WORKING THE LINE
Tests--Apparatus--First Messages--Gradual Failing--The "Last
Gasp"--Engineering Success--Electrical Failure.
_Continuity Tests during Laying._--As previously mentioned, two
descriptions of instruments were used on board the ships for testing and
working through while laying the cable. These were the "detector" of Mr.
Whitehouse and Professor Thomson's reflecting-apparatus.
The process of testing consisted in sending from one to the other vessel
alternately, during a period of ten minutes, first a reversal every
minute for five minutes, and then a current in one direction for five
minutes. The results of these signals to test the continuity of the line
were observed and recorded on board both ships. There was also a special
signal for each ten miles of cable paid out between the vessels.
When the splice was made on July 29th, 72 degrees deflection were
obtained on the Agamemnon, from seventy-five cells of a sawdust
(Daniell's) battery on board the Niagara, which had previously given 83
degrees. On arrival at Valentia at 6.30 A.M., on August 5th, the
deflection on the same instruments (detector and marine galvanometer
being both in circuit as before) was 68 degrees, while the
sending-battery power on the Niagara had fallen off at entry to 62-1/2
degrees through the marine galvanometer on board that vessel. These
figures show that the insulation of the cable had considerably improved
by submersion, and when the engineers had accomplished their part of the
undertaking, on August 5th, the cable was handed over in perfect
condition to Mr. Whitehouse and his electrical assistant.
_Apparatus Used in Working._--Unfortunately for the life of the cable,
Mr. Whitehouse was imbued with a belief that currents of very high
intensity, or potential, were the best for signaling; and he had
enormous induction-coils, _five feet long_, excited by a series of very
large cells, yielding electricity estimated at about 2,000 volts
potential. The insulation was unable to bear the strain, and thus the
signals began to gradually fail.[45]
For something like a week the efforts to work through the cable with
the above apparatus proved ineffectual, the power being constantly
increased to no purpose. Professor Thomson's reflecting galvanometer,
which had worked so well during the voyage, was then used again with
ordinary Daniell cells.
_Messages._--In this way communication was resumed, the first clear
message being received from Newfoundland on August 13, 1858, and--after
considerable delay in getting the American receiving-apparatus ready--on
the 16th the following was got through from the directors in England to
those in United States:
Europe and America are united by telegraphy. Glory to God in the
highest, on earth peace, good-will toward men!
Then followed:
From her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain to his Excellency the
President of the United States:
The Queen desires to congratulate the President upon the successful
completion of this great international work, in which the Queen has
taken the greatest interest.
The Queen is convinced that the President will join with her in
fervently hoping that the electric cable, which now already
connects Great Britain with the United States, will prove an
additional link between the two nations, whose friendship is
founded upon their common interest and reciprocal esteem.
The Queen has much pleasure in thus directly communicating with the
President, and in renewing to him her best wishes for the
prosperity of the United States.
This message was shortly afterward responded to as follows:
WASHINGTON CITY.
The President of the United States to her Majesty
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain:
The President cordially reciprocates the congratulations of her
Majesty the Queen on the success of the great international
enterprise accomplished by the skill, science, and indomitable
energy of the two countries.
It is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind
than was ever won by a conqueror on the field of battle.
May the Atlantic Telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to
be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred
nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse
religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world.
In this view will not all the nations of Christendom spontaneously
unite in the declaration that it shall be forever neutral and that
its communications shall be held sacred in passing to the place of
their destination, even in the midst of hostilities?
JAMES BUCHANAN.
Throughout the United States the arrival of the Queen's message was the
signal for a fresh outburst of popular enthusiasm.
Says Field:
The next morning, August 17th, the city of New York was awakened by
the thunder of artillery. A hundred guns were fired in the City
Hall Park at daybreak, and the salute was repeated at noon. At this
hour flags were flying from all the public buildings, and the bells
of the principal churches began to ring, as Christmas bells signal
the birthday of One who came to bring peace and good-will to
men--chimes that, it was fondly hoped, might usher in, as they
should, a new era.
Ring out the old, ring in the new,
Ring out the false, ring in the true.
That night the city was illuminated. Never had it seen so brilliant
a spectacle. Such was the blaze of light around the City Hall that
the cupola caught fire and was consumed, and the hall itself
narrowly escaped destruction. But one night did not exhaust the
public enthusiasm, for the following evening witnessed one of those
displays for which New York surpasses all the cities of the
world--a firemen's torchlight procession. Moreover, several
wagon-loads (each containing about twelve miles) of the cable left
on board the Niagara were drawn through the principal streets of
the city.
Similar demonstrations took place in other parts of the United
States. From the Atlantic to the Valley of the Mississippi, and to
the Gulf of Mexico, in every city was heard the firing of guns and
the ringing of bells. Nothing seemed too extravagant to give
expression to the popular rejoicing.
The English press were warm in their recognition of those to whom the
nation were "indebted for bringing into action the greatest invention of
the age," expressing belief that "the effect of bringing the three
kingdoms and the United States into instantaneous communication with
each other will be to render hostilities between the two nations almost
impossible for the future." And further, "more was done yesterday for
the consideration of our empire than the wisdom of our statesmen, the
liberality of our legislature, or the loyalty of our colonists could
ever have effected."[46]
The sermons preached on the subject, both in England and America, were
literally without number. Enough found their way into print to fill over
one volume. Never had an event more deeply touched the spirit of
religious enthusiasm.
With further reference to the active life of the cable, the following
communications have some interest:
First of all three long congratulatory messages were transmitted, one on
August 18th from Mr. Peter Cooper, president of the New York,
Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company, to the directors of the
Atlantic Telegraph Company; another from the Mayor of New York to the
Lord Mayor of London, his reply in acknowledgment following. Then two of
the great Cunard mail-steamers, the Europa and Arabia, had come into
collision on August 14th. Neither the news nor the injured vessels could
reach those concerned on either side of the Atlantic for some days; but
as soon as it became known in New York a message was sent by the cable,
a facsimile of the original of which is shown on p. 150. This first
public _news_ message showed the relief given by speedy knowledge in
dispelling doubt and fear.
Subsequently messages giving the news on both continents were
transmitted and published daily. Among others, on August 27th, a
despatch was sent by the secretary of the Atlantic Telegraph Company
that was remarkable for the amount of important information contained in
comparatively few words. It read as follows:
To Associated Press, New York.--News for America by Atlantic
cable:--Emperor of France returned to Paris, Saturday. King of
Prussia too ill to visit Queen Victoria. Her Majesty returns to
England, August 30th. St. Petersburg, August 21st--Settlement of
Chinese Question: Chinese Empire opened to trade; Christian
religion allowed; foreign diplomatic agents admitted; indemnity to
England and France.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Facsimile of the First Public News Message
Received through the Atlantic Cable.]
Alexandria, August 9th.--The Madras arrived at Suez 7th inst. Dates
Bombay to the 19th, Aden 31st. Gwalior insurgent army broken up.
All India becoming tranquil.
The above was published in the American papers the same day.
Further, as exemplifying the aid the cable afforded to the British
Government, mention may be made of two messages sent from the
commander-in-chief at the Horse Guards, on August 31st. Following the
quelling of the Indian mutiny, they were despatched for the purpose of
canceling previous orders which had already gone by mail to Canada.
The first, to General Trollope, Halifax, ran as follows: "The
Sixty-second Regiment is not to return to England." The other, to the
officer in command at Montreal: "The Thirty-ninth Regiment is not to
return to England." From £50,000 to £60,000 was estimated by the
authorities to have been saved, in the unnecessary transportation of
troops, by these two cable communications.
But the insulation of the precious wire had, unhappily, been giving way.
The high-potential currents from Mr. Whitehouse's enormous
induction-coils were too much for it; and the diminished flashes of
light proved to be only the flickering of the flame that was soon to be
extinguished in the external darkness of the waters. After a period of
confused signals, the line ultimately breathed its last on October 20th,
after 732 messages in all had been conveyed during a period of three
months.[47] The last word uttered--and which may be said to have come
from beyond the sea--was "forward."
The line had been subject to frequent interruptions throughout. The
wonder is that it did so much, when we consider the lack of experience
at that period in the manufacture of deep-sea cables, the short time
allowed, and, more than all, the treatment received after being laid.
It is, indeed, extremely doubtful whether any cable, even of the present
day, would long stand a trial with currents so generated, and of such
intensity.[48] An unusually violent lightning-storm occurred at
Newfoundland shortly after the cable had been laid. This was considered
a part cause of the actual failure of the line.
When all the efforts of the electricians failed to draw more than a few
faint whispers--a dying gasp from the depths of the sea--there ensued,
in the public mind, a feeling of profound discouragement. But what a
bitter disappointment for those officially concerned in the enterprise!
In all the experience of life there are no sadder moments than those in
which, after much anxious toil in striving for a great object, and after
a glorious triumph, the achievement that seemed complete becomes a
wreck.
_Engineering Demonstration._--Still the engineer of this great
undertaking had the satisfaction of knowing that he had demonstrated (1)
the possibility of laying over 2,000 miles of cable in one continuous
length across a by no means calm ocean at depths of two to three miles;
and (2) that, by the agency of an electric current, distinct and regular
signals could be transmitted and received throughout an insulated
conductor, even when at such a depth beneath the sea, across this vast
distance. The feasibility of either of these had been scouted at on all
sides.[49]
Of course the gutta-percha coverings as then applied can not be compared
with the methods and materials of later days, though a great advance on
that of previous cables. It was a pity that--owing to the precipitation
with which the undertaking was rushed through, and the fear of failure
for want of capital--more time was not given to the consideration of
Bright's recommendation for a conductor four times larger, with a
corresponding increase in the gutta-percha insulator. Under such
conditions, it is highly improbable that high potentials would have ever
been applied to the line. Unhappily--besides Faraday and
Whitehouse--Professor Morse (when advising the Board in this matter)
promulgated views directly opposed to the above, as has already been
shown. In the course of his report Morse had said:
That by the use of comparatively small-coated wires, and of
electro-magnetic induction-coils for the exciting-magnets,
telegraphic signals can be transmitted through two thousand miles,
with a speed amply sufficient for all commercial and economical
purposes.
Still the cable, inadequately constructed as it was from an electrical
point of view, would probably have worked for years--though slowly, of
course--had the fairly reasonable battery-power employed between the
ships and up to the successful termination of the expeditions been
continued in connection with Professor Thomson's delicate
reflecting-apparatus. The electrician, however, not only used much
higher power immediately he took the cable in hand--for working his
specially devised relay and Morse electromagnetic recording-instrument
in connection with his enormous induction-coils--but actually increased
the power from time to time up to nearly 500 cells, till the five-foot
coils yielded a current urged by a potential of something like 2,000
volts. Hence, when signaling was resumed, as shown by the comparatively
mild voltaic currents, for actuating the Thomson apparatus, a fault (or
faults) had been already developed, necessitating a far higher
battery-power than had been employed during the continuous communication
between the ships while paying out.
The wounds opened farther under the various stimulating doses; the
insulation was unable to bear the strain, and the circulation gradually
ceased through a cable already in a state of dissolution.