country, which was the world. Many of the banished, and Comenius among
them, settled at the Polish town of Leszna, or, as the Germans call it,
Lissa, near the Silesian frontier. Here there was an old-established
school of the Brethren, in which Comenius found employment. Once more
engaged in education, he earnestly set about improving the traditional
methods. As he himself says,[65] “Being by God’s permission banished
my country with divers others, and forced for my sustenance to apply
myself to the instruction of youth, I gave my mind to the perusal of
divers authors, and lighted upon many which in this age have made a
beginning in reforming the method of studies, as Ratichius, Helvicus,
Rhenius, Ritterus, Glaumius, Cæcilius, and who indeed should have had
the first place, Joannes Valentinus Andreæ, a man of a nimble and clear
brain; as also Campanella and the Lord Verulam, those famous restorers
of philosophy;—by reading of whom I was raised in good hope, that at
last those so many various sparks would conspire into a flame; yet
observing here and there some defects and gaps as it were, I could
not contain myself from attempting something that might rest upon an
immovable foundation, and which, if it could be once found out, should
not be subject to any ruin. Therefore, after many workings and tossings
of my thoughts, by reducing everything to the immovable laws of Nature,
I lighted upon my _Didactica Magna_, which shows the art of readily and
solidly teaching all men all things.”
§ 5. This work did not immediately see the light, but in 1631 Comenius
published a book which made him and the little Polish town where he lived
known throughout Europe and beyond it. This was the _Janua Linguarum
Reserata_, or “Gate of Tongues unlocked.” Writing about it many years
afterwards he says that he never could have imagined that that little
work, fitted only for children (_puerile istud opusculum_), would
have been received with applause by all the learned world. Letters
of congratulation came to him from every quarter; and the work was
translated not only into Greek, Bohemian, Polish, Swedish, Belgian,
English, French, Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, but also into Turkish,
Arabic, Persian, and even “Mongolian, which is familiar to all the East
Indies.” (Dedication of _Schola Ludus_ in vol. i. of collected works.)
§ 6. Incited by the applause of the learned, Comenius now planned a
scheme of universal knowledge, to impart which a series of works would
have to be written, far exceeding what the resources and industry of
one man, however great a scholar, could produce. He therefore looked
about for a patron to supply money for the support of himself and his
assistants, whilst these works were in progress. “The vastness of the
labours I contemplate,” he writes to a Polish nobleman, “demands that I
should have a wealthy patron, whether we look at their extent, or at the
necessity of securing assistants, or at the expenses generally.”
§ 7. At Leszna there seemed no prospect of his obtaining the aid he
required; but his fame now procured him invitations from distant
countries. First he received a call to improve the schools of Sweden.
After declining this he was induced by his English friends to undertake a
journey to London, where Parliament had shown its interest in the matter
of education, and had employed Hartlib,[66] an enthusiastic admirer of
Comenius, to attempt a reform. Probably through his family connections,
Hartlib was on intimate terms with Comenius, and he had much influence
on his career. It would seem that Comenius, though never tired of forming
magnificent schemes, hung back from putting anything into a definite
shape. After the appearance of the _Janua Linguarum Reserata_, he
planned a _Janua Rerum_, and even allowed that title to appear in “the
list of new books to come forth at the next Mart at Frankford.”[67] But
again he hesitated, and withdrew the announcement. Here Hartlib came
in, and forced him into print without his intending or even knowing it
(“præter meam spem et me inconsulto”; preface to _Conatuum Pansophicorum
Dilucidatio_, 1638). Hartlib begged of Comenius a sketch of his great
scheme, and with apologies to the author for not awaiting his consent,
he published it at Oxford in 1637, under the title of _Conatuum
Comenianorum Præludia_. Comenius accepted the _fait accompli_ with the
best grace he could—pleased at the stir the book made in the learned
world, but galled by criticisms, especially by doubts of his orthodoxy.
To refute the cavillers, he wrote a tract called _Conatuum Pansophicorum
Dilucidatio_ which was published in 1638. In 1639 Hartlib issued in
London a new duodecimo edition of the _Præludia_ (or as he then called
it, _Prodromus_) and the _Dilucidatio_, adding a dissertation by Comenius
on the study of Latin. Now, when everything seemed ripe for a change
in education, and Comenius himself was on his way to England, Hartlib
translated the _Prodromus_, and when Comenius had come he published it
with the title, _A Reformation of Schools_, 1642.[68]
§ 8. It was no doubt by Hartlib’s influence that Parliament had been led
to summon Comenius, and at any other time the visit might have been “the
occasion of great good to this island,” but _inter arma silent magistri_,
and Comenius went away again. This is the account he himself has left us:—
“When seriously proposing to abandon the thorny studies of Didactics,
and pass on to the pleasing studies of philosophical truth, I find
myself again among the same thorns.... After the _Pansophiæ Prodromus_
had been published and dispersed through various kingdoms of Europe,
many of the learned approved of the object and plan of the work, but
despaired of its ever being accomplished by one man alone, and therefore
advised that a college of learned men should be instituted to carry it
into effect. Mr. S. Hartlib, who had forwarded the publication of the
_Pansophiæ Prodromus_ in England, laboured earnestly in this matter,
and endeavoured, by every possible means, to bring together for this
purpose a number of men of intellectual activity. And at length, having
found one or two, he invited me also, with many very strong entreaties.
My people having consented to the journey, I came to London on the very
day of the autumnal equinox (September 22, 1641), and there at last
learnt that I had been invited by the order of the Parliament. But as
the Parliament, the King having then gone to Scotland [August 10], was
dismissed for a three months’ recess [not quite three months, but from
September 9 to October 20], I was detained there through the winter,
my friends mustering what pansophic apparatus they could, though it
was but slender.... The Parliament meanwhile, having re assembled, and
our presence being known, I had orders to wait until they should have
sufficient leisure from other business to appoint a Commission of
learned and wise men from their body for hearing us and considering the
grounds of our design. They communicated also beforehand their thoughts
of assigning to us some college with its revenues, whereby a certain
number of learned and industrious men called from all nations might be
honourably maintained, either for a term of years or in perpetuity.
There was even named for the purpose _The Savoy_ in London; _Winchester
College_ out of London was named; and again nearer the city, _Chelsea
College_, inventories of which and of its revenues were communicated to
us, so that nothing seemed more certain than that the design of the great
Verulam, concerning the opening somewhere of a Universal College, devoted
to the advancement of the Sciences could be carried out. But the rumour
of the Insurrection in Ireland, and of the massacre in one night of more
than 200,000 English [October, November], and the sudden departure of the
King from London [January 10, 1641-2], and the plentiful signs of the
bloody war about to break out disturbed these plans, and obliged me to
hasten my return to my own people.”[69]
§ 9. While Comenius was in England, where he stayed till August, 1642,
he received an invitation to France. This invitation, which he did not
accept, came perhaps through his correspondent Mersenne, a man of great
learning, who is said to have been highly esteemed and often consulted
by Descartes. It is characteristic of the state of opinion in such
matters in those days, that Mersenne tells Comenius of a certain Le
Maire, by whose method a boy of six years old, might, with nine months’
instruction, acquire a perfect knowledge of three languages. Mersenne
also had dreams of a universal alphabet, and even of a universal language.
§ 10. Comenius’ hopes of assistance in England being at an end, he
thought of returning to Leszna; but a letter now reached him from a
rich Dutch merchant, Lewis de Geer, who offered him a home and means
for carrying out his plans. This Lewis de Geer, “the Grand Almoner of
Europe,” as Comenius calls him, displayed a princely munificence in the
assistance he gave the exiled Protestants. At this time he was living at
Nordcoping in Sweden. Comenius having now found such a patron as he was
seeking, set out from England and joined him there.
§ 11. Soon after the arrival of Comenius in Sweden, the great Oxenstiern
sent for him to Stockholm, and with John Skyte, the Chancellor of Upsal
University, examined him and his system. “These two,” as Comenius says,
“exercised me in colloquy for four days, and chiefly the most illustrious
Oxenstiern, that eagle of the North (_Aquila Aquilonius_). He inquired
into the foundations of both my schemes, the Didactic and the Pansophic,
so searchingly, that it was unlike anything that had been done before
by any of my learned critics. In the first two days he examined the
Didactics, and finally said: ‘From an early age I perceived that our
Method of Studies generally in use is a harsh and crude one (_violentum
quiddam_), but where the thing stuck I could not find out. At length,
having been sent by my King of glorious memory [_i.e._, by Gustavus
Adolphus], as ambassador into Germany, I conversed on the subject with
various learned men. And when I had heard that Wolfgang Ratichius was
toiling at an amended Method I had no rest of mind till I had him before
me, but instead of talking on the subject, he put into my hands a big
quarto volume. I swallowed this trouble, and having turned over the whole
book, I saw that he had detected well enough the maladies of our schools
but the remedies he proposed did not seem to me sufficient. Yours, Mr.
Comenius, rest on firmer foundations. Go on with the work.’ I answered
that I had done all I could in those matters, and must now go on to
others. ‘I know,’ said he, ‘that you are toiling at greater affairs, for
I have read your _Prodromus Pansophiæ_. That we will discuss to-morrow, I
must now to public business.’ Next day he began on my Pansophic attempts,
and examined them with still greater severity. ‘Are you a man,’ he asked,
‘who can bear contradiction?’ ‘I can,’ said I, ‘and for that reason my
_Prodromus_ or preliminary sketch was sent out first (not indeed that I
sent it out myself, this was done by friends), that it might meet with
criticism. And if we seek the criticism of all and sundry, how much
more from men of mature wisdom and heroic reason?’ He began accordingly
to discourse against the hope of a better state of things arising from
a rightly instituted study of Pansophia; first, objecting political
reasons, then what was said in Scripture about ‘the last times.’ All
which objections I so answered that he ended with these words: ‘Into no
one’s mind do I think such things have come before. Stand upon these
grounds of yours; so shall we some time come to agreement, or there
will be no way left. My advice, however,’ added he, ‘is that you first
do something for the schools, and bring the study of the Latin tongue
to a greater facility; thus you will prepare the way for those greater
matters.’” As Skyte and afterwards De Geer gave the same advice, Comenius
felt himself constrained to follow it; so he agreed to settle at Elbing,
in Prussia, and there write a work on teaching, in which the principles
of the _Didactica Magna_ should be worked out with especial reference
to teaching languages. Notwithstanding the remonstrances of his English
friends, to which Comenius would gladly have listened, he was kept by
Oxenstiern and De Geer strictly to his agreement, and thus, much against
his will, he was held fast for eight years in what he calls the “miry
entanglements of logomachy.”
§ 12. Elbing, where, after a journey to Leszna to fetch his family
(for he had married again), Comenius now settled, is in West Prussia,
thirty-six miles south-east of Dantzic. From 1577 to 1660 an English
trading company was settled here, with which the family of Hartlib was
connected. This perhaps was one reason why Comenius chose this town
for his residence. But although he had a grant of £300 a year from
Parliament, Hartlib, instead of assisting with money, seems at this time
to have himself needed assistance, for in October, 1642, Comenius writes
to De Geer that he fears Fundanius and Hartlib are suffering from want,
and that he intends for them £200 promised by the London booksellers; he
suggests that De Geer shall give them £30 each meanwhile. (Benham, p. 63.)
§ 13. The relation between Comenius and his patron naturally proved
a difficult one. The Dutchman thought that as he supported Comenius,
and contributed something more for the assistants, he might expect of
Comenius that he would devote all his time to the scholastic treatise
he had undertaken. Comenius, however, was a man of immense energy and
of widely extended sympathies and connections. He was a “Bishop” of the
religious body to which he belonged, and in this capacity he engaged
in controversy, and attended some religious conferences. Then again,
pupils were pressed upon him, and as money to pay five writers whom
he kept at work was always running short, he did not decline them. De
Geer complained of this, and supplies were not furnished with wonted
regularity. In 1647 Comenius writes to Hartlib that he is almost
overwhelmed with cares, and sick to death of writing begging-letters.
Yet in this year he found means to publish a book _On the Causes of
this_ (_i.e._, the Thirty Years) _War_, in which the Roman Catholics are
attacked with great bitterness—a bitterness for which the position of the
writer affords too good an excuse.
§ 14. The year 1648 brought with it the downfall of all Comenius’ hopes
of returning to his native land. The Peace of Westphalia was concluded
without any provision being made for the restoration of the exiles. But
though thus doomed to pass the remaining years of his life in banishment,
Comenius, in this year, seemed to have found an escape from all his
pecuniary difficulties. The Senior Bishop, the head of the Moravian
Brethren, died, and Comenius was chosen to succeed him. In consequence
of this, Comenius returned to Leszna, where due provision was made for
him by the Brethren. Before he left Elbing, however, the fruit of his
residence there, the _Methodus Linguarum Novissima_, had been submitted
to a commission of learned Swedes, and approved of by them. The MS. went
with him to Leszna, where it was published.
§ 15. As head of the Moravian Church, there now devolved upon Comenius
the care of all the exiles, and his widespread reputation enabled him to
get situations for many of them in all Protestant countries. But he was
now so much connected with the science of education, that even his post
at Leszna did not prevent his receiving and accepting a call to reform
the schools in Transylvania. A model school was formed at Saros-Patak,
where there was a settlement of the banished Brethren, and in this school
Comenius laboured from 1650 till 1654. At this time he wrote his most
celebrated book, which is indeed only an abridgment of his _Janua_ with
the important addition of pictures, and sent it to Nürnberg, where it
appeared three years later (1657). This was the famous _Orbis Pictus_.
§ 16. Full of trouble as Comenius’ life had hitherto been, its greatest
calamity was still before him. After he was again settled at Leszna,
Poland was invaded by the Swedes, on which occasion the sympathies of the
Brethren were with their fellow-Protestants, and Comenius was imprudent
enough to write a congratulatory address to the Swedish King. A peace
followed, by the terms of which, several towns, and Leszna among them,
were made over to Sweden; but when the King withdrew, the Poles took up
arms again, and Leszna, the headquarters of the Protestants, the town
in which the chief of the Moravian Brethren had written his address
welcoming the enemy, was taken and plundered.
Comenius and his family escaped, but his house was marked for special
violence, and nothing was preserved. His sole remaining possessions were
the clothes in which he and his family travelled. All his books and
manuscripts were burnt, among them his valued work on Pansophia, and a
Latin-Bohemian and Bohemian-Latin Dictionary, giving words, phrases,
idioms, adages, and aphorisms—a book on which he had been labouring for
forty years. “This loss,” he writes, “I shall cease to lament only when I
cease to breathe.”
§ 17. After wandering for some time about Germany, and being prostrated
by fever at Hamburg, he at length came to Amsterdam, where Lawrence De
Geer, the son of his deceased patron, gave him an asylum. Here were spent
the remaining years of his life in ease and dignity. Compassion for
his misfortunes was united with veneration for his learning and piety.
He earned a sufficient income by giving instruction in the families
of the wealthy; and by the liberality of De Geer he was enabled to
publish a fine folio edition of all his writings on Education (1657).
His political works, however, were to the last a source of trouble to
him. His hostility to the Pope and the House of Hapsburg made him the
dupe of certain “prophets” whose soothsayings he published as _Lux in
Tenebris_. One of these prophets, who had announced that the Turk was
to take Vienna, was executed at Pressburg, and the _Lux in Tenebris_ at
the same time burnt by the hangman. Before the news of this disgrace
reached Amsterdam, Comenius was no more. He died in the year 1671, at
the advanced age of eighty, and with him terminated the office of Chief
Bishop among the Moravian Brethren.
§ 18. His long life had been full of trouble, and he saw little of the
improvements he so earnestly desired and laboured after, but he continued
the struggle hopefully to the end. In his seventy-seventh year he wrote
these memorable words: “I thank God that I have all my life been a man
of aspirations.... For the longing after good, however it spring up in
the heart, is always a rill flowing from the Fountain of all good—from
God.”[70] Labouring in this spirit he did not toil in vain, and the
historians of education have agreed in ranking him among the most
influential as well as the most noble-minded of the Reformers.
§ 19. Before Comenius, no one had brought the mind of a philosopher to
bear practically on the subject of education. Montaigne and Bacon had
advanced principles, leaving others to see to their application. A few
able schoolmasters, Ascham, _e.g._, had investigated new methods, but had
made success in teaching the test to which they appealed, rather than any
abstract principle. Comenius was at once a philosopher who had learnt
of Bacon, and a schoolmaster who had earned his livelihood by teaching
the rudiments. Dissatisfied with the state of education as he found it,
he sought for a better system by an examination of the laws of Nature.
Whatever is thus established is indeed on an immovable foundation, and,
as Comenius himself says, “not liable to any ruin.” It will hardly be
disputed, when broadly stated, that there are laws of Nature which must
be obeyed in dealing with the mind, as with the body. No doubt these laws
are not so easily established in the first case as in the second, nor can
we find them without much “groping” and some mistakes; but whoever in
any way assists or even tries to assist in the discovery, deserves our
gratitude; and greatly are we indebted to him who first boldly set about
the task, and devoted to it years of patient labour.
§ 20. Comenius has left voluminous Latin writings. Professor Laurie
gives us the titles of the books connected with education, and they
are in number forty-two: so there must be much repetition and indeed
retractation; for Comenius was always learning, and one of his last books
was _Ventilabrum Sapientiæ, sive sapienter sua retractandi Ars_—_i.e._,
“Wisdom’s Winnowing-machine, or the Art of wisely withdrawing one’s
own assertions.” We owe much to Professor Laurie, who has served as a
_ventilabrum_ and left us a succinct and clear account of the Reformer’s
teaching. I have read little of the writings of Comenius except the
German translation of the “Great Didactic,” from which the following is
taken.
§ 21. We live, says Comenius, a threefold life—a vegetative, an animal,
and an intellectual or spiritual. Of these, the first is perfect in the
womb, the last in heaven. He is happy who comes with healthy body into
the world, much more he who goes with healthy spirit out of it. According
to the heavenly idea, man should (1) know all things; (2) should be
master of all things, and of himself; (3) should refer everything to God.
So that within us Nature has implanted the seeds of (1) learning, (2)
virtue, and (3) piety. To bring these seeds to maturity is the object of
education. All men require education, and God has made children unfit for
other employments that they may have leisure to learn.
§ 22. But schools have failed, and instead of keeping to the true object
of education, and teaching the foundations, relations, and intentions
of all the most important things, they have neglected even the mother
tongue, and confined the teaching to Latin; and yet that has been so
badly taught, and so much time has been wasted over grammar rules and
dictionaries, that from ten to twenty years are spent in acquiring as
much knowledge of Latin as is speedily acquired of any modern tongue.
§ 23. The cause of this want of success is that the system does not
follow Nature. Everything natural goes smoothly and easily. There must
therefore be no pressure. Learning should come to children as swimming to
fish, flying to birds, running to animals. As Aristotle says, the desire
of knowledge is implanted in man: and the mind grows as the body does—by
taking proper nourishment, not by being stretched on the rack.
§ 24. If we would ascertain how teaching and learning are to have good
results, we must look to the known processes of Nature and Art. A man
sows seed, and it comes up he knows not how, but in sowing it he must
attend to the requirements of Nature. Let us then look to Nature to
find out how knowledge takes root in young minds. We find that Nature
waits for the fit time. Then, too, she has prepared the material before
she gives it form. In our teaching we constantly run counter to these
principles of hers. We give instruction before the young minds are ready
to receive it. We give the form before the material. Words are taught
before the things to which they refer. When a foreign tongue is to be
taught, we commonly give the form, _i.e._, the grammatical rules, before
we give the material, _i.e._, the language, to which the rules apply. We
should begin with an author, or properly prepared translation-book, and
abstract rules should never come before the examples.