60);

_Diodorus_ (xvii. 60).

[420] We learn from _Diodorus_ and _Curtius_ that Parmenio had driven

Mazaeus back before Alexander’s arrival.

[421] The Lycus, now called the Great Zab, is a tributary of the

Tigris. Xenophon calls it Zabatus (_Anab._, ii. 5). The Greek _Lycus_

is a translation of the Syrian _Zaba_ (wolf).

[422] About sixty-nine miles. Cf. _Strabo_ (xvi. 1, 3).

[423] ἐλινύσας. This is an Ionic word used by _Herodotus_ (viii. 71,

etc.), and rarely in Attic poets and later prose writers.

[424] See _Arrian_, ii. 11 supra.

[425] _Curtius_ (iv. 63) says that 40,000 of the Persians were slain,

and that less than 300 Macedonians were killed. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 61)

states that more than 90,000 Persians and 500 Macedonians were slain.

[426] September 331 B.C. Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 31).

[427] For this prediction, see iii. 7 supra.

[428] As to the kinsmen and apple-bearers, see iii. 11 supra.

[429] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 63) and _Curtius_ (v. 6) state that from the

treasure captured in Babylon, Alexander distributed to each Macedonian

horseman about £24, to each of the Grecian horsemen £20, to each of the

Macedonian infantry £8, and to the allied infantry two months’ pay.

[430] Belus, or Bel, the supreme deity of the Babylonians, was

identical with the Syrian Baal. The signification of the name is

_mighty_. Cf. _Herodotus_ (i. 181); _Diodorus_ (ii. 9); _Strabo_ (xvi.

1).

[431] See i. 17 supra.

[432] The Chaldees appear in Hebrew under the name of _Casdim_, who

seem to have originally dwelt in Carduchia, the northern part of

Assyria. The Assyrians transported these rude mountaineers to the

plains of Babylonia (Isa. xxiii. 13). The name of Casdim, or Chaldees,

was applied to the inhabitants of Mesopotamia (Gen. xi. 28); the

inhabitants of the Arabian desert in the vicinity of Edom (Job i. 17);

those who dwelt near the river Chaboras (Ezek. i. 3; xi. 24); and the

priestly caste who had settled at a very early period in Babylon, as

we are informed by Diodorus and Eusebius. Herodotus says that these

priests were dedicated to Belus. It is proved by inscriptions that the

ancient language was retained as a learned and religious literature.

This is probably what is meant in Daniel i. 4 by “the book and tongue

of the Casdim.” Cf. _Diodorus_ (ii. 29-31); _Ptolemy_ (v. 20, 3); and

Cicero (_De Divinatione_, i. 1). See Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_, sub voce

כֶּֽשֶׂד.

[433] In the Bible this city is called Shushan. Near it was the

fortress of Shushan, called in our Bible _the Palace_ (Neh. i. 2; Esth.

ii. 8). Susa was situated on the Choaspes, a river remarkable for the

excellence of its water, a fact referred to by _Tibullus_ (iv. 1, 140)

and by Milton (_Paradise Reg._, iii. 288). The name Shushan is derived

from the Persian word for lily, which grew abundantly in the vicinity.

The ruins of the palace mentioned in Esther i. have recently been

explored, and were found to consist of an immense hall, the roof of

which was supported by a central group of thirty-six pillars arranged

in the form of a square. This was flanked by three porticoes, each

containing two rows of six pillars. Cf. _Strabo_ (xv. 7, 28).

[434] The name of the viceroy was Abulites (_Curtius_, v. 8).

[435] If these were Attic talents, the amount would be equivalent to

£11,600,000; but if they were Babylonian or Aeginetan talents, they

were equal to £19,000,000. Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 36, 37); _Justin_

(xi. 14); and _Curtius_ (v. 8). _Diodorus_ (xvii. 66) tells us that

40,000 talents were of uncoined gold and silver, and 9,000 talents of

gold bearing the effigy of Darius.

[436] Cf. _Arrian_ (vii. 19); _Pausanias_ (i. 8, 5); Pliny (_Nat.

Hist._, xxxiv. 9); _Valerius Maximus_ (ii. 10, 1). For Harmodius and

Aristogeiton see _Thucydides_, vi. 56-58.

[437] Polis meant in early times a particular part of Athens, viz. the

citadel, usually called the Acropolis. Cf. Aristophanes (_Lysistrata_,

245 et passim).

[438] Demeter and Persephone.

[439] About £730,000.

[440] Antipater had been left by Alexander regent of Macedonia. Agis

III., king of Sparta, refused to acknowledge Alexander’s hegemony,

and after a hard struggle was defeated and slain by Antipater at

Megalopolis, B.C. 330. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 63; _Curtius_, vi. 1 and 2.

[441] According to _Curtius_ (v. 6) these forces amounted to nearly

15,000 men. Amyntas also brought with him fifty sons of the chief men

in Macedonia, who wished to serve as royal pages. Cf. _Diodorus_, xvii.

64.

[442] A river flowing through Susiana, formed by the junction of the

Eulaeus and Coprates.

[443] Cf. _Strabo_, xv. 3.

[444] πλεονεκτούμενοι, with dative, defrauded of. Cf. _Demosthenes_,

1035, 26.

[445] γέρα. An Homeric expression.

[446] Named Sisygambis (_Curtius_, v. 11).

[447] This was the Araxes. See _Strabo_, xv. 3.

[448] Notice the use of the adverb πρίν with the

genitive, instead of the preposition πρό. Cf. Pindar

(_Pythia_, iv. 76) πρὶν ὥρας.

[449] _Curtius_ (v. 16) says that Ariobarzanes after a bloody contest

got away through the Macedonian lines, with about 40 horsemen and 5,000

foot, and made for Persepolis. Being shut out of that fortress, he was

overtaken and slain with all his companions. Cf. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 68).

[450] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 69) and _Justin_ (xi. 14) state that on

approaching Persepolis, Alexander met 800 Grecian captives, mutilated

by loss of arms, legs, eyes, ears, or other members. _Curtius_ (v.

17-19) says there were 4,000 of them. Alexander offered to send these

men home, with means of future support; but they preferred to remain in

Persis. The king gave them money, clothing, cattle, and land.

[451] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 71) and _Curtius_ (v. 20) both state that

the amount of treasure captured at Persepolis was 120,000 talents,

or £27,600,000. In his own letter Alexander stated that there was

sufficient treasure and valuable property to load 10,000 mule carts

and 5,000 camels (Plutarch, _Alex._, 37). Curtius tells us that 6,000

talents were captured at Pasargadae.

[452] Pasargadae was the old capital of Persia, founded by Cyrus; but

its place was afterwards taken by Persepolis.

[453] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 70, 71) and _Curtius_ (v. 20, 22) say that

Alexander delivered Persepolis to his soldiers to pillage, and that

he ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants. These authors agree

with Plutarch (_Alex._, 38) in asserting that in a drunken revel he

was instigated by the courtesan Thais to set fire to the palace, and

accompanied her to commence the act of destruction. See _Dryden’s_

famous ode. But Arrian’s account establishes the fact that the fire was

the result of a deliberate plan. As regards the massacre, _Plutarch_

(37) expressly states that Alexander wrote home that he ordered it from

motives of policy.

[454] This was the principal pass through the Elburz mountains from

Media into Hyrcania and Parthia.

[455] This was the capital of Media, called in Chaldee _Achmetha_

(Ezra vi. 2). The present city of Hamadan is on the same site. It is

situated at the foot of Mount Orontes, and was used by the Persian and

Parthian kings as their summer residence. It was surrounded by seven

walls, each overtopping the one before it, from the outer to the inner,

crowned with battlements of different colours. Its citadel was used as

a royal treasury. Below it stood a splendid palace, with silver tiles,

and adorned with wainscotings, capitals, and entablatures of gold and

silver. These treasures, to the value of 4,000 talents, were coined

into money by Antiochus the Great of Syria. See _Herodotus_, i. 98;

_Polybius_, x. 27.

[456] This tribe lived in the mountains between Media and Persia.

[457] £1,700,000.

[458] _Curtius_ (v. 23) says that 6,000 Grecian mercenaries under Plato

the Athenian met Alexander in Media, having marched up from Cilicia.

[459] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 80) says that the amount of treasure deposited

at Ecbatana was 180,000 talents or £41,400,000.

[460] A large city in the extreme north of Media, mentioned in the Book

of Tobit. It was famous in the Middle Ages under the name of Rai. The

ruins of Rai lie south-east of Teheran.

[461] ἔστε generally means _until_. In its present use cf. ii. 11

supra, ἔστε μὲν φάος ἦν.

[462] The Drangians lived in a part of Ariana west of Arachosia.

[463] _Justin_ (xi. 15) and _Curtius_ (v. 34) state that Darius was

bound in chains of gold. The former says that the name of the place was

Thara in Parthia, where the king was arrested. Probably these chains

were those worn by the king or his nobles, according to the Persian

custom. This is the only sentence in Arrian where περὶ

suffers anastrophe, coming after the noun.

[464] Plutarch (_Alex._, 42) says that Alexander rode 3,300 stades, or

about 400 miles, in eleven days. In the next chapter he says that only

sixty of his men were able to keep up with him in the pursuit.

[465] _Curtius_ (v. 24-38) gives very ample details of what occurred

during the last days of Darius. Cf. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 73); _Justin_

(xi. 15).

[466] The Persian kings were buried at Persepolis. See _Diodorus_,

xvii. 71. Plutarch (_Alex._, 43) says that Alexander sent the corpse of

Darius to his mother.

[467] In the year B.C. 330, the first of Hecatombaion fell on the first

of July.

[468] Darius came to the throne B.C. 336.

[469] In 2 Kings xi. 4, 19 the word translated _captains_ in our

Bible is _Carim_, the Carians. These men formed the body-guard of the

usurper Athaliah, who stood in need of foreign mercenaries. David had a

body-guard of Philistines and Cretans. The Carians served as mercenaries

throughout the ancient world, as we learn from _Thucydides_, i.

8; _Herodotus_, i. 171; ii. 152; v. 111; _Strabo_, xiv. 2. The

Lydians appear in the Bible under the name of _Lud_ (Isa. lxvi. 19).

_Herodotus_ (i. 94) gives an account of the colonization of Umbria by

the Lydians, from which sprung the state of the Etruscans. Hence Vergil

(_Aeneid_, ii. 782) speaks of the “_Lydius Tybris_.” See also _Aeneid_,

viii. 479; Horace (_Satires_, i. 6, 1); Tacitus (_Annals_, iv. 55);

Dionysius (_Archaeologia Romana_, i. 28).

[470] He married Barsine, eldest daughter of Darius (_Arrian_, vii. 4

infra). She was also called Arsinoe and Stateira.

[471] According to _Curtius_ (vi. 6-10) the soldiers were very desirous

of returning home; but Alexander made an harangue and induced them to

advance into Hyrcania.

[472] The modern Balkh.

[473] The Caspian.

[474] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 75) calls this river Stiboetis; _Curtius_ (vi.

10) calls it Ziobetis.

[475] _Krüger_ has ἐνταῦθα instead of τούτῳ.

[476] _Curtius_ (vi. 14) says Artabazus had nine sons, one of whom,

Pharnabazus, was the admiral of the Persian fleet. See _Arrian_ (ii. 1;

ii. 2; iii. 2 supra).

[477] Cf. _Curtius_, vi. 16.

[478] Sinope was a prosperous colony of Miletus on the Euxine. It is

still called Sinoub. It was the birthplace of Diogenes.

[479] Chalcedon was a colony of Megara, situated on the Propontis at

the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Byzantium.

[480] Areia occupied what is now the east part of Khorasan, and the

west and north-west of Afghanistan. Susia is the modern Tus.

[481] Compare the words of Tissaphernes to Clearchus (Xenophon,

_Anabasis_, ii. 5): “Though the king is the only man who can wear the

tiara erect upon his head, I shall be able to wear mine erect upon my

heart in full confidence, when you are in my service.” Cf. _Curtius_

(iii. 8); Aristophanes (_Birds_, 487). The cap of the ordinary

Persians was low, loose, and clinging about the head in folds; whereas

that of the king was high and erect above the head. From Xenophon

(_Cyropaedia_, viii. 3, 13) we learn that the Persian king’s vest was

of a purple colour, half mixed with white, and that no one else was

allowed to wear this mixture of white. He had loose trousers of a

scarlet colour, and a robe entirely purple. Cf. also _Strabo_ (xv. 3),

where the tiara is said to be in the shape of a tower; and Seneca (_De

Beneficiis_, vi. 31); _Ammianus_, xviii. 8, 5.

[482] See Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 2, 27; _Cyropaedia_, viii. 3);

_Curtius_ (iii. 8).

[483] These people are also called Drangians. They lived west of

Arachosia in Drangiana.

[484] According to Plutarch (_Alex._, 48, 49) Alexander suborned

Antigonē, the mistress of Philotas, to reveal his secret conversation.

[485] Cf. _Curtius_, vi. 32.

[486] The word ἐπιμηνυτής is found nowhere else in

any Greek author.

[487] Full details of the conspiracy and trial of Philotas are given by

_Curtius_ (vi. 25-44).

[488] Arrian says nothing about Philotas being put to the torture; but

this fact is asserted with ample details by Plutarch (_Alex._, 49);

_Diodorus_ (xvii. 80); _Curtius_ (vi. 42, 43); and _Justin_ (xii. 5).

[489] Full particulars of the murder of Parmenio are given by _Curtius_

(vii. 7-9).

[490] For the trial of Amyntas, cf. _Curtius_, vii. 2-6.

[491] Alexander also formed a separate cohort of the men who were

pronounced sympathisers with Parmenio, and this cohort afterwards

greatly distinguished itself. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 80; _Curtius_, vii.

10; _Justin_, xii. 5.

[492] The Ariaspians inhabited the south part of Drangiana on the

borders of Gadrosia. The river Etymander, now known as the Hilmend,

flowed through their territories. Cf. _Curtius_, vii. 11; _Diodorus_,

xvii. 81.

[493] Gadrosia was the furthest province of the Persian empire on the

south-east. It comprised the south-east part of Beloochistan.

[494] This was not the range usually so called, but what was known

as the Indian Caucasus, the proper name being Paropanisus. It is now

called Hindu-Koosh.

[495] This city was probably on the site of Beghram, twenty-five miles

north-east of Cabul. See Grote’s _Greece_, vol. xii. ch. 94.

[496] There are two kinds of silphium or laserpitium, the Cyrenaic, and

the Persian. The latter is usually called asafœtida. See _Herodotus_

(iv. 169); Pliny (_Historia Naturalis_, xix. 15; xxiii. 48); Aelian

(_Varia Historia_, xii. 37); Aristophanes (_Plutus_, 925); Plautus

(_Rud._, iii. 2, 16); _Catullus_ (vii. laserpitiferis Cyrenis).

[497] Cyrene was a colony founded by Battus from Thera, an island

colonized by the Spartans. The territory of Cyrenaica is now a part of

Tripoli. Cf. Pindar (_Pyth._, iv. 457); _Herodotus_ (iv. 159-205).

[498] This Tanais was usually called Jaxartes, now Sir, flowing into

the sea of Aral.

[499] The Oxus, now called Jihoun or Amou, flows into the sea of Aral,

but formerly flowed into the Caspian.

[500] Some think this town stood where Naksheh now is, and others think

it was at Kesch.

[501] Cf. Xenophon, _Anab._, i. 5, 10.

[502] _Curtius_ (vii. 24) follows the account of Aristobulus, and so

does _Diodorus_ (xvii. 83) in the main. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_,

xii. 37).

[503] The modern Samarcand.

[504] Arrian and Strabo are wrong in stating that the Jaxartes rises in

the Caucasus, or Hindu-Koosh. It springs from the Comedae Montes, now

called Moussour. It does not flow into the Hyrcanian, or Caspian Sea,

but into the Sea of Aral. It is about 900 miles long.

[505] The river Tanais, of which Herodotus speaks (iv. 45, 57), is the

Don; and the Lake Maeotis, is the Sea of Azov. Cf. _Strabo_ (vii. cc. 3

and 4).

[506] _Euxeinos_ (kind to strangers); called before the Greeks settled

upon it _Axenos_ (inhospitable). See Ovid (_Tristia_, iv. 4). Cf.

_Ammianus_ (xxii. 8, 33): “A contrario per cavillationem Pontus Euxinus

adpellatur, et euethen Graeci dicimus stultum, et noctem euphronen et

furias Eumenidas.”

[507] So _Curtius_ (vi. 6) makes the Don the boundary of Europe

and Asia. “Tanais Europam et Asiam medius interfuit.” Ammianus

says: “Tanais inter Caucasias oriens rupes, per sinuosos labitur

circumflexus, Asiamque disterminans ab Europa, in stagnis Maeoticis

delitescit.” The Rha, or Volga, is first mentioned by Ptolemy in the

second century of the Christian era.

[508] Gadeira is now called Cadiz. The Greeks called the continent of

Africa by the name of Libya. So _Polybius_ (iii. 37) says that the Don

is the boundary of Europe, and that Libya is separated from Asia and

Europe respectively by the Nile and the Straits of Gibraltar, or, as

he calls the latter, “the mouth at the pillars of Hercules.” Arrian

here, like many ancient authors, considers Libya a part of Asia. Cf.

_Juvenal_, x. i.

[509] _Curtius_ (vii. 23) gives an account of the massacre by Alexander

of the descendants of the Branchidae, who had surrendered to Xerxes

the treasures of the temple of Apollo near Miletus, and who, to escape

the vengeance of the Greeks, had accompanied Xerxes into the interior.

They had been settled in Sogdiana, and their descendants had preserved

themselves distinct from the barbarians for 150 years, till the arrival

of Alexander. We learn from the table of contents of the 17th book of

_Diodorus_, that that historian also gave an account of this atrocity

of Alexander in the part of his history, now lost, which came after the

83rd chapter. Cf. _Herodotus_ (i. 92, 157; v. 36); _Strabo_ (xi. 11;

xiv. 1).

[510] See Homer’s _Iliad_, xiii. 6. Cf. _Curtius_, vii. 26; _Ammianus_,

xxiii. 6.

[511] Cf. _Thucydides_, ii. 97.

[512] _Curtius_ (vii. 26) says, he sent one of his friends named Berdes

on this mission.

[513] This was called Alexandria Ultima, on the Jaxartes, probably the

modern Khojend.

[514] Cf. _Curtius_ (vii. 26). Zariaspa was another name for Bactra.

See _Pliny_ (vi. 18) and _Strabo_ (xi. 11).

[515] This city was also called Cyreschata, because it was the furthest

city founded by Cyrus, and the extreme city of the Persian empire.

[516] δυσί was not used in Attic Greek, or but seldom. It

became common after the time of Alexander.

[517] Instead of ἡμέρᾳ μιᾷ, Sintenis reads ἡμέραν μίαν.

[518] This city was called by the Greeks, Alexandria on the Tanais. See

_Curtius_, vii. 28.

[519] Cf. _Livy_, xxi. 27:—Hispani sine ulla mole in utres vestimentis

conjectis ipsi caetris superpositis incubantes flumen tranavere.

[520] See _Herodotus_, iv. 122-142.

[521] This was Maracanda, according to iii. 30 supra. There is an error

in the text; Abicht proposes to read ἐπὶ τὰ ὅρια,

instead of ἐς τὰ βασίλεια.

[522] This river is now called Sogd, or Kohik. The Greek name signifies

“very precious,” a translation of the native name. Cf. _Strabo_, p. 518.

[523] _Curtius_ (vii. 32) says that Spitamenes laid an ambush for the

Macedonians, and slew 300 cavalry and 2,000 infantry.

[524] About 170 miles.

[525] _Curtius_ (vii. 40) says that Alexander founded six cities in

Bactria and Sogdiana. _Justin_ (xii. 5) says there were twelve.

[526] This is a mistake; for it ends in a lake Dengiz near Karakoul.

[527] The Areius is now called Heri-rud. The Etymander is the modern

Hilmend. Nothing is known of the Epardus.

[528] The Peneius is now called Salambria. It forces its way through

the vale of Tempe, between mounts Olympus and Ossa, into the sea. Cf.

Ovid (_Met._, i. 568-576).

[529] On the analogy of πρὶν the later prose-writers use

ἔστε with the infinitive. Cf. _Arrian_, ii. 1, 3; v. 16,

1.

[530] See Bk. iii. ch. 29 supra.

[531] See Bk. iii. ch. 19 supra.

[532] See Bk. iii. ch. 16 supra.

[533] _Curtius_ (vii. 40) says that the reinforcement was 19,000 men.

[534] Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 43); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 83).

[535] _I.e._ non-Hellenic.

[536] Cf. _Diodorus_, xvii. 77; _Justin_, xii. 3. We learn from

Plutarch (_Alex._, 45), that he did not assume the tiara of the Persian

kings. Cf. _Arrian_, vii. 9; vii. 29 infra. The Medic robe was a long

silken garment reaching to the feet, and falling round the body in many

deep folds.

[537] Caranus, a descendant of Temenus, king of Argos, is said to have

settled in Macedonia, and to have become the founder of the dynasty

of Macedonian kings. Temenus was a descendant of Heracles. Cf. ii.

5; iv. 10. One of the chief causes of disgust which the Greeks felt

at the conduct of Pausanias, the conqueror at Plataea, was, that he

adopted the Persian attire. “This pedigree from Temenus and Hercules

may be suspicious; yet it was allowed, after a strict inquiry by the

judges of the Olympic games (_Herodotus_, v. 22), at a time when

the Macedonian kings were obscure and unpopular in Greece. When the

Achaean league declared against Philip, it was thought decent that the

deputies of Argos should retire (_T. Liv._, xxxii. 22).”—_Gibbon._ Cf.

_Herodotus_, viii. 137; _Thucydides_, ii. 99, 100; v. 80.

[538] Cf. _Curtius_, viii. 6.

[539] The sons of Jove, Castor and Pollux. ἐπιφρασθέντα is a word

borrowed from Homer and Herodotus.

[540] Cf. _Curtius_, viii. 17: “Non deerat talia concupiscenti

perniciosa adulatio perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius

assentatio quam hostis evertit.”

[541] _Curtius_ (viii. 3 and 4) says that it was Alexander himself that

spoke depreciatingly of Philip, and that Clitus even dared to defend

the murdered Parmenio.

[542] Instead of the usual reading from καὶ ταύτῃ to καὶ ταύτην,

Sintenis reads οἱ δὲ σάρισαν παρὰ τῶν φυλάκων τινὸς καὶ ταύτῃ παίσαντα

τὸν Κλεῖτον ἀποκτεῖναι.

[543] Cf. _Curtius_ (viii. 3 and 6), who calls the sister of Clitus,

Hellanice.

[544] From Plutarch (_Alex._, 13) we learn that Alexander imagined he

had incurred the avenging wrath of Bacchus by destroying Thebes, the

birthplace of that deity, on which account it was supposed to be under

his tutelary care.

[545] _Curtius_ (viii. 6) says, that in order to console the king, the

Macedonian army passed a vote that Clitus had been justly slain, and

that his corpse should not be buried. But the king ordered its burial.

[546] A philosopher of Abdera, and pupil of Democritus. After

Alexander’s death, Anaxarchus was thrown by shipwreck into the hands of

Nicocreon, king of Cyprus, to whom he had given offence, and who had

him pounded to death in a mortar.

[547] Cf. Sophocles (_Oedipus Col._, 1382; _Antigone_, 451); Hesiod

(_Opera et Dies_, 254-257); Pindar (_Olympia_, viii. 28); Demosthenes

(_Advers. Aristogiton_, p. 772); _Herodotus_, iii. 31.

[548] Plutarch (_Alex._, 52) tells us that Callisthenes the philosopher

was also summoned with Anaxarchus to administer consolation, but he

adopted such a different tone that Alexander was displeased with him.

[549] _Curtius_ (viii. 17) says that Agis was the composer of very poor

poems.

[550] _Justin_ (xii. 6) says that Callisthenes was a fellow-student

with Alexander under Aristotle. He composed three historical works: I.

_Hellenica_, from B.C. 387 to 337; II. _The History of the Sacred War_,

from B.C. 357 to 346; III. _The History of Alexander._ Cf. _Diodorus_,

xiv. 117. According to _Polybius_ (xii. 23), he was accused by Timaeus

of having flattered Alexander in his History.

[551] Hipparchus was slain B.C. 514, and Hippias was expelled from

Athens B.C. 510. See _Thucydides_, vi. 53-59.

[552] Eurystheus was king over Argos and Mycenae alone.

[553] When Conon the famous Athenian visited Babylon, he would not

see Artaxerxes, from repugnance to the ceremony of prostration, which

was required from all who approached the Great King. We are also

informed by Plutarch (_Artaxerxes_, 22), that Pelopidas declined

to perform this ceremony, so degrading in the eyes of the Greeks.

His colleague, Ismenias, however, dropped his ring in front of the

king, and then stooped to pick it up, thus going through the act of

prostration. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, i. 21). Xenophon said to his

soldiers:—οὐδένα γὰρ ἄνθρωπον δεσπότην ἀλλὰ τοὺς θεοὺς προσκυνεῖτε.

(_Anab._, iii. 13).

[554] _Curtius_ (viii. 18) says that the speech proposing to honour

Alexander as a god was made by Cleon, a Sicilian Greek.

[555] ἀχθομένους. The usual reading is μαχομένους.

[556] Cf. Xenophon (_Cyrop._, 4, 27):—λέγεται τοὺς συγγενεῖς φιλοῦντας

ἀποπέμπεσθαι αὐτὸν νόμῳ Περσικῷ.

[557] πρόσκεινται. Cf. _Herodotus_, i. 118:—τοῖσι θεῶν τιμὴ αὕτη

προσκέεται.

[558] Alexander’s mother Olympias was daughter of Neoptolemus, king of

Epirus, who traced his descent from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, the

grandson of Aeacus.

[559] οἱ λόγοι γίγνονται. There is another reading, ὀλίγοι γίγνωνται.

[560] Cf. _Herodotus_, i. 214, with Dean Blakesley’s note.

[561] _Curtius_ (viii. 20) says, that it was Polysperchon who made

sport of the Persian, and incurred the king’s wrath.

[562] _Ammianus_ (xviii. 3) says: “Ignorans profecto vetus Aristotelis

sapiens dictum, qui Callisthenem sectatorem et propinquum suum ad regem

Alexandrum mittens, ei saepe mandabat, ut quam rarissime et jucunde

apud hominem loqueretur, vitae potestatem et necis in acie linguae

portantem.”

[563] Cf. _Curtius_ (viii. 21); Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xiv. 49).

After the battle of Pydna, where the Romans conquered the Macedonians,

the _pueri regii_ followed the defeated king Perseus to the sanctuary

at Samothrace, and never quitted him till he surrendered to the Romans.

See _Livy_, xlv. 6.

[564] For this use of διαπίπτειν, cf. Aristophanes

(_Knights_, 695); _Polybius_ (v. 26, 16); διαπεσούσης αὐτῷ τῆς

ἐπιβουλῆς.

[565] Alexander wrote to Craterus, Attalus, and Alcetas, that the

pages, though put to the torture, asserted that no one but themselves

was privy to the conspiracy. In another letter, written to Antipater

the regent of Macedonia, he says that the pages had been stoned

to death by the Macedonians, but that he himself would punish the

Sophist, and those who sent him out, and those who harboured in their

cities conspirators against him. Aristotle had sent Callisthenes out.

Alexander refers to him and the Athenians. See Plutarch (_Alex._, 55).

[566] Cf. _Arrian_ (vii. 29).

[567] _Curtius_ (viii. 29) says that Alexander afterwards repented

of his guilt in murdering the philosopher. His tragical death

excited great indignation among the ancient philosophers. See Seneca

(_Naturales Quaestiones_, vi. 23); Cicero (_Tusc. Disput._, iii. 10),

speaking of Theophrastus, the friend of Callisthenes.

[568] We find from chapter xxii. that these events occurred at Bactra.

[569] The Chorasmians were a people who inhabited the country near the

lower part of the river Oxus, between the Caspian and Aral Seas.

[570] This mythical race of warlike females is said to have come from

the Caucasus and to have settled near the modern Trebizond, their

original abode being in Colchis. Cf. _Arrian_ (vii. 13); _Strabo_

(xi. 5); _Diod._ (xvii. 77); _Curt._ (vi. 19); _Justin_ (xii. 3);

Homer (_Iliad_, iii. 189); Aeschўlus (_Eumenides_, 655); _Herod._ (iv.

110-116; ix. 27).

[571] See iii. 29 supra.

[572] Propontis means the sea _before the Pontus_. Compare Ovid

(_Tristia_, i. 10, 31):—“Quaque tenent _Ponti_ Byzantia littora

_fauces_.”

[573] We learn, from _Curtius_ (viii. 3), that it was at this place

that Clitus was murdered.

[574] These were a people dwelling to the north-east of the Caspian,

who were chiefly remarkable for having defeated and killed Cyrus the

Great. See _Herodotus_, i. 201-216.

[575] There were two other generals named Peithon; one the son of

Agenor, and the other the son of Crateas. See _Arrian_, vi. 15, 28, etc.

[576] _Curtius_ (viii. 1) says that the name of the defeated general

was Attinas.

[577] Artabazus was in his 95th year when he joined Alexander with

the Grecian troops of Darius in B.C. 330. See _Curtius_, vi. 14. His

viceroyalty was destined for Clitus; but on the death of that general

it was conferred on Amyntas. See _Curtius_, viii. 3.

[578] _Curtius_ (viii. 11 and 12) says that the wife of Spitamenes

murdered him and carried his head to Alexander.

[579] The Hebrew name for Media is Madai, which means _middle-land_.

The Greeks called the country Media, according to _Polybius_ (v. 44),

because it lies near the middle of Asia.

[580] Of the year 327 B.C.

[581] ὤρα, akin to Latin _cura_, a poetical and Ionic word, often found

in Herodotus.

[582] About £2,700.

[583] About £327. _Curtius_ (vii. 41) says that the first prize was 10

talents, the second 9 talents, and the same proportion for the eight

others, so that the tenth man who mounted received one talent. The

stater of Darius, usually called a daricus, was a gold coin of Persia.

See Smith’s _Dictionary of Antiquities_.

[584] Cf. _Curtius_ (vii. 43), vela, signum capti verticis.

[585] Roxana and her son Alexander Aegus were put to death by

Cassander, B.C. 311.

[586] Statira. She died shortly before the battle of Arbela.

[587] καρτερὸς αὑτοῦ. Cf. _Theocritus_, xv. 94, ἁμῶν καρτερός.

[588] After the capture of Damascus, Alexander married Barsine,

the widow of his rival Memnon, and daughter of Artabazus. She was

distinguished for her beauty and accomplishments, having received a

Grecian education. By her he had a son named Heracles. See Plutarch

(_Alex._, 21). She and her son were put to death by Polysperchon, B.C.

309.

[589] Cf. _Herodotus_, i. 131; _Curtius_, iv. 42. The Persians called

this god Ormuzd.

[590] _Curtius_ (viii. 16) says that Alexander saw Roxana at a banquet

given by Oxyartes in his honour.

[591] Krüger substituted περιεῖργε for περιέργει.

[592] βατά. Cf. Xenophon (_Anab._, iv. 6, 17).

[593] Arrian imitates Herodotus in the use of ὡς with the

infinitive instead of ὥστε.

[594] This term is a Persian word meaning mountaineers. The tribe

mentioned here lived between the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, on the

borders of Bactria and Sogdiana.

[595] _Curtius_ (viii. 17) says Alexander took with him 30,000 select

troops from all the conquered provinces, and that the army which he led

against the Indians numbered 120,000 men.

[596] This is the Indian Caucasus, or mount Parapamisus, now called

Hindu-Koosh.

[597] The Cophen is now called Cabul. Nicaea was probably on the

same site as the city of Cabul. Others say it is Beghram. The Greek

word _Satrapes_ denotes a Persian viceroy. It is a corruption of a

word meaning _court-guardian_, in the Behistûn Inscriptions written

Khshatrapâ. See Rawlinson’s _Herod._, i. 192.

[598] _Curtius_ (viii. 43) says that Taxiles was the title which the

king of this district received. His name was Omphis.

[599] A district between the rivers Indus and Attock. Its capital,

Peucela, is the modern Pekheli.

[600] The brigade of Clitus still bore the name of its commander after

his death. Cf. _Arrian_, vii. 14 infra.

[601] These were tribes living in the north-west of the Punjab.

[602] Probably the modern Kama, a tributary of the Cabul.

[603] Supposed to be another name for the Choes.

[604] καὶ τοὺς ψιλοὺς. The usual reading is τοὺς χιλίους, 1,000

_Agrianians_.

[605] A tributary of the Cophen, probably what is now called the

Lundye, running parallel with the Kama.

[606] Cf. _Livy_, xxi. 31:—“Amnis saxa glareosa volvens, nihil stabile

nec tutum ingredienti praebet.”

[607] This was the capital of the Assacenians. _Curtius_ (viii. 37)

calls it Mazagae, and describes its strong position.

[608] See Bk. ii. 23 supra.

[609] _Curtius_ (viii. 37, 38) says that the name of the queen was

Cleophis, and that after the surrender she gained Alexander’s favour.

He also informs us that the king died just before Alexander’s arrival.

[610] Probably Bajour, north-west of Peshawur. The position of Ora

cannot be fixed.

[611] This was the king of the Indian mountaineers. See _Arrian_, v. 8

infra.

[612] On the ground of ἐν τῇ πόλει ξυμφυγόντες not being classical

Greek, Krüger has substituted ἐν τῇ πόλει ξυμπεφευγότες, and Sintenis

εἰς τὴν πόλιν ξυμφυγόντες. No one however ought to expect Arrian to

be free from error, writing, as he did, in the middle of the second

century of the Christian era.

[613] This seems to be the Greek translation of the native name,

meaning the place to which no bird can rise on account of its height.

Cf. _Strabo_, xv. 1. This mountain was identified by Major Abbot, in

1854, as Mount Mahabunn, near the right bank of the Indus, about 60

miles above its confluence with the Cabul.

[614] Cf. _Arrian_, ii. 16 supra.

[615] _Curtius_ (viii. 39) says that the river Indus washed the base

of the rock, and that its shape resembled the _meta_ or goal in a

race-course, which was a stone shaped like a sugar-loaf. Arrian’s

description is more likely to be correct as he took it from Ptolemy,

one of Alexander’s generals.

[616] Near mount Mababunn are two places called Umb and Balimah, the

one in the valley of the river and the other on the mountain above it.

See Major Abbot’s _Gradus ad Aornon_.

[617] δαήμων, a poetical word. Cf. Homer (_Odyssey_, viii. 159).

[618] Probably Dyrta was at the point where the Indus issues from the

Hindu-Koosh.

[619] Gronovius first introduced καὶ before τοὺς ψιλούς.

[620] The name Indus is derived from the Sanscrit appellation _Sindhu_,

from a root _Syandh_, meaning _to flow_. The name Indians, or Sindians,

was originally applied only to the dwellers on the banks of this river.

_Hindustan_ is a Persian word meaning the country of the Hindus or

Sindus. Compare the modern Sinde, in the north-west of India, which

contains the lower course of the Indus. In Hebrew India was called

Hodu, which is a contraction of Hondu, another form of Hindu. See

Esther i. 1; viii. 9. Krüger changed ὡδοποιεῖτο

into ὡδοποίει.

[621] This city was probably on the site of Jelalabad.

[622] ἐπεί τε. This is the only place where Arrian

uses this Ionic form for the simple ἐπεί.

[623] The Indians worship a god Homa, the personification of the

intoxicating soma juice. This deity corresponds to the Greek Dionysus

or Bacchus.

[624] The slopes of this mountain were covered with vines. See Ovid

(_Fasti_, ii. 313; _Metamorphoses_, xi. 86); Vergil (_Georgics_, ii.

98); _Pliny_, xiv. 9.

[625] φανείη. Arrian does not comply with the Attic rule, that the

subjunctive should follow the principal tenses in the leading sentence.

Cf. v. 6, 6; 7, 5; vii. 7, 5; 15, 2.

[626] Cf. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._, vi. 23; viii. 60; xvi. 62). The ordinary

reading is ἄλση παντοῖα· καὶ δεῖν σύσκιον.

For this Krüger has proposed ἄλση παντοίᾳ ὕλῃ σύσκια.

[627] The other names of Dionysus were: Bacchus, Bromius, Evius,

Iacchus, Lenaeus, Lyaens. The Romans called him Liber.

[628] _Curtius_ (viii. 36) says that the Macedonians celebrated

Bacchanalia for the space of ten days on this mountain.

[629] The 1st aor. pass. ἐσχέθην is found only in

Arrian and Plutarch. Cf. vii. 22, 2 infra.

[630] The celebrated Geographer and Mathematician, who was born B.C.

276 and died about B.C. 196. His principal work was one on geography,

which was of great use to Strabo. None of his works are extant. He was

made president of the Alexandrian library, B.C. 236.

[631] Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, v. 11).

[632] The earliest mention of India which has descended to our times is

in Aeschўlus (_Supplices_, 284).

[633] Arrian frequently uses the Ionic and old Attic word, σμικρός.

[634] About £480,000.

[635] Alexander probably crossed the Indus near Attock. The exact site

of Taxila cannot be fixed.

[636] The Hydaspes is now called Jelum, one of the five great

tributaries of the Indus.

[637] Herodotus considered the Danube the largest river in the world

as known to him, and the Dnieper the largest of all rivers except the

Danube and the Nile. See _Herodotus_, iv. 48-53.

[638] “Amnis Danubius sexaginta navigabiles paene recipiens fluvios,

septem ostiis erumpit in mare. Quorum primum est Peuce insula supra

dicta, ut interpretata sunt vocabula Graeco sermone, secundum

Naracustoma, tertium Calonstoma, quartum Pseudostoma: nam Boreonstoma

ac deinde Sthenostoma longe minora sunt caeteris: septimum ingens et

palustri specie nigrum.”—_Ammianus_ (xxii. 8, 44). _Pliny_ (iv. 24)

says that the Danube has six mouths, the names of which he gives.

[639] The Indus does not rise in the Parapamisus, but in the Himalayas.

It has two principal mouths, but there are a number of smaller ones.

Ptolemy said there were seven. The Delta is between 70 and 80 miles

broad. “Delta, a triquetrae litterae forma hoc vocabulo signatius

adpellata.”—_Ammianus_, xxii. 15.

[640] The territory included by the Indus and its four affluents is now

called Punjab, a Persian word meaning _five rivers_.

[641] Ctesias was the Greek physician of Artaxerxes Mnemon. He wrote

a history of Persia and a book on India. His works are only preserved

in meagre abridgement by Photius. Aristotle says that he was false

and untrustworthy (_Hist. of Animals_, viii. 27; _De Generatione

Animalium_, ii. 2). Subsequent research has proved Ctesias to be wrong

and Herodotus generally right in the many statements in which they are

at variance.

[642] The fact is, that the Indus is nowhere more than 20 stades, or

2-1/2 miles broad.

[643] See _Strabo_, xv. 1; xvi. 4; _Herod._, iii. 102, with Dean

Blakesley’s note.

[644] οὐδαμῶν is the Ionic form for οὐδένων.

[645] The Greek name Αἴθιοψ means _sunburnt_.

The Hebrew name for Aethiopia is Cush (black). In ancient Egyptian

inscriptions it is called _Keesh_. It is the country now called

Abyssinia. Aethiopas vicini sideris vapore torreri, adustisque similes

gigni, barba et capillo vibrato, non est dubium. (_Pliny_, ii. 80).

[646] Cf. Xenophon (_Cyropaedia_, vii. 5, 67).

[647] Called the _Indica_, a valuable little work in the Ionic dialect,

still existing.

[648] Nearchus left an account of his voyage, which is not now extant.

Arrian made use of it in writing the _Indica_. See that work, chapters

xvii. to lxiii.

[649] Megasthenes was sent with the Plataean Dēimachus, by Seleucus

Nicator, the king of Syria and one of Alexander’s generals, as

ambassador to Sandracotus, king of the country near the Ganges. He

wrote a very valuable account of India in four books.

[650] _Taurus_ is from the old root tor meaning _high_, another form of

which is _dor_. Hence Dorians = highlanders.

[651] The ancient geographers thought that the Jaxartes bifurcated,

part of it forming the Tanais, or Don, and flowing into the lake

Maeotis, or Sea of Azov; and the other part falling into the Hyrcanian,

or Caspian Sea. The Jaxartes and Oxus flow into the Sea of Aral, but

the ancients thought that they fell into the Caspian, as there is

indeed evidence to prove that they once did. _Hyrcania_ is the Greek

form of the old Persian _Virkâna_, that is _Wolf’s Land_. It is now

called Gurgân.

[652] _Herodotus_ (i. 203) states decidedly that the Caspian is an

inland sea. _Strabo_ (xi. 1), following Eratosthenes, says that it is a

gulf of the Northern Ocean.

[653] The Euphrates, after its junction with the Tigres, flows through

the marshes of Lamlum, where its current moves less than a mile an hour.

[654] Cf. _Arrian_, vi. 27 infra.

[655] Probably the Chandragupta of the Sanscrit writers. He conquered

from the Macedonians the Punjab and the country as far as the

Hindu-Koosh. He reigned about 310 B.C.

[656] Mount Dindymus, now called Murad Dagh, was sacred to Cybele, the

mother of the gods, who was hence called Dindymene.

[657] Hecataeus of Miletus died about B.C. 476. He wrote a work upon

Geography, and another on History. His works were well known to

Herodotus but only fragments survive.

[658] See _Herodotus_, ii. 5.

[659] See _Herodotus_, ii. 10-34.

[660] See Homer’s _Odyssey_, iv. 477, 581. In Hebrew the name for

Egypt is _Mitsraim_ (dark-red). In form the word is dual, evidently in

reference to the division of the country by the Nile. The native name

was _Chem_, meaning _black_, probably on account of the blackness of

the alluvial soil.

[661] ἄλλοι is Abicht’s reading instead of πολλοί.

[662] Arrian, in his _Indica_, chap. 4, gives the names of these rivers.

[663] See _Herodotus_, vii. 33-36; iv. 83, 97, 133-141. _Bosporus_ =

Oxford. The name was applied to the Straits of Constantinople, and

also to those of Yenikale, the former being called the Thracian and

the latter the Cimmerian Bosporus. Cf. Aeschўlus (_Prom._, 734). Ad

Bosporos duos, vel bubus meabili transitu; unde nomen ambobus (_Pliny_,

vi. 1).

[664] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 86) says that Alexander crossed on a bridge of

boats. Cf. _Strabo_, p. 698; _Curtius_, viii. 34.

[665] There was another river called Rhenus, a tributary of the Po, now

called the Reno. It was called Rhenus Bononiensis, being near Bononia

or Bologna.

[666] αἱ πρύμναν κρουόμεναι. For this nautical term compare

_Thucydides_, i. 51; _Herodotus_, viii. 84; _Diodorus_, xi. 18;

Aristophanes, _Wasps_, 399. κατὰ ῥοῦν is Krüger’s reading for the usual

κατὰ πόρον.

[667] The explanation of this passage given in Liddell and Scott’s

_Lexicon_, sub voce κλῖμαξ, is evidently incorrect, as there is nothing

about a chariot in the original.

[668] Compare the description of Cæsar’s bridge over the Rhine (_Gallic

War_, iv. 17).

[669] The place where Alexander crossed the Indus was probably at its

junction with the Cophen or Cabul river, near Attock. Before he crossed

he gave his army a rest of thirty days, as we learn from _Diodorus_,

xvii. 86. From the same passage we learn that a certain king named

Aphrices with an army of 20,000 men and 15 elephants, was killed by his

own men and his army joined Alexander.

[670] The kingdom of Porus lay between the Hydaspes and Acesines, the

district now called Bari-doab with Lahore as capital. It was conquered

by Lords Hardinge and Gough in 1849.

[671] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 87) says that Porus had more than 50,000

infantry, about 3,000 cavalry, more than 1,000 chariots, and 130

elephants. _Curtius_ (viii. 44) says he had about 30,000 infantry, 300

chariots, and 85 elephants.

[672] ἐπιτρέψας is Krüger’s reading instead of ἐπιτάξας.

[673] About the month of May. See chap. 12 infra; also _Curtius_, viii.

45, 46. _Strabo_ (xv. 1) quotes from Aristobulus describing the rainy

season at the time of Alexander’s battle with Porus at the Hydaspes.

[674] Cf. _Arrian_, i. 14 supra.

[675] ἀλλὰ κενόν is Krüger’s reading, instead of ἀλλ’ ἐκεῖνον.

[676] ἄλσει is Abicht’s reading for εἴδει.

[677] About 17 miles.

[678] This use of πρίν with infinitive after negative clauses, is

contrary to Attic usage.

[679] The perf. pass. πέπηγμαι is used by Arrian and Dionysius, but by

Homer and the Attic writers the form used is πέπηγα. _Doric_, πέπαγα.

[680] Seleucus Nicator, the most powerful of Alexander’s successors,

became king of Syria and founder of the dynasty of the Seleucidae,

which came to an end in B.C. 79.

[681] For this use of ὅσον, cf. Homer (_Iliad_, ix.

354); _Herodotus_, iv. 45; Plato (_Gorgias_, 485 A; _Euthydemus_, 273

A).

[682] Compare the passage of the Rhone by Hannibal. (See _Livy_, xxi.

26-28; _Polybius_, iii. 45, 46.)

[683] 100 Greek and 101 English feet.

[684] See Donaldson’s _New Cratylus_, sec. 178.

[685] πρὶν κατίδωσιν. In Attic, πρὶν ἄν is the regular form with the

subjunctive; but in Homer and the Tragic writers ἄν is often omitted.

[686] Cf. Arrian’s _Tactics_, chap. 29.

[687] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 89) says that more than 12,000 Indians were

killed in this battle, over 9,000 being captured, besides 80 elephants.

[688] According to Diodorus there fell of the Macedonians 280 cavalry

and more than 700 infantry. Plutarch (_Alex._ 60) says that the battle

lasted eight hours.

[689] _Curtius_ (viii. 50, 51) represents Porus sinking half dead, and

being protected to the last by his faithful elephant. _Diodorus_ (xvii.

88) agrees with him.

[690] Cf. _Curtius_, viii. 44; _Justin_, xii. 8.

[691] Cf. _Arrian_, ii. 10 supra. δεδουλωμένος τῇ γνώμῃ. The Scholiast

on _Thucydides_ iv. 34, explains this by τεταπεινωμένος φόβῳ.

[692] Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 60); _Curtius_, viii. 51.

[693] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 87) says that the battle was fought in the

archonship of Chremes at Athens.

[694] Nicaea is supposed to be Mong and Bucephala may be Jelalpur. See

_Strabo_, xv. 1.

[695] Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 61). Schmieder says that Alexander could

not have broken in the horse before he was sixteen years old. But

since at this time he was in his twenty-ninth year he would have had

him thirteen years. Consequently the horse must have been at least

seventeen years old when he acquired him. Can any one believe this? Yet

Plutarch also states that the horse was thirty years old at his death.

[696] _Curtius_ (vi. 17) says this occurred in the land of the

Mardians; whereas Plutarch (_Alex._, 44) says it happened in Hyrcania.

[697] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 89), says Alexander made a halt of 30 days

after this battle.

[698] Cf. _Arrian_, v. 8 supra, where an earlier embassy from Abisares

is mentioned.

[699] _Strabo_ (xv. 1) says that this Porus was a cousin of the Porus

captured by Alexander.

[700] This is the Chenab. See Arrian (_Indica_, iii.), who says that

where it joins the Indus it is 30 stades broad.

[701] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 95) says that Alexander received a

reinforcement from Greece at this river of more than 30,000 infantry

and nearly 6,000 cavalry; also suits of armour for 25,000 infantry, and

100 talents of medical drugs.

[702] Μέλλειν is usually connected with the future infinitive; but

Arrian frequently uses it with the present.

[703] Now called the Ravi.

[704] Sangala is supposed to be Lahore; but probably it lay some

distance from that city, on the bank of the Chenab.

[705] Compare Cæsar (_Bell. Gall._, i. 26): pro vallo carros objecerant

et e loco superiore in nostros venientes tela conjiciebant, et nonnulli

inter carros rotasque mataras ac tragulas subjiciebant nostrosque

vulnerabant.

[706] ἐγκυρεῖν is an epic and Ionic word rarely used in Attic; but

found frequently in _Herodotus_, _Homer_, _Hesiod_, and _Pindar_.

[707] The Greeks had only three watches; but Arrian is speaking as a

Roman.

[708] Eumenes, of Cardia in Thrace, was private secretary to Philip

and Alexander. After the death of the latter, he obtained the rule of

Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. He displayed great ability both

as a general and statesman; but was put to death by Antigonus in B.C.

316, when he was 45 years of age. Being a Greek, he was disliked by the

Macedonian generals, from whom he experienced very unjust treatment.

It is evident from the biographies of him written by Plutarch and

Cornelius Nepos, that he was one of the most eminent men of his era.

[709] Now called the Beas, or Bibasa. Strabo calls it Hypanis, and

Pliny calls it Hypasis.

[710] In the Hebrew Bible Javan denotes the Ionian race of Greeks, and

then the Greeks in general (Gen. x. 2, 4; Isa. lxvi. 19; Ezek. xxvii.

13; Joel iii. 6; Zech. ix. 13). In Dan. viii. 21, x. 20, xi. 2, Javan

stands for the kingdom of Alexander the Great, comprising Macedonia

as well as Greece. The form of the name _Javan_ is closely connected

with the Greek _Ion_, which originally had a digamma, _Ivon_. Pott

says that it means _the young_, in opposition to the _Graikoi_, the

old. According to Aristotle (_Meteorologica_, i. 14) the Hellenes were

originally called Graikoi. Cf. Sanscrit, _jewan_; Zend, _jawan_; Latin,

_juvenis_; English, _young_.

[711] Coele-Syria, or the Hollow Syria, was the country between the

ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus. Syria between the rivers is usually

called by its Greek name of Mesopotamia. It is the Padan Aram of

the Bible. Cappadocia embraced the whole north-eastern part of the

peninsula of Asia Minor. Slaves were procured from this region. See

Horace (_Epistles_, i. 6, 39); _Persius_, vi. 77. The name _Pamphylia_

is from πᾶν and φυλή, because of the mixed origin of the inhabitants.

[712] Cf. Arrian (_Anabasis_, vii. 1; _Indica_, 43). _Herodotus_ (iv.

42) says that Pharaoh Neco sent a Phoenician expedition from the

Red Sea, which circumnavigated Africa and returned by the Straits

of Gibraltar, or the Pillars of Hercules. The Carthaginian Hanno is

said to have sailed from Cadiz to the extremity of Arabia. See Pliny

(_Historia Naturalis_, ii. 67; v. 1). _Herodotus_ (iv. 43) says that

the Carthaginians asserted they had sailed round Africa. There is a

Greek translation of Hanno’s _Periplus_ still extant. As to the Pillars

of Hercules, see Aelian (_Varia Historia_, v. 3). They are first

mentioned by Pindar (_Olym._ iii. 79; _Nem._ iii. 36).

[713] The interior of Africa, from the Straits of Gibraltar to Egypt,

and from the Mediterranean to the then unexplored South.

[714] Arrian, like many other ancient writers, includes Africa, or

Libya, as a part of Asia. The boundaries were the Eastern Sea and the

Atlas Mountains. Cf. _Arrian_, iii. 30; vii. 1 and 30. The name Asia

first occurs in Homer (_Iliad_, ii. 461), in reference to the marsh

about the Caÿster, and was thence gradually extended over the whole

continent.

[715] Heracles, from whom the Macedonian kings claimed to be descended.

[716] Hence Hercules is called Tirynthius. (Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 662;

viii. 228).

[717] See chap. 1 of this book.

[718] Cf. Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 7, 4).

[719] Cf. _Curtius_, ix. 12.

[720] _Arrian_ (iii. 19) says that the Thessalians were sent back from

Ecbatana.

[721] _Pontus Euxinus_ antea ab inhospitali feritate _Axenos_

appellatus (_Pliny_, vi. 1).

[722] The Latin name Carthago and the Greek Carchedon were corruptions

of the Phoenician Carth-Hadeshoth, the “new city.”

[723] _Pliny_ (vi. 21), says that Alexander erected the altars on the

farther bank of the Hyphasis, whereas Arrian, Diodorus, and Plutarch

say they were on this side of the river. _Curtius_ (ix. 13) does not

specify the side of the river.

[724] _Herodotus_ (iv. 44) says that the Indus is the only river

besides the Nile which produces crocodiles. He does not seem to have

known the Ganges.

[725] This was the _Nelumbium speciosum_, the Egyptian bean of

Pythagoras, the Lotus of the Hindus, held sacred by them. It is

cultivated and highly valued in China, where it is eaten. The seeds are

the shape and size of acorns.

[726] _I.e._ the Mediterranean.

[727] See _Arrian_, v. 6 supra. The native name of Egypt was _Chem_

(black). Compare Vergil (_Georgic._ iv. 291):—Viridem Aegyptum _nigrâ_

fecundat arenâ. Usque coloratis amnis devexus ab Indis.

[728] This use of ἀμφί with the dative is instead of the

Attic περί with the genitive or accusative.

[729] Plutarch (_Alex._ 66) informs us that Alexander’s army numbered

120,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry. Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, 19).

[730] Arrian, in the _Indica_ (chap. 19), says that Alexander embarked

with 8,000 men.

[731] _Strabo_ (xv. 1) says that the realm of Sopeithes was called

Cathaia.

[732] As Alexander was at this time east of the Indus, the expression,

“beyond the Indus,” means west of it.

[733] Cf. _Arrian_, v. 2 supra.

[734] Only fragments of this narrative are preserved. _Strabo_ (xv. 1)

says that the statements of Onesicritus are not to be relied upon.

[735] _Curtius_ (ix. 13) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 95) say that there were

1,000 vessels. Arrian (_Indica_, 19) says there were 800. Krüger reads

χιλίων in this passage instead of the common reading

δισχιλίων.

[736] From Arrian (_Indica_, 18) we learn that he sacrificed to his

country gods, and to Poseidon, Amphitrite, the Nereids, the Ocean, as

well as to the three rivers. Cf. i. 11, supra.

[737] Cf. iii. 3 supra.

[738] Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, 7).

[739] Cf. _Curtius_ (ix. 15); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 97). The latter says

that Alexander offered sacrifice to the gods for having escaped the

greatest danger, and having contested with a river like Achilles.

[740] According to _Diodorus_ (xvii. 96) and _Curtius_ (ix. 14)

Alexander here made an expedition against the Sibi; defeated an army of

40,000 Indians, and captured the city of Agallassa.

[741] The chief city of the Mallians is the modern Mooltan.

[742] Μήπω. In later writers μή is often used where the Attic writers

would use οὔ.

[743] Strabo and Curtius call this river Hyarotis.

[744] The Brachmans, or Brahmins, were a religious caste of Indians.

The name was sometimes used for the people whose religion was

Brahminism. Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, 11); _Strabo_, xv. 1; p. 713 ed.

_Casaubon_.

[745] Cf. _Arrian_ i. 11 supra.

[746] The Romans called these men _duplicarii_. See _Livy_, ii. 59;

vii. 37.

[747] τοῖς ἔπειτα πυθέσθαι. Cf. Homer (_Iliad_, xxii. 305; ii. 119).

[748] _Curtius_ (ix. 22) calls the physician Critobulus. Near the city

of Cos stood the Asclepiēum, or temple of Asclepius, to whom the island

was sacred, and from whom the chief family, the Asclepiadae, claimed

descent. Curtius says:—Igitur patefacto latius vulnere, et spiculo

evolso, ingens vis sanguinis manare coepit, linquique animo rex, et

caligine oculis offusa, veluti moribundus extendi.

[749] Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._ 63); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 98, 99); _Curtius_

(ix. 18-23); _Justin_ (xii. 9).

[750] As to Fame, or Rumour, see Homer (_Iliad_, ii. 93; _Odyss._

xxiv. 412); Hesiod (_Works and Days_, 758-762); Vergil (_Aeneid_, iv.

173-190); Ovid (_Met._ xii. 39-63); Statius (_Theb._ ii. 426).

[751] _Curtius_ (ix. 18) says it was the town of the Oxydracians.

[752] Nearly 70 miles.

[753] _Isthmus_ is from the same root as ἰέναι, _to go_, and thus means

a _passage_. Pindar (_Isthmia_, iv. 34) calls it the “bridge of the

sea.”

[754] We learn from _Curtius_ (ix. 21) that the authors who stated that

Ptolemy was present in this battle were Clitarchus and Timagenes. From

the history of the former, who was a contemporary of Alexander, Curtius

mainly drew the materials for his history of Alexander.

[755] Ptolemy received this appellation from the Rhodians whom he

relieved from the assaults of Demetrius. The grateful Rhodians paid him

divine honours as their preserver, and he was henceforward known as

Ptolemy Soter. B.C. 304. See _Pausanias_, i. 8, 6.

[756] The word ἀταλαίπωρος is used in a similar

way by _Thucydides_, i. 20, 4.

[757] _Curtius_ (ix. 24) says that Craterus was deputed by the officers

to make this representation to the king, and that he was backed up by

Ptolemy and the rest.

[758] This line is a fragment from one of the lost tragedies of

Aeschўlus: δράσαντι γάρ τι καὶ παθεῖν ὀφείλεται.

[759] _Curtius_ (ix. 23) says that he was cured of his wound in seven

days. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 99) says that it took many days.

[760] Arrian does not mention the Sutledj, which is the fifth of the

rivers of the Punjab. _Pliny_ (vi. 21) calls it Hesidrus; _Ptolemy_

(vii. 1) calls it Zaradrus.

[761] About 12 miles. Ita se findente Nilo ut triquetram terrae

figuram efficiat. Ideo multi Graecae literae vocabulo Delta appellavere

Aegyptum (_Pliny_, v. 9).

[762] This tribe dwelt between the Acesines and the Indus. _Diodorus_

(xvii. 102) calls them Sambastians; while _Curtius_ (ix. 30) calls them

Sabarcians. The Xathrians and Ossadians dwelt on the left bank of the

Indus.

[763] We find from _Curtius_ (ix. 31) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 102) that

the name of this was Alexandria. It is probably the present Mittun.

[764] _Curtius_ (ix. 31) calls this satrap Terioltes, and says he was

put to death. His appointment as viceroy is mentioned by _Arrian_ (iv.

22 supra).

[765] This king is called Porticanus by _Curtius_ (ix. 31), _Diodorus_

(xvii. 102), and _Strabo_ (xv. 1).

[766] An expression imitated from _Thucydides_ (iv. 34). Cf. _Arrian_,

ii. 10; v. 19; where the same words are used of Darius and Porus.

[767] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 102) says that Sambus escaped beyond the Indus

with thirty elephants.

[768] See note, page 327 supra.

[769] The _Indica_, a valuable work still existing. See chapters x. and

xi. of that book.

[770] These people inhabited the Delta of the Indus, which is now

called Lower Scinde. Their capital, Patala, is the modern Tatta.

[771] Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, ii.).

[772] _Curtius_ (ix. 34) calls this king Moeris.

[773] Aristobulus, as quoted by _Strabo_ (xv. 1), said that the voyage

down the Indus occupied ten months, the fleet arriving at Patala about

the time of the rising of Sirius, or July, 325 B.C.

[774] The right arm of the Indus is now called the Buggaur, and the

left Sata.

[775] _I.e._ caused a heavy swell of waters. Cf. _Apollonius Rhodius_,

ii. 595; _Polybius_, i. 60, 6. This wind was the south-west monsoon.

[776] Cf. _Curtius_ (ix. 35, 36); Cæsar (_Bell. Gall._ iv. 29). τὰ

σκάφη ἐμετεωρίζοντο. Arrian does not

comply with the Attic rule, that the plural neuter should take a verb

in the singular. Compare ii. 20, 8; v. 17, 6 and 7; etc.

[777] Plutarch (_Alex._ 66) says that Alexander called the island

Scillustis; but others called it Psiltucis. He also says that the

voyage down the rivers to the sea took seven months.

[778] In regard to this expedition, see _Arrian_, vii. 20 infra.

[779] About 200 miles. Arrian here follows the statement of Nearchus.

Aristobulus said that the distance was 1,000 stades. See _Strabo_, xv.

1.

[780] See _Curtius_, ix. 38. This lake has disappeared.

[781] These periodical winds are the southerly monsoon of the Indian

Ocean. Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, 21).

[782] This occurs at the beginning of November. The Romans called the

Pleiades _Vergiliae_. Cf. _Pliny_ (ii. 47, 125): Vergiliarum occasus

hiemem inchoat, quod tempus in III. Idus Novembres incidere consuevit.

Also _Livy_ (xxi. 35, 6): Nivis etiam casus, occidente jam sidere

Vergiliarum, ingentem terrorem adjecit.

[783] This river, which is now called the Purally, is about 120

miles west of the mouth of the Indus. It is called Arabis by Arrian

(_Indica_, 21); and Arbis by _Strabo_ (xv. 2).

[784] These were a people of Gadrosia, inhabiting a coast district

nearly 200 miles long in the present Beloochistan. Cf. Arrian

(_Indica_, 22 and 25); _Pliny_, vi. 23.

[785] The Arabitians dwelt between the Indus and the Arabius; the

Oritians were west of the latter river.

[786] Rhambacia was probably at or near Haur.

[787] According to _Diodorus_ (xvii. 104) the city was called

Alexandria.

[788] Ora was the name of the district inhabited by the Oritians.

[789] Cf. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xii. 33-35).

[790] Cf. _Strabo_ (xv. 2); Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xii. 26).

[791] Probably the snow-flake.

[792] This is the well-known catechu, obtained chiefly from the Acacia

Catechu. The liquid gum is called kuth or cutch in India.

[793] These people were called Ichthyophagi, or Fish-eaters. They are

described by Arrian (_Indica_, 29); _Curtius_, ix. 40; _Diodorus_,

xvii. 105; Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ vi. 25, 26); Plutarch (_Alex._

66); _Strabo_, xv. 2. They occupied the sea-coast of Gadrosia, or

Beloochistan. Cf. Alciphron (_Epistolae_, i. 1, 2).

[794] A man of Callatis, a town on the Black Sea in Thrace, originally

colonized by the Milesians.

[795] Cf. _Herodotus_, i. 193.

[796] Pura was near the borders of Carmania, probably at Bampur. The

name means _town_.

[797] Cf. _Strabo_, xv. 2; _Diodorus_, ii. 19, 20. According to

Megasthenes, Semiramis died before she could carry out her intended

invasion of India. See Arrian (_Indica_, 5). Neither Herodotus nor

Ctesias mentions an invasion of India by Cyrus; and according to Arrian

(_Indica_, 9), the Indians expressly denied that Cyrus attacked them.

[798] Strabo says that some of these marches extended 200, 400, and

even 600 stades; most of the marching being done in the night. Krüger

substitutes ξυμμέτρους for ξύμμετρος οὖσα.

[799] Cf. _Thucydides_, ii. 49, 3.

[800] Cf. Xenophon (_Anab._ vii. 5, 13); Homer (_Odyss._ vii. 283).

[801] _Curtius_ (vii. 20) mentions a similar act of magnanimity as

having occurred on the march in pursuit of Bessus through the desert

to the river Oxus. Plutarch (_Alex._ 42) says it was when Alexander

was pursuing Darius; Frontinus (_Strategematica_, i. 7, 7) says it was

in the desert of Africa; _Polyaenus_ (iv. 3, 25) relates the anecdote

without specifying where the event occurred. μετεξέτεροι

is an Ionic form very frequently used by Herodotus.

[802] Compare note on page 146.

[803] This man had been placed over the Oritians. See page 351 supra.

[804] _Curtius_ (ix. 41) says that Craterus sent a messenger to the

king, to say that he was holding in chains two Persian nobles, Ozines

and Zeriaspes, who had been trying to effect a revolt.

[805] The Areians were famed for their skill as professional mourners.

See Aeschўlus (_Choëphorae_, 423). For the origin of the name see

Donaldson (_New Cratylus_, sect. 81.)

[806] ἐξηλέγχθη is substituted by Sintenis for the common reading

ἐξηγγέλθη.

[807] According to _Curtius_ (x. 1), Cleander and his colleagues

were not slain, but put into prison; whereas 600 of the soldiers who

had been the agents of their cruelty were put to death. Curtius says

Cleander was spared for having killed Parmenio with his own hand. Cf.

iii. 26 supra.

[808] The _thriambus_ was a hymn to Bacchus, sung in festal processions

in his honour. It was also used as a name of that deity, as we learn

from _Diodorus_, iv. 5. It was afterwards used as synonymous with the

Roman _triumphus_, by Polybius, Dionysius, and Plutarch.

[809] The Bacchanalian procession through Carmania is described by

_Curtius_ (ix. 42); Plutarch (_Alex._ 67); and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 106).

[810] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 106) says that the port into which Nearchus put

was called Salmus.

[811] ἐκπεριπλεύσοντα. The Attic future of πλέω is πλεύσομαι. πλέυσω is

only found in Polybius and the later writers.

[812] See Arrian (_Indica_, 18-43).

[813] The name for Persia and the Persians in the Hebrew Bible, is

Paras. Cyrus is called Koresh (the sun) in Hebrew; in the cuneiform

inscriptions the name is Khurush. Cambyses is called Ahasuerus in

Ezra iv. 6; and Smerdis the Magian is the Artaxerxes who was induced

by the Samaritans to forbid the further building of the temple (Ezra

iv. 7-24). The Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther is probably Xerxes.

Artaxerxes the Long-handed was the patron of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra

vii. 11-28; Neh. ii. 1-9, etc). “Darius the Persian,” mentioned in

Neh. xii. 22, was probably Darius Codomannus, who was conquered by

Alexander. The province of Susiana, previously called Elymais, appears

in the Hebrew under the name of Eilam or Elam. Persis is still called

Fars.

[814] B.C. 325.

[815] Aria. See chap. 27 supra.

[816] _Curtius_ (x. 4) says Orxines was descended from Cyrus.

[817] See iii. 25 supra.

[818] Cf. _Strabo_, xv. 3, where a description of this tomb is given,

derived from Onesicritus, the pilot of Alexander. See Dean Blakesley’s

note on _Herodotus_ i. 214.

[819] Just a few lines above, Arrian says that the couch was by the

side of the coffin.

[820] Cf. _Ammianus_, xxiii. 6, 32, 33. The Magi were the priests

of the religion of Zoroaster, which was professed by the Medes and

Persians. Their Bible was the Avesta, originally consisting of

twenty-one books, only one of which, the twentieth (Vendidad), is still

extant.

[821] See iii. 18 supra.

[822] According to _Curtius_ (x. 4, 5) Orxines was not only innocent,

but was very devoted and attached to Alexander. The favourite eunuch,

Bagoas, poisoned the king’s mind against him, and suborned other

accusers against him. He was condemned unheard.

[823] Purpura et nitor corporis, ornatusque Persicus multo auro

multisque gemmis.—Cicero (_de Senectute_, 17).

[824] Pasargadae was the ancient capital of Cyrus, but Persepolis

was that of the later kings of Persia. The tomb of Cyrus has been

discovered at Murghab; consequently Parsagadae was on the banks of the

river Cyrus, N.E. of Persepolis. The latter city was at the junction of

the Araxes and Medus. Its extensive ruins are called Chel-Minar, “the

forty columns.”

[825] The Tigris rises in Armenia, and joins the Euphrates ninety miles

from the sea, the united stream being then called Shat-el-Arab. In

ancient times the two rivers had distinct outlets. In the Hebrew the

Tigris is called Chiddekel, _i.e._ _arrow_. The Greek name Tigres is

derived from the Zend _Tighra_, which comes from the Sanscrit _Tig_,

to sharpen. Its present name is Dijleh. The respective lengths of the

Euphrates and Tigris are 1,780 and 1,146 miles.

[826] Among these were _Curtius_ (x. 3); _Diodorus_ (xviii. 4); and

Plutarch (_Alex._, 68).

[827] Gadeira or Gades was a Phoenician colony. The name is from the

Hebrew גָּדֵר, _a fence_. Cf. _Pliny_ (iv. 36); appellant Poeni

_Gadir_ ita Punica lingua _septum_ significante. Also Avienus (_Ora

Maritima_, 268): Punicorum lingua conseptum locum _Gaddir_ vocabat.

According to _Pliny_ (v. 1), Suetonius Paulinus was the first Roman

general who crossed the Atlas Mountains.

[828] See note 714, page 309.

[829] Now called Capo di Leuca, the south-eastern point of Italy.

[830] Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, 11).

[831] Cf. Alciphron (_Epistolae_, i. 30, 1), with Bergler and Wagner’s

notes.

[832] This must have occurred B.C. 336. See Plutarch (_Alex._ 14);

Cicero (_Tusculanae Disputationes_, v. 32). Alexander said: “If I were

not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes.” Cf. _Arrian_, i. 1;

Plutarch (_de Fortit. Alex._, p. 331).

[833] Cf. _Strabo_, xv. 1.

[834] Strabo calls this sage Mandanis.

[835] Strabo says, Alexander’s messengers summoned Mandanis to the son

of Zeus.

[836] Plutarch (_Alex._, 65) says this philosopher’s name was Sphines;

but the Greeks called him Calanus, because when he met them, instead

of using the word χαῖρε greeting them, he said καλέ. The same author

says that he was persuaded to come to Alexander by Taxiles. See also

_Strabo_ (xv. 1).

[837] _Strabo_ (xv. 1) says that the voluntary death of Calanus

occurred at Pasargadae; Aelian (_Varia Historia_, v. 6) says it was at

Babylon; but _Diodorus_ (xvii. 107) says it happened at Susa, which

statement is confirmed by the fact of Nearchus being seemingly present.

[838] Cf. Arrian (_Indica_, 10).

[839] Cf. _Arrian_, vii. 13 infra; and _Herodotus_, vii. 40.

[840] Cf. Cicero (_Tusc. Disput._ v. 27).

[841] Media. See vi. 29 supra.

[842] Oxathres was killed by Alexander himself with a sarissa, or long

Macedonian pike. See Plutarch (_Alex._ 68), who calls him Oxyartes.

[843] For this use of φθείρομαι, cf. Aristophanes (_Plutus_, 610);

_Alciphron_, i. 13, 3; with Bergler’s note.

[844] Cf. _Curtius_, x. 5.

[845] She was also called Statira. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 107; Plutarch

(_Alex._, 70). She is called Arsinoe by Photius.

[846] “By these two marriages, Alexander thus engrafted himself upon

the two lines of antecedent Persian kings. Ochus was of the Achaemenid

family, but Darius Codomannus, father of Statira, was not of that

family; he began a new lineage. About the overweening regal state of

Alexander, outdoing even the previous Persian kings, see _Pylarchus

apud Athenaeum_, xii. p. 539.”—_Grote._

[847] See p. 242.

[848] Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, viii. 7). A copious account of this

celebrated marriage feast is given in _Athenæus_, xii. p. 538.

[849] Cf. _Curtius_, x. 8.

[850] About £4,600,000. _Justin_, xii. 11, agrees with Arrian; but

_Diodorus_ (xvii. 109); Plutarch (_Alex._, 70); _Curtius_ (x. 8) say

10,000 talents.

[851] Cf. _Curtius_ (ix. 41); _Arrian_ (vi. 22) supra.

[852] The Epigoni, or Afterborn, were the sons of the seven chiefs who

fell in the first war against Thebes. See Herodotus, Pindar, Sophocles,

etc.

[853] For this _mesanculon_ see Gellius (_Noctes Atticae_, x. 25);

_Polybius_, xxiii., 1, 9; Euripides (_Phoenissae_, 1141; _Andromache_,

1133); _Alciphron_, iii. 36.

[854] It was at this time that Harpalus, viceroy of Babylon, having

squandered a great deal of the treasure committed to his charge, became

frightened at the return of Alexander, and fled to Greece with 50,000

talents and 6,000 mercenary troops. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 108.

[855] The Eulaeus is now called Kara Su. After joining the Coprates it

was called Pasitigris. It formerly discharged itself into the Persian

Gulf, but now into the Shat-el-Arab, as the united stream of the

Euphrates and Tigris is now called. In Dan. viii. 2, 16, it is called

Ulai. Cf. _Pliny_, vi. 26, 31; xxxi. 21.

[856] The Greeks and Romans sometimes speak of Mesopotamia as a part of

Syria, and at other times they call it a part of Assyria. The Hebrew

and native name of this country was Aram Naharaim, or “Syria of the two

rivers.”

[857] The Tigris now falls into the Euphrates.

[858] Cf. _Arrian_, iii. 7, supra; _Curtius_, iv. 37.

[859] Cf. _Strabo_, xvi. 1; _Herodotus_, i. 193; _Ammianus_, xxiv. 3,

14.

[860] Probably this city stood at the junction of the Tigris with the

Physcus, or Odorneh. See Xenophon (_Anab._ ii. 4, 25); _Herodotus_, i.

189; _Strabo_, (xvi. 1) says that Alexander made the Tigris navigable

up to Opis.

[861] Cf. _Justin_ (xii. 11); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 109); _Curtius_ (x.

10, 11). These authors put the punishment of the ringleaders after the

speech instead of before.

[862] Thracians mean _mountaineers_; Hellenes, _warriors_; Dorians,

_highlanders_; Ionians, _coast-men_; and Aeolians, _mixed men_. See

Donaldson (_New Cratylus_, sect. 92).

[863] The gold and silver mines at Mount Pangaeon near Philippi brought

Philip a yearly revenue of more than 1,000 talents (_Diodorus_, xvi.

8). _Herodotus_ (v. 17) says that the silver mines at Mount Dysorum

brought a talent every day to Alexander, father of Amyntas.

[864] This is a Demosthenic expression. See _De Falsa Legatione_, 92;

and _I. Philippic_, 45.

[865] B.C. 346.

[866] He here refers to his own part in the victory of Chaeronea, B.C.

336. See _Diodorus_, xvi. 86; Plutarch (_Alex._ 9).

[867] This fact is attested by Demosthenes (_De Haloneso_, 12).

[868] The Thebans under Pelopidas settled the affairs of Macedonia, and

took young Philip to Thebes as a hostage, B.C. 368.

[869] About £122,000. Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._ 15); _Curtius_, x. 10.

[870] Ἴων is the Hebrew Javan without the vowel points. In

the Persian name for the Greeks Ἰάονες, one of these

vowels appear. See Aeschўlus (_Persae_, 178, 562).

[871] Larger Phrygia formed the western part of the great central

table-land of Asia Minor. Smaller Phrygia was also called Hellespontine

Phrygia, because it lay near the Hellespont. See _Strabo_, xii. 8.

[872] A blue band worked with white, which went round the tiara of the

Persian kings.

[873] Cf. _Ammianus_, xxv. 4, 15: “(Julianus) id aliquoties praedicans,

Alexandrum Magnum, ubi haberet thesauros interrogatum, apud amicos

benevole respondisse.”

[874] Cf. _Arrian_, i. 16 supra.

[875] It is supposed that the Saxones, _i.e._ Sacasuna, _sons of the

Sacae_, originated from this nation.

[876] At the Persian court, kinsman was a title bestowed by the king

as a mark of honour. Curtius says they were 15,000 in number. Cf.

_Diodorus_, xvi. 50; Xenophon (_Cyropaedia_, i. 4, 27; ii. 2, 31).

[877] As to this Persian custom, see Xenophon (_Agesilaus_, v. 4;

_Cyropaedia_ i. 4, 27).

[878] Cf. _Justin_, xii. 7; Plutarch (_Eumenes_, 16); _Curtius_, viii.

17; _Livy_ xxxvii. 40; _Polybius_, v. 79, 4.

[879] ἔμενον λιπαροῦντες. The more usual construction would be

ἐλιπάρουν μένοντες. Cf. _Herodotus_, ix. 45 (λιπαρέετε μένοντες); iii.

51 (ἐλιπάρεε ἱστορέων)

[880] The paean was sung, not only before and after battle, but

also after a banquet, as we see from this passage and from Xenophon

(_Symposium_, ii. 1).

[881] About £240.

[882] Literally “with his own head,” an Homeric expression. We learn

from Plutarch (_Eumenes_, 6), that Craterus was a great favourite with

the Macedonians because he opposed Alexander’s Asiatic innovations. See

also Plutarch (_Alexander_, 47); _Diodorus_, xvii. 114:—Κράτερον μὲν

γὰρ εἶναι φιλοβασιλέα, Ἡφαιστίωνα δὲ φιλαλέξανδρον.

[883] The use of κελεύειν with the dative, is in imitation of Homer.

Cf. i. 26, 3 supra.

[884] We learn from Diodorus (xviii. 4) that when Alexander died,

Craterus had got no farther than Cilicia on his return journey. He had

with him a paper of written instructions, among which were projects

for building an immense fleet in Phoenicia and the adjacent countries

for conveying an expedition against the Carthaginians and the other

western nations as far as the pillars of Hercules; for the erection of

magnificent temples, and for the transportation of people from Europe

into Asia and from Asia into Europe. Alexander’s generals put these

projects aside, as too vast for any one but Alexander himself.

[885] Cf. _Curtius_, x. 31.

[886] The Greeks reckoned according to the lunar months, and therefore

they talked of ten months instead of nine as the period of gestation.

Cf. _Herodotus_, vi. 63; Aristophanes (_Thesmoph._ 742); Menander

(_Plocion_, fragment 3); Plautus (_Cistell._ i. 3, 15); Terence

(_Adelphi_, iii. 4, 29).

[887] For this expression, cf. _Dion Cassius_, xlii. 57; Homer

(_Iliad_, 23, 538); _Pausanias_, vii. 10, 2; _Herodotus_, viii. 104.

[888] Here there is a gap in the manuscripts of Arrian, which probably

contained an account of the flight of Harpalus, the viceroy of Babylon,

with the treasures committed to his care, and also a description of the

dispute between Hephaestion and Eumenes. See _Photius_ (codex 92).

[889] Cf. Plutarch (_Eumenes_, 2).

[890] The march was from Opis to Media, as we see from the next chapter.

[891] Cf. _Herodotus_ (iii. 106; vii. 40); _Strabo_, xi. 7 and 14;

_Diodor._ xvii. 110; _Ammianus_, xxiii. 6. Sir Henry Rawlinson says:

“With Herodotus, who was most imperfectly acquainted with the geography

of Media, originated the error of transferring to that province the

Nisea (Nesá) of Khorassan, and all later writers either copied or

confounded his statement. Strabo alone has escaped from the general

confusion. In his description we recognise the great grazing plains

of Khawah, Alishtar, Huru, Silakhur, Burburud, Japalak, and Feridun,

which thus stretch in a continuous line from one point to another

along the southern frontiers of Media.” Alexander probably visited the

westernmost of these pastures which stretch from Behistûn to Ispahan

along the mountain range. The form διαρπαγῆναι is

used only by the later writers for διαρπασθῆναι.

[892] Cf. _Strabo_, xi. 5; _Diodorus_, xvii. 77; _Curtius_, vi.

19; _Justin_, xii. 3; _Arrian_, iv. 15; Homer (_Iliad_, iii. 189);

Aeschўlus (_Eumenides_, 655); Hippocrates (_De Aere, Aquis, et Locis_,

p. 553).

[893] The queen is called Thalestris by Diodorus and Curtius.

[894] This is a mistake, for Xenophon does mention the Amazons in

the _Anabasis_ (iv. 4, 16). For Trapezus and the Phasians see his

_Anabasis_ (iv. 8, 22; v. 6, 36.)

[895] See _Diodorus_, iv. 16. This was one of the twelve labours of

Hercules.

[896] See Plutarch (_Theseus_, 26).

[897] “The Battle of the Amazons” was a celebrated painting in the Stoa

Poecile at Athens, executed by Micon, son of Phanichus, a contemporary

of Polygnotus about B.C. 460. Cf. Aristophanes (_Lysistrata_, 678):

“Look at the Amazons whom Micon painted on horseback fighting with the

men.” See also _Pausanias_ (i. 15; viii. 11).

[898] Cf. _Herodotus_, iv. 110-117; ix. 27.

[899] See Isocrates (_Panegyricus_, 19); Lysias (_Oratio Funebris_,

near the beginning).

[900] _Strabo_ (xi. 5) declined to believe in the existence of the

Amazons altogether. However, even Julius Cæsar spoke of them as having

once ruled over a large part of Asia. See Suetonius (_Life of Julius

Cæsar_, 22). Eustathius, on _Dionysius Periegetes_, p. 110, derives

the name _Amazones_ from ἀ, _not_, and μᾶζα, _barley-bread_:—διὸ καὶ

Ἀμαζόνες ἐκαλοῦντο οἷα μὴ μάζαις ἀλλὰ κρέασι θηρίων ἐπιστρεφόμεναι.

This is not the usual derivation of the word.

[901] Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._ 72); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 110).

[902] Plutarch makes this statement.

[903] See Homer (_Iliad_, xxiii. 141, 152); _Arrian_ (i. 12).

[904] See _Herodotus_ (vii. 35). Xerxes means _the venerable king_. Cf.

_Herod._, vi. 98. See Donaldson’s _New Cratylus_, sections 161, 479.

[905] Epidaurus in Argolis was celebrated as the chief seat of the

worship of Aesculapius.

[906] This is an Homeric expression, meaning _myself_.

[907] Equal to £2,300,000. Plutarch (_Alex._ 72) agrees with Arrian.

_Diodorus_ (xvii. 115) and _Justin_ (xii. 12) say 12,000 talents.

[908] Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, vii. 8); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 114,

115); Plutarch (_Alex._ 72, 75; _Eumenes_, 2; _Pelopidas_, 34).

[909] See p. 392, note 888.

[910] Cossaea was a district on the north-east of Susiana, which the

Persian kings never subdued, but purchased the quiet of the inhabitants

by paying them tribute. It is supposed to be the Cush of the Old

Testament. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 111) says that Alexander completed his

conquest of the Cossaeans in forty days. Plutarch (_Alex._ 72) says

he called the massacre of the Cossaeans his offering to the manes of

Hephaestion.

[911] Cf. _Livy_, vii. 37, 38; _Pliny_, xxii. 4; _Justin_, xii. 13.

[912] The Romans called these people Etruscans.

[913] _Justin_ (xxi. 6) says that the Carthaginians sent Hamilcar to

learn Alexander’s real designs against them, under the pretence of

being an exile offering his services.

[914] Cf. _Diodorus_, xvii. 113.

[915] Aristus was a man of Salamis in Cyprus. Neither his work nor that

of Asclepiades is extant. Aristus is mentioned by _Athenæus_ (x. 10)

and _Strabo_ (lib. xv.).

[916] _Livy_ (ix. 18) says he does not think the contemporary Romans

even knew Alexander by report.

[917] These are what Hirtius (_Bell. Alex._ 11) calls “naves apertas et

constratas.”

[918] See p. 155, note 392.

[919] See p. 199, note 499. _Strabo_ (xi. 7) says that Aristobulus

declared the Oxus to be the largest river which he had seen except

those in India.

[920] See p. 198, note 498. The Oxus and Jaxartes really flow into the

Sea of Aral, or the Palus Oxiana, which was first noticed by _Ammianus

Marcellinus_ (xxiii. 6, 59) in the 4th century A.D. Ptolemy, however,

mentions it as a small lake, and not as the recipient of these rivers.

Cf. _Pliny_, vi. 18.

[921] The Araxes, or Aras, joins the Cyrus, or Kour, and falls into

the Caspian Sea. It is now called Kizil-Ozan, or Red River. Its Hebrew

name is Chabor (2 Kings xvii. 6). Pontem indignatus Araxes (Vergil,

_Aeneid_, viii. 728). See Aeschўlus (_Prometheus_, 736), Dr. Paley’s

note.

[922] As to the Chaldaeans, see Cicero (_De Div._, i. 1) and _Diod._

(ii. 29-31).

[923] This is a verse from one of the lost tragedies of Euripides.

It is also quoted by Cicero (_De Divin._, ii. 5): Est quidam Graecus

vulgaris in hanc sententiam versus; bene qui conjiciet, vatem hunc

perhibebo optimum.

[924] See _Herodotus_ (i. 32); Plutarch (_Solon_, 27).

[925] See p. 171, note 430. _Herodotus_ (i. 181) gives a description

of this temple, which he says existed in his time. _Strabo_ (xvi.

1) agrees with Arrian that it was said to have been destroyed by

Xerxes. He also says that Alexander employed 10,000 men in clearing

away the rubbish of the ruins. Professor Sayce and others adduce this

passage of Arrian to prove that Herodotus is not to be trusted even

when he says he had seen the places and things which he describes.

The words of Herodotus are ἐς ἐμὲ τοῦτο ἔτι ἐόν, meaning, not that he

had himself seen the temple, but that it existed _till his time_. In

chap. 183 he expressly states that he did not see other things which he

is describing, but that he derived his information from the Chaldaeans.

He was about twenty years of age when Xerxes was assassinated. It must

not be forgotten that Strabo and Arrian lived five or six hundred

years after Xerxes. The veracity of Strabo is never doubted; yet in

his description of Babylon this author speaks of the walls and hanging

gardens as if they were still in existence, though not expressly saying

so.

[926] Cf. _Arrian_, iii. 16 supra.

[927] See _Arrian_, iii. 16 supra.

[928] Cf. Philostratus (_Life of Apollonius_, viii. 7, 5).

[929] Perdiccas was killed by his own troops at Memphis, B.C. 321. See

_Diodorus_, xviii. 36.

[930] The battle of Ipsus was fought B.C. 301. See Plutarch

(_Demetrius_, 29).

[931] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 113) says that embassies came from the

Carthaginians, Liby-Phoenicians, Greeks, Macedonians, Illyrians,

Thracians, and Gauls.

[932] Cf. _Arrian_, iii. 16 supra.

[933] The name Athens is said to have been derived from the worship

of Athena. See Euripides (_Ion_, 8): Πόλις τῆς χρυσολόγχου Παλλάδος

κεκλημένη. Attica is ἀττική or ἀκτικὴ γῆ, the “promontory land.”

[934] Clazomenae was an Ionian city on the Gulf of Smyrna, celebrated

as the birthplace of Anaxagoras. It is now called Kelisman.

[935] About £1,200,000.

[936] The Hebrew name for Arabia is Arab (wilderness). In Gen. xxv. 6

it is called the “East country,” and in Gen. xxix. 1 the “Land of the

Sons of the East.”