ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 1603-1715 A.D. [1]
241. THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS
ABSOLUTISM
Most European nations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries accepted
the principle of absolutism in government. Absolutism was as popular then
as democracy is to-day. The rulers of France, Spain, Portugal, Austria,
Scandinavia, and other countries, having triumphed over the feudal nobles,
proceeded to revive the autocratic traditions of imperial Rome. Like
Diocletian, Constantine, and later emperors, they posed as absolute
sovereigns, who held their power, not from the choice or consent of their
subjects, but from God.
DIVINITY OF KINGS
Royal absolutism formed a natural development of the old belief in the
divinity of kings. Many primitive peoples regard their headmen and chiefs
as holy and give to them the control of peace and war, of life and death.
Oriental rulers in antiquity bore a sacred character. Even in the lifetime
of an Egyptian Pharaoh temples were erected to him and offerings were made
to his sacred majesty. The Hebrew monarch was the Lord's anointed, and his
person was holy. The Hellenistic kings of the East and the Roman emperors
received divine honors from their adoring subjects. An element of sanctity
also attached to medieval sovereigns, who, at their coronation, were
anointed with a magic oil, girt with a sacred sword, and given a
supernatural banner. Even Shakespeare could speak of the divinity which
"doth hedge a king." [2]
"Not all the water in the rough rude sea
Can wash the balm off from an anointed king;
The breath of worldly men cannot depose
The deputy elected by the Lord." [3]
DIVINE RIGHT AFTER THE REFORMATION
The Reformation tended to emphasize the sacred character of kingship. The
reformers set up the authority of the State against the authority of the
Church, which they rejected and condemned. Providence, they argued, had
never sanctioned the Papacy, but Providence had really ordained the State
and had placed over it a king whom it was a religious duty to obey. Even
those who were not reformers distorted the Christian idea that government
has a divine basis to represent kings as God's vicegerents upon earth, as
in fact earthly deities.
BOSSUET ON DIVINE RIGHT
The theory of divine right received its fullest expression in a famous
book [4] written by Bossuet, a learned French bishop of the seventeenth
century. A hereditary monarchy, declared Bossuet, is the most ancient and
natural, the strongest and most efficient, of all forms of government.
Royal power emanates from God; hence the person of the king is sacred and
it is sacrilege to conspire against him. His authority is absolute and
autocratic. No man may rightfully resist the king's commands; his subjects
owe him obedience in all matters. To the violence of a king the people can
oppose only respectful remonstrances and prayers for his conversion. A
king, to be sure, ought not to be a tyrant, but he can be one in perfect
security. "As in God are united all perfection and every virtue, so all
the power of all the individuals in a community is united in the person of
the king."
242. THE ABSOLUTISM OF LOUIS XIV, 1661-1715 A.D.
CARDINAL RICHELIEU
France in the seventeenth century furnished the best example of an
absolute monarchy supported by pretensions to divine right. French
absolutism owed most of all to Cardinal Richelieu, [5] the chief minister
of Louis XIII. Though a man of poor physique and in weak health, he
possessed such strength of will, together with such thorough understanding
of politics, that he was able to dominate the king and through the king to
govern France for eighteen years (1624-1642 A.D.).
POLICIES OF RICHELIEU
Richelieu's foreign policy led to his intervention on the side of the
Protestants at a decisive moment in the Thirty Years' War. The great
cardinal, however, did not live to see the triumph of his measures in the
Peace of Westphalia, which humiliated the Hapsburgs and raised France to
the first place among the states of western Europe. Richelieu's domestic
policy--to make the French king supreme--was equally successful. Though
the nobles were still rich and influential, Richelieu beat down their
opposition by forbidding the practice of duelling, that last remnant of
private warfare, by ordering many castles to be blown up with gunpowder,
and by bringing rebellious dukes and counts to the scaffold. Henceforth
the nobles were no longer feudal lords but only courtiers.
CARDINAL MAZARIN
Richelieu died in 1642 A.D., and the next year Louis XIII, the master whom
he had served so faithfully, also passed away. The new ruler, Louis XIV,
was only a child, and the management of affairs for a second period of
eighteen years passed into the hands of Cardinal Mazarin. Though an
Italian by birth, he became a naturalized Frenchman and carried out
Richelieu's policies. Against the Hapsburgs Mazarin continued the great
war which Richelieu had begun and brought it to a satisfactory conclusion.
The Peace of Westphalia was Mazarin's greatest triumph. He also crushed a
formidable uprising against the crown, on the part of discontented nobles.
Having achieved all this, the cardinal could truly say that "if his
language was not French, his heart was," His death in 1661 A.D. found the
royal authority more firmly established than ever before.
[Illustration: CARDINAL MAZARIN
A miniature by Petitot, in the South Kensington Museum, London.]
LOUIS XIV, THE MAN
Louis XIV, who now in his twenty-third year took up the reins of
government, ranks among the ablest of French monarchs. He was a man of
handsome presence, slightly below the middle height, with a prominent nose
and abundant hair, which he allowed to fall over his shoulders. In manner
he was dignified, reserved, courteous, and as majestic, it is said, in his
dressing-gown as in his robes of state. A contemporary wrote that he would
have been every inch a king, "even if he had been born under the roof of a
beggar." Louis possessed much natural intelligence, a retentive memory,
and great capacity for work. It must be added, however, that his general
education had been much neglected, and that throughout his life he
remained ignorant and superstitious. Vanity formed a striking trait in the
character of Louis. He accepted the most fulsome compliments and delighted
to be known as the "Grand Monarch" and the "Sun-king."
[Illustration: LOUIS XIV
A portrait by J. Gale, in the Sutherland Collection, London.]
COURT OF LOUIS XIV AT VERSAILLES
Louis gathered around him a magnificent court, which he located at
Versailles, near Paris. Here a whole royal city, with palaces, parks,
groves, and fountains, sprang into being at his fiat. Here the "Grand
Monarch" lived surrounded by crowds of fawning courtiers. The French
nobles now spent little time on their country estates; they preferred to
remain at Versailles in attendance on the king, to whose favor they owed
offices, pensions, and honors. The king's countenance, it was said, is the
courtier's supreme felicity; "he passes his life looking on it and within
sight of it."
[Illustration: VERSAILLES
The view shows the rear of the palace a part of the gardens and the grand
stairway leading to the Fountain of Latona. The palace now forms a
magnificent picture gallery of French historical scenes and personages
while the park with its many fine fountains is a place of holiday resort
for Parisians. It is estimated that Louis XIV spent one hundred million
dollars on the buildings and grounds of Versailles.]
LOUIS XIV, THE KING
Louis taught and put into practice the doctrine of divine right. In his
memoirs he declares that the king is God's representative and for his
actions is answerable to God alone. The famous saying, "I am the State,"
[6] though not uttered by Louis, accurately expressed his conviction that
in him was embodied the power and greatness of France. Few monarchs have
tried harder to justify their despotic rule. He was fond of gaiety and
sport, but he never permitted himself to be turned away from the punctual
discharge of his royal duties. Until the close of his reign--the longest
in the annals of Europe--Louis devoted from five to nine hours a day to
what he called the "trade of a king."
ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE
Conditions in France made possible the despotism of Louis. Richelieu and
Mazarin had labored with great success to strengthen the crown at the
expense of the nobles and the commons. The nation had no Parliament to
represent it and voice its demands, for the Estates-General [7] had not
been summoned since 1614 A.D. It did not meet again till 1789 A.D., just
before the outbreak of the French Revolution. In France there was no Magna
Carta to protect the liberties of the people by limiting the right of a
ruler to impose taxes at will. The French, furthermore, lacked independent
law courts which could interfere with the king's power of exiling,
imprisoning, or executing his subjects. Thus absolute monarchy became so
firmly rooted in France that a revolution was necessary to overthrow it.
243. FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV
COLBERT
No absolute ruler, however conscientious and painstaking, can shoulder the
entire burden of government. Louis XIV necessarily had to rely very much
on his ministers, of whom Colbert was the most eminent. Colbert, until his
death in 1683 A.D., gave France the best administration it had ever known.
His reforming hand was especially felt in the finances. He made many
improvements in the methods of tax-collection and turned the annual
deficit in the revenues into a surplus. One of Colbert's innovations, now
adopted by all European states, was the budget system. Before his time
expenditures had been made at random, without consulting the treasury
receipts. Colbert drew up careful estimates, one year in advance, of the
probable revenues and expenditures, so that outlay would never exceed
income.
COLBERT'S ECONOMIC MEASURES
Although the science of economics or political economy was little
developed in the seventeenth century, Colbert realized that the chief
object of a minister of finance should be the increase of the national
wealth. Hence he tried in every way to foster manufactures and commerce.
Among other measures Colbert placed heavy duties on the importation of
foreign products, as a means of protecting the "infant industries" of
France. This was the inauguration of the protective system, since followed
by many European countries and from Europe introduced into America.
Colbert regarded protectionism as only a temporary device, however, and
spoke of tariffs as crutches by the help of which manufacturers might
learn to walk and then throw them away.
[Illustration: MEDAL OF LOUIS XIV
Commemorates the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The obverse bears a
representation of 'Louis the Great the Most Christian King' the reverse
contains a legend meaning "Heresy Extinguished."]
COLBERT AND COLONIAL EXPANSION
Colbert shared the erroneous views of most economists of his age in
supposing that the wealth of a country is measured by the amount of gold
and silver which it possesses. He wished, therefore, to provide the French
with colonies, where they could obtain the products which they had
previously been obliged to purchase from the Spaniards, Dutch, and
English. At this time many islands in the West Indies were acquired,
Canada was developed, and Louisiana, the vast territory drained by the
Mississippi, was opened up to settlement. France, under Colbert, became
one of the leading colonial powers of Europe.
REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES, 1685 A.D.
As long as Colbert lived, he kept on good terms with the Huguenots, who
formed such useful and industrious subjects. But Louis hated them as
heretics and suspected them of little love for absolute monarchy. To Louis
religious unity in the state seemed as necessary as political unity.
Accordingly, he revoked in 1685 A.D. the Edict of Nantes, [8] after the
French for almost a century had enjoyed religious toleration. The
Huguenots were allowed to keep their Protestant faith, but their freedom
of worship was taken away and was not restored till the time of the French
Revolution. The Protestants in France to-day are about as numerous, in
proportion to the Roman Catholic population, as they were under Louis XIV.
EMIGRATION OF THE HUGUENOTS
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes resulted in a considerable
emigration of Huguenots from France. What was a loss to that country was a
gain to England and Holland, where the Huguenots settled and where they
introduced their arts and trades. Prussia, also, profited by the
emigration of the Huguenots. Many of them went to Berlin, and that capital
owed the beginning of its importance to its Huguenot population. Louis by
his bigotry thus strengthened the chief Protestant foes of France.
ART UNDER LOUIS XIV
Louis was a generous patron of art. French painters and sculptors led the
world at this time. One of his architects, Mansard, invented the mansard
roof, which has been largely used in France and other European countries.
This architectural device makes it possible to provide extra rooms at a
small expense, without adding an additional story to the building. Among
the monuments of Louis's reign are the Hôtel des Invalides, [9] now the
tomb of Napoleon, additions to the Louvre, [10] perhaps the masterpiece of
all modern architecture, and the huge palace of Versailles. Louis also
founded the Gobelins manufactory, so celebrated for fine carpets,
furniture, and metal work.
LITERATURE UNDER LOUIS XIV
The long list of French authors who flourished during the reign of Louis
includes Molière, the greatest of French dramatists, La Fontaine, whose
fables are still popular, Perrault, now remembered for his fairy tales,
and Madame de Sévigné, whose letters are regarded as models of French
prose. Probably the most famous work composed at this time is the
_Memoirs_ of Saint-Simon. It presents an intimate and not very flattering
picture of the "Grand Monarch" and his court.
LEARNING UNDER LOUIS XIV
Louis and his ministers believed that the government should encourage
research and the diffusion of knowledge. Richelieu founded and Colbert
fostered the French Academy. Its forty members, sometimes called the
"Immortals," are chosen for their eminent contributions to language and
literature. The great dictionary of the French language, on which they
have labored for more than two centuries, is still unfinished. The academy
now forms a section of the Institute of France. The patronage of Colbert
also did much to enrich the National Library at Paris. It contains the
largest collection of books in the world.
THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV
The brilliant reign of the French king cast its spell upon the rest of
Europe. Kings and princes looked to Louis as the model of what a king
should be and set themselves to imitate the splendor of his court. During
this period the French language, manners, dress, art, literature, and
science became the accepted standards of good society in all civilized
lands. France still retains in large measure the preeminent position which
she secured under the "Grand Monarch."
244. THE WARS OF LOUIS XIV
AMBITIOUS DESIGNS OF LOUIS XIV
How unwise it may be to concentrate all authority in the hands of one man
is shown by the melancholy record of the wars of Louis XIV. To aggrandize
France and gain fame for himself, Louis plunged his country into a series
of struggles from which it emerged completely exhausted. Like Philip II,
Louis dreamed of dominating all western Europe, but, as in Philip's case,
his aggressions provoked against him a constantly increasing body of
allies, who in the end proved too strong even for the king's able generals
and fine armies.
THE BALANCE OF POWER
The union of the smaller and weaker countries of Europe against France
illustrates the principle of the balance of power. According to this
principle no state ought to become so strong as to overshadow the rest. In
such a case all the others must combine against it and treat it as a
common enemy. The maintenance of the balance of power has been a leading
object of European diplomacy from the time of the Thirty Years' War to the
present day.
FRENCH MILITARISM
Louis himself lacked military talent and did not take a prominent part in
any campaign. He was served, however, by very able commanders, including
Condé and Turenne. Vauban, an eminent engineer, especially developed the
art of siege craft. It was said of Vauban that he never besieged a
fortress without taking it and never lost one which he defended. Louvois,
the war minister of the king, recruited, equipped, and provisioned larger
bodies of troops than ever before had appeared on European battlefields.
It was Louvois who introduced the use of distinctive uniforms for soldiers
and the custom of marching in step. He also established field hospitals
and ambulances and placed camp life on a sanitary basis. The labors of
these men gave Louis the best standing army of the age.
THE RHINE BOUNDARY
Of the four great wars which filled a large part of Louis's reign, all but
the last were designed to extend the dominions of France on the east and
northeast to the Rhine. That river in ancient times had separated Gaul and
Germany, and Louis, as well as Richelieu and Mazarin before him, regarded
it as a natural boundary of France. A beginning in this direction had
already been made at the close of the Thirty Years' War, when France
gained nearly all of Alsace and secured the recognition of her old claims
to the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine. A treaty which
Mazarin negotiated with Spain in 1659 A.D. also gave France most of
Artois, as well as part of Flanders. Louis thus had a good basis of
further advance through Lorraine and the Netherlands to the Rhine.
TWO WARS FOR THE RHINE, 1667-1678 A.D.
The French king began his aggressions by an effort to annex the Belgian or
Spanish Netherlands, which then belonged to Spain. [11] A triple alliance
of Holland, England, and Sweden forced him to relinquish all his
conquests, except a few frontier towns (1668 A.D.). Louis blamed the Dutch
for his setback, and determined to punish them. Moreover, the Dutch
represented everything to which he was opposed, for Holland was a
republic, the keen rival of France in trade, and Protestant in religion.
By skillful diplomacy he persuaded England and Sweden to stand aloof,
while his armies entered Holland and drew near to Amsterdam At this
critical moment William, Prince of Orange, became the Dutch leader. He was
a descendant of that William the Silent, who, a century before, had saved
the Dutch out of the hands of Spain. When urged to submit, seeing that his
country was surely lost, William replied, "I know one way of never seeing
it, and that way is to die on the last dike." By William's orders the
Dutch cut the dikes and interposed a watery barrier to further advance by
the French. Then he formed another Continental coalition, which carried on
the war till Louis signified his desire for peace. The Dutch did not lose
a foot of territory, but Spain was obliged to cede to France the important
province of Franche Comté (1678 A.D.).
[Illustration: Map, ACQUISITIONS OF LOUIS XIV AND LOUIS XV]
A THIRD WAR, 1689-1697 A.D.
Ten years later Louis again sought to gain additional territory along the
Rhine, but again an alliance of Spain, Holland, England, and the Holy
Roman Empire compelled 1689-1697 him to sue for peace (1697 A.D.). [12]
During the course of the war the French inflicted a frightful devastation
on the Rhenish Palatinate, so that it might not support armies for the
invasion of France. Twelve hundred towns and villages were destroyed, and
the countryside was laid waste. The responsibility for this barbarous act
rests upon Louvois who advised it and Louis who allowed it.
THE SPANISH SUCCESSION
Thus far the European balance of power had been preserved, but it was now
threatened in another direction. Charles II, the king of Spain, lay dying,
and as he was without children or brothers to succeed him, all Europe
wondered what would be the fate of his vast possessions in Europe and
America. Louis had married one of his sisters, and the Holy Roman Emperor
another, so both the Bourbons and the Austrian Hapsburgs could put forth
claims to the Spanish throne. When Charles died, it was found that he had
left his entire dominions to Philip of Anjou, one of Louis's grandsons, in
the hope that the power of France might be great enough to keep them
undivided. Though Louis knew that acceptance of the inheritance would
involve a war with Austria and probably with England, whose king was now
Louis's old foe, William of Orange, [13] ambition triumphed over fear and
the desire for glory over consideration for the welfare of France. At
Versailles Louis proudly presented his grandson to the court, saying,
"Gentlemen, behold the king of Spain."
WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1702-1713 A.D.
In the War of the Spanish Succession France and Spain faced the Grand
Alliance, which included England, Holland, Austria, several of the German
states, and Portugal. Europe had never known a war that concerned so many
countries and peoples. The English ruler, William III, died shortly after
the outbreak of hostilities, leaving the continuance of the contest as a
legacy to his sister-in-law, Queen Anne. [14] England supplied the
coalition with funds, a fleet, and also with the ablest commander of the
age, the duke of Marlborough. In Eugène, prince of Savoy, the allies had
another skillful and daring general. The great victory gained by them at
Blenheim in 1704 A.D. was the first of a series of successes which finally
drove the French out of Germany and Italy and opened the road to Paris.
But dissensions among the allies and the heroic resistance of France and
Spain enabled Louis to hold the enemy at bay, until the exhaustion of both
sides led to the conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht.
PEACE OF UTRECHT, 1713 A.D.
This peace ranks with that of Westphalia among the most important
diplomatic arrangements of modern times. First, Louis's grandson, Philip
V, was recognized as king of Spain and her colonies, on condition that the
Spanish and French crowns should never be united. Since this time Bourbon
sovereigns have continued to rule in Spain. Next, the Austrian Hapsburgs
gained most of the Spanish dominions in Italy, as well as the Belgian or
Spanish Netherlands (henceforth for a century called the Austrian
Netherlands). Finally, England obtained from France possessions in North
America, and from Spain the island of Minorca and the rock of Gibraltar,
commanding the narrow entrance to the Mediterranean. England has never
since relaxed her hold upon Gibraltar.
BRANDENBURG AND PRUSSIA
Two of the smaller members of the Grand Alliance likewise profited by the
Peace of Utrecht. The right of the elector of Brandenburg to enjoy the
title of king of Prussia was acknowledged. This formed an important step
in the fortunes of the Hohenzollern [15] dynasty, which to-day rules over
Germany. The duchy of Savoy also became a kingdom and received the island
of Sicily (shortly afterwards exchanged for Sardinia). The house of Savoy
in the nineteenth century provided Italy with its present reigning family.
POSITION OF FRANCE
France lost far less by the war than at one time seemed probable. Louis
gave up his dream of dominating Europe, but he kept all the Continental
acquisitions made earlier in his reign. And yet the price of the king's
warlike policy had been a heavy one. France paid it in the shape of famine
and pestilence, excessive taxes, heavy debts, and the impoverishment of
the people. Louis, now a very old man, survived the Peace of Utrecht only
two years. As he lay on his deathbed, the king turned to his little heir
[16] and said, "Try to keep peace with your neighbors. I have been too
fond of war; do not imitate me in that, nor in my too great expenditure."
These words of the dying king showed an appreciation of the errors which
robbed his long reign of much of its glory.
[Illustration: MARLBOROUGH
A miniature in the possession of the Duke of Buccleugh.]
[Illustration: Map, EUROPE after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 A.D.].
245. THE ABSOLUTISM OF THE STUARTS, 1603-1642 A.D.
TUDOR ABSOLUTISM
During the same century which saw the triumph of absolutism and divine
right in France, a successful struggle took place in England against the
unlimited power of kings. Absolutism in England dated from the time of the
Tudors. Henry VII humbled the nobles, while Henry VIII and Elizabeth
brought the Church into dependence on the crown. [17] These three
sovereigns were strong and forceful, but they were also excellent rulers
and popular with the influential middle class in town and country. The
Tudors gave England order and prosperity, if not political liberty.
PARLIAMENT UNDER THE TUDORS
The English Parliament in the thirteenth century had become a body
representative of all classes of the people, and in the fourteenth century
it had separated into the two houses of Lords and Commons. [18] Parliament
enjoyed considerable authority at this time. The kings, who were in
continual need of money, summoned it frequently, sought its advice upon
important questions, and readily listened to its requests. The despotic
Tudors, on the other hand, made Parliament their servant. Henry VII called
it together on only five occasions during his reign; Henry VIII persuaded
or frightened it into doing anything he pleased; and Elizabeth seldom
consulted it. Parliament under the Tudors did not abandon its old claims
to a share in the government, but it had little chance to exercise them.
JAMES I, KING, 1603-1625 A.D.
The death of Elizabeth in 1603 A.D. ended the Tudor dynasty and placed the
Stuarts on the English throne in the person of James I. [19] England and
Scotland were now joined in a personal union, though each country retained
its own Parliament, laws, and state Church. The new king was well
described by a contemporary as the "wisest fool in Christendom." He had a
good mind and abundant learning, but throughout his reign he showed an
utter inability to win either the esteem or the affection of his subjects.
This was a misfortune, for the English had now grown weary of despotism
and wanted more freedom. They were not prepared to tolerate in James, an
alien, many things which they had overlooked in "Good Queen Bess."
JAMES I ON DIVINE RIGHT
One of the most fruitful sources of discord between James and the English
people was his exalted conception of monarchy. The Tudors, indeed, claimed
to rule by divine right, but James went further than they in arguing for
divine _hereditary_ right. Providence, James declared, had chosen the
principle of heredity in order to fix the succession to the throne. This
principle, being divine, lay beyond the power of man to alter. Whether the
king was fit or unfit to rule, Parliament might not change the succession,
depose a sovereign, or limit his authority in any way. James rather neatly
summarized his views in a Latin epigram, _a deo rex, a rege lex_--"the
king is from God and law is from the king."
[Illustration: GOLD COIN OF JAMES I.
The first coin to bear the legend "Great Britain".]
JAMES I AND PARLIAMENT
Naturally enough, the extreme pretensions of James encountered much
opposition from Parliament. That body felt little sympathy for a ruler who
proclaimed himself the source of all law. When James, always extravagant
and a poor financier, came before it for money, Parliament insisted on its
right to withhold supplies until grievances were redressed. James would
not yield, and got along as best he could by levying customs duties,
selling titles of nobility, and imposing excessive fines, in spite of the
protests of Parliament. This situation continued to the end of the king's
reign.
JAMES I AND PURITANISM
A religious controversy helped to embitter the dispute between James and
Parliament. The king, who was Puritanism a devout Anglican, made himself
very unpopular with the Puritans, as the reformers within the Church of
England were called. The Puritans had no intention of separating from the
national or established Church, but they wished to "purify" it of certain
customs which they described as "Romish" or "papist." Among these were the
use of the surplice, of the ring in the marriage service, and of the sign
of the cross in baptism. Some Puritans wanted to get rid of the _Book of
Common Prayer_ altogether. The Puritans were distinguished by their
austere lives. They looked with disfavor on May Day and Christmas
festivities, observed the Jewish Sabbath in all its rigor, and condemned
the Anglicans who played games and danced upon the village green on
Sundays. As the Puritans had a large majority in the House of Commons, it
was inevitable that the parliamentary struggle against Stuart absolutism
would assume in part a religious character.
[Illustration: A PURITAN FAMILY
Illustration in an edition of the _Psalms_ published in 1563 A.D.]
CHARLES I, KING, 1625-1649 A.D.
The political and religious difficulties which marked the reign of James I
did not disappear when his son, Charles I, came to the throne. Charles was
a true Stuart in his devotion to absolutism and divine right. Almost
immediately he began to quarrel with Parliament. When that body withheld
supplies, Charles resorted to forced loans from the wealthy and even
imprisoned a number of persons who refused to contribute. Such arbitrary
acts showed plainly that Charles would play the tyrant if he could.
PETITION OF RIGHT, 1628 A.D.
The king's attitude at last led Parliament to a bold assertion of its
authority. It now presented to Charles the celebrated Petition of Right.
One of the most important clauses provided that forced loans without
parliamentary sanction should be considered illegal. Another clause
declared that no one should be arrested or imprisoned except according to
the law of the land. The Petition thus repeated and reinforced two of the
leading principles of Magna Carta. [20] The people of England, speaking
this time through their elected representatives, asserted once more their
right to limit the power of kings.
PERSONAL RULE OF CHARLES I, 1629-1640 A.D.
Charles signed the Petition, as the only means of securing parliamentary
consent to taxation; but he had no intention of observing it. For the next
eleven years he managed to govern without calling Parliament in session.
The conduct of affairs during this period lay largely in the hands of Sir
Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, and William Laud, who
later became archbishop of Canterbury. The king made these two men his
principal advisers and through them carried on his despotic rule.
Arbitrary courts, which tried cases without a jury, punished those who
resisted the royal will. A rigid censorship of the press prevented any
expression of popular discontent. Public meetings were suppressed as
seditious riots. Even private gatherings were dangerous, for the king had
swarms of spies to report any disloyal acts or utterances.
JOHN HAMPDEN AND "SHIP-MONEY"
Since Charles ruled without a Parliament, he had to adopt all sorts of
devices to fill his treasury. One of these was the levying of "ship-
money." According to an old custom, seaboard towns and counties had been
required to provide ships or money for the royal navy. Charles revived
this custom and extended it to towns and counties lying inland. It seemed
clear that the king meant to impose a permanent tax on all England without
the assent of Parliament. The demand for "ship-money" aroused much
opposition, and John Hampden, a wealthy squire of Buckinghamshire, refused
to pay the twenty shillings levied on his estate. Hampden was tried before
a court of the royal judges and was convicted by a bare majority. He
became, however, the hero of the hour. The England people recognized in
him one who had dared, for the sake of principle, to protest against the
king's despotic rule.
[Illustration: CHARLES I
A painting by Daniel Mytens in the National Portrait Gallery. London]
LAUD'S ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY
Archbishop Laud, the king's chief agent in ecclesiastical matters,
detested Puritanism and aimed to root it out from the Church of England.
He put no Puritans to death, but he sanctioned cruel punishments of those
who would not conform to the established Church. All that the dungeon and
the pillory, mutilation and loss of position, could do to break their will
was done. While the restrictions on Puritans were increased, those
affecting Roman Catholics were relaxed. Many people thought that Charles,
through Laud and the bishops, was preparing to lead the Church of England
back to Rome. They therefore opposed the king on religious grounds, as
well as for political reasons.
[Illustration: EXECUTION OF THE EARL OF STRAFFORD
After a contemporary print. The Tower of London is seen in the
background.]
THE LONG PARLIAMENT, 1640 A.D.
But the personal rule of Charles was now drawing to an end. In 1637 A.D.
the king, supported by Archbishop Laud, tried The Long to introduce a
modified form of the English prayer book into Scotland. The Scotch,
Presbyterian [21] to the core, drew up a national oath, or Covenant, by
which they bound themselves to resist any attempt to change their
religion. Rebellion quickly passed into open war, and the Covenanters
invaded northern England. Charles, helpless, with a seditious army and an
empty treasury, had to summon Parliament in session. It met in 1640 A.D.
and did not formally dissolve till twenty years later. Hence it has
received the name of the Long Parliament.
[Illustration: Map, ENGLAND AND WALES--THE CIVIL WARS OF THE 17TH CENTURY]
REFORMS OF THE LONG PARLIAMENT
The Long Parliament no sooner assembled than it assumed the conduct of
government. The leaders, including John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver
Cromwell, openly declared that the House of Commons, and not the king,
possessed supreme authority in the state. Parliament began by executing
Strafford and subsequently Laud, thus emphasizing the responsibility of
ministers to Parliament. Next, it abolished Star Chamber and other special
courts, which had become engines of royal oppression. It forbade the
levying of "ship-money" and other irregular taxes. It took away the king's
right of dissolving Parliament at his pleasure and ordered that at least
one parliamentary session should be held every three years. These measures
stripped the crown of the despotic powers acquired by the Tudors and the
Stuarts.
246. OLIVER CROMWELL AND THE CIVIL WAR, 1642-1649 A.D.
OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT REBELLION, 1642 A.D.
Thus far, the Long Parliament had acted along the line of reformation
rather than revolution. Had Charles been content to accept the new
arrangements, there would have been little more trouble. But the proud and
imperious king was only watching his chance to strike a blow at
Parliament. Taking advantage of some differences in opinion among its
members, Charles summoned his soldiers, marched to Westminister, and
demanded the surrender of five leaders, including Pym and Hampden. Warned
in time, they made their escape, and Charles did not find them in the
chamber of the Commons. "Well, I see all the birds are flown," he
exclaimed, and walked out baffled. The king's attempt to intimidate the
Commons was a great blunder. It showed beyond doubt that he would resort
to force, rather than bend his neck to Parliament. Both Charles and
Parliament now began to gather troops and prepare for the inevitable
conflict.
"CAVALIERS" AND "ROUND-HEADS"
The opposing parties seemed to be very evenly matched. Around the king
rallied nearly all of the nobles, the Anglican clergy, the Roman
Catholics, a majority of the "squires," or country gentry, and the members
of the universities. The royalists received the name of "Cavaliers." The
parliamentarians, or "Roundheads," [22] were mostly recruited from the
trading classes in the towns and the small landowners in the country. The
working people remained as a rule indifferent and took little part in the
struggle.
[Illustration: OLIVER CROMWELL
A painting by Robert Walker, in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
OLIVER CROMWELL, 1599-1658 A.D.
Both Pym and Hampden died in the second year of the war, and henceforth
the leadership of the parliamentary party fell to Oliver Cromwell. He was
a country gentleman from the east of England, and Hampden's cousin.
Cromwell represented the university of Cambridge in the Long Parliament
and displayed there great audacity in opposing the government. An
unfriendly critic at this time describes "his countenance swollen and
reddish, his voice sharp and untuneable, and his eloquence full of
fervor." Though a zealous Puritan, who believed himself in all sincerity
to be the chosen agent of the Lord, Cromwell was not an ascetic. He
hunted, hawked, played bowls, and other games, had an ear for music, and
valued art and learning. In public life he showed himself a statesman of
much insight and a military genius.
THE "IRONSIDES" AND THE "NEW MODEL"
At the outset of the war fortune favored the royalists, until Cromwell
took the field. To him was due the formation of a cavalry regiment of
"honest, sober Christians," whose watchwords were texts from Scripture and
who charged in battle while singing psalms. These "Ironsides," as Cromwell
said, "had the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what
they did." They were so successful that Parliament permitted Cromwell to
reorganize a large part of the army into the "New Model," a body of
professional, highly disciplined soldiers. The "New Model" defeated
Charles decisively at the battle of Naseby, near the center of England
(1645 A.D.). Charles then surrendered to the Scotch, who soon turned him
over to Parliament.
PRESYBTERIANS AND INDEPENDENTS
The surrender of the king ended the Great Rebellion, but left the
political situation in doubt. By this time the Puritans had divided into
two rival parties. The Presbyterians wished to make the Church of England,
like that of Scotland, Presbyterian in faith and worship. Through their
control of Parliament, they were able to pass acts doing away with
bishops, forbidding the use of the _Book of Common Prayer_, and requiring
every one to accept Presbyterian doctrines. The other Puritan party, known
as the Independents, [23] felt that religious beliefs should not be a
matter of compulsion. They rejected both Anglicanism and Presbyterianism
and desired to set up churches of their own, where they might worship as
seemed to them right. The Independents had the powerful backing of
Cromwell and the "New Model," so that the stage was set for a quarrel
between Parliament and the army.
"PRIDE'S PURGE," 1648 A.D.
King Charles, though a prisoner in the hands of his enemies, hoped to find
profit in their divisions. The Presbyterian majority in the House of
Commons was willing to restore the king, provided he would give his assent
to the establishment of Presbyterianism in England. But the army wanted no
reconciliation with the captive monarch and at length took matters into
its own hand. A party of soldiers, under the command of a Colonel Pride,
excluded the Presbyterian members from the floor of the House, leaving the
Independents alone to conduct the government. This action is known as
"Pride's Purge." Cromwell approved of it, and from this time he became the
real ruler of England.
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF WESTMINSTER HALL
Next to the Tower and the Abbey Westminster Hall adjoining the Houses of
Parliament, is the most historic building in London. The hall was begun by
William Rufus in 1097 A.D. and was enlarged by his successors. Richard II
in 1397 A.D. added the great oak roof, which has lasted to this day Here
were held the trials of Stafford and Charles I.]
EXECUTION OF CHARLES I, 1649 A.D.
The "Rump Parliament," as the remnant of the House of Commons was called,
immediately brought the king before a High Court of Justice composed of
his bitterest enemies. He refused to acknowledge the right of the court to
try him and made no defense whatever. Charles was speedily convicted and
sentenced to be beheaded, "as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public
enemy to the good of the people." He met death with quiet dignity and
courage on a scaffold erected in front of Whitehall Palace in London. The
king's execution went far beyond the wishes of most Englishmen; "cruel
necessity" formed its only justification; but it established once for all
in England the principle that rulers are responsible to their subjects.
247. THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE, 1649-1660 A.D.
ENGLAND A REPUBLIC
Shortly after the execution of Charles I the "Rump Parliament" abolished
the House of Lords and the office of king. It named a Council of State,
most of whose members were chosen from the House of Commons, to carry on
the government. England now became a commonwealth, or national republic,
the first in the history of the world. It is clear that this republic was
the creation of a minority. The Anglicans, the Presbyterians, and the
Roman Catholics were willing to restore the monarchy, but as long as the
power lay with the army, the small sect of Independents could impose its
will on the great majority of the English people.
SUBJECTION OF IRELAND
Besides confusion and discontent at home, many dangers confronted the
Commonwealth abroad. In both Ireland and Scotland Prince Charles, the
oldest son of the dead sovereign, had been proclaimed king. But Cromwell
rose to the emergency. Invading Ireland with his trained soldiers, he
captured town after town, slaughtered many royalists, and shipped many
more to the West Indies as slaves. This time Ireland was completely
subdued, at a cost, from fighting, famine, and pestilence, of the lives of
a third of its population. Cromwell confiscated the land of those who had
supported the royalist cause and planted colonies of English Protestants
in Ulster, Leinster, and Munster. The Roman Catholic gentry were compelled
to remove beyond the Shannon River to unfruitful Connaught. Even there the
public exercise of their religion was forbidden them. Cromwell's harsh
measures brought peace to Ireland, but only intensified the hatred felt by
Irish Roman Catholics for Protestant England. [24]
SCOTLAND SUBDUED
While Cromwell was still in Ireland, Prince Charles, who had been living
as an exile at the French court, came to Scotland. On his promise to be a
Presbyterian king the whole nation agreed to support him. Cromwell, in two
pitched battles, broke up the Scotch armies and compelled Prince Charles
to seek safety in flight. After thrilling adventures the prince managed to
reach his asylum in France. Cromwell treated the Scotch with leniency, but
took away their Parliament and united their country with England in a
single state.
[Illustration: Map, IRELAND In the 16th Century]
DISSOLUTION OF THE "RUMP PARLIAMENT," 1653 A.D.
Meanwhile, the "Rump Parliament" had become more and more unpopular. The
army, which had saved England from Stuart despotism, did not relish the
spectacle of a small group of men, many of them selfish and corrupt,
presuming to govern the country Cromwell found them "horridly arbitrary"
and at last resolved to have done with them. He entered the House of
Commons with a band of musketeers and ordered the members home. "Come,
come," he cried, "I will put an end to your prating. You are no
Parliament, I say you are no Parliament. I will put an end to your
sitting." Another Parliament, chosen by Cromwell and the army, proved
equally incapable. After a few months' rule it resigned its authority into
the hands of Cromwell.
[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF ENGLAND UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH (REDUCED)
The reverse represents the House of Commons in session.]
THE INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT
By force of circumstances Cromwell had become a virtual dictator, but he
had no love of absolute power. He therefore accepted a so-called
Instrument of Government, drawn up by some of his officers. It provided
that Cromwell should be Lord Protector for life, with the assistance of a
council and a Parliament. The Instrument is notable as the first written
constitution of a modern nation. It is the only one which England has ever
had.
CROMWELL AS LORD PROTECTOR, 1653-1658 A.D.
As Lord Protector in name, though a king in fact, Cromwell ruled England
for five years. He got along with Parliament no better than the Stuarts
had done, but his successful conduct of foreign affairs gave England an
importance in the councils of Europe which it had not enjoyed since the
time of Elizabeth. Cromwell died in 1658 A.D. Two years later the nation,
weary of military rule, restored Charles II to the throne of his
ancestors.
THE PURITAN REVOLUTION
It seemed, indeed, as if the Puritan Revolution had been a complete
failure. But this was hardly true. The revolution arrested the growth of
absolutism in England. It created among Englishmen a lasting hostility to
absolute power, whether exercised by King, Parliament, Protector, or army.
And, furthermore, it sent forth into the world ideas of political liberty,
which, during the eighteenth century, helped to produce the American and
French revolutions.
248. THE RESTORATION AND THE "GLORIOUS REVOLUTION," 1660-1689 A.D.
REIGN OF CHARLES II, 1660-1685 A.D.
Charles II, on mounting the throne, pledged himself to maintain Magna
Carta, the Petition of Right, and other statutes limiting the royal power.
The people of England wished to be governed by the king, but they also
wished that the king should govern by the advice of Parliament. Charles,
less obstinate and more astute than his father, recognized this fact, and,
when a conflict threatened with his ministers or Parliament, always
avoided it by timely concessions. Whatever happened, he used to say, he
was resolved "never to set on his travels again." Charles's charm of
manner, wit, and genial humor made him a popular monarch, in spite of his
grave faults of character. One of his own courtiers well described him as
a king who "never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one."
REACTION AGAINST PURITANISM
The period of the Restoration was characterized by a reaction against the
austere scheme of life which the Puritans had imposed on society.
Puritanism not only deprived the people of evil pleasures, such as bear-
baiting, Cock-fighting, and tippling, but it also prohibited the Sunday
dances and games, the village festivals, and the popular drama. When
Puritanism disappeared, the people went to the opposite extreme and cast
off all restraint. In this the king, who had lived long at the gay court
of Louis XIV, set the example. England was nevermore merry and never less
moral than under its "Merry Monarch."
[Illustration: BOYS' SPORTS
From a book of 1659 A.D.]
THE DISSENTERS
The Restoration brought back the Church of England, together with the
Stuarts. Parliament, more intolerant than the king, passed an Act of
Uniformity, which made the use of the _Book of Common Prayer_ compulsory
and required all ministers to express their consent to everything
contained in it. Nearly two thousand clergymen resigned their positions
rather than obey the act. Among them were found Presbyterians,
Independents (or Congregationalists), Baptists, and Quakers. These
Puritans, since they did not accept the national Church, were henceforth
classed as Dissenters. [25] They might not hold meetings for worship, or
teach in schools, or accept any public office. For many years the
Dissenters had to endure harsh persecution.
HABEAS CORPUS ACT, 1679 A.D.
One of the most important events belonging to the reign of Charles II was
the passage by Parliament of the Habeas Corpus Act. The writ of _habeas
corpus_ [26] is an order, issued by a judge, requiring a person held in
custody to be brought before the court. If upon examination there appears
to be good reason for keeping the prisoner, he is to be remanded for
trial; otherwise he is to be freed or released on bail. This writ had been
long used in England, and one of the clauses of Magna Carta expressly
provided against arbitrary imprisonment. It had always been possible,
however, for the king or his ministers to order the arrest of a person
considered dangerous to the state, without making any formal charge
against him. The Habeas Corpus Act established the principle that every
man, not charged with or convicted of a known crime, is entitled to
personal freedom. Most of the British possessions where the Common law
prevails have accepted the act, and it has been adopted by the federal and
state legislatures of the United States.
[Illustration: SILVER CROWN OF CHARLES II]
WHIGS AND TORIES
The reign of Charles II also saw the beginning of the modern party system
in Parliament. Two opposing parties took shape, very largely out of a
religious controversy. The king, from his long life in France, had become
partial to Roman Catholicism, though he did not formally embrace that
faith until at the moment of death. His brother James, the heir to the
throne, became an open Roman Catholic, however, much to the disgust of
many members of Parliament. A bill was now brought forward to exclude
Prince James from the succession, because of his conversion. Its
supporters received the nickname of Whigs, while those who opposed it were
called Tories. [27] The bill did not pass the House of Lords, but the two
parties in Parliament continued to divide on other questions. They survive
to-day as the Liberals and the Conservatives, and still dispute the
government of England between them.
REIGN OF JAMES II, 1685-1688 A.D.
James II was without the attractive personality which had made his brother
a popular ruler; moreover, he was an avowed Roman Catholic and a staunch
believer in the divine right of kings. During his three years' reign,
James managed to make enemies of most of his Protestant subjects. He
"suspended" the laws against Roman Catholics and appointed them to
positions of authority and influence. James also dismissed Parliament and
supported himself with subsidies from Louis XIV. At last a number of Whig
and Tory leaders, representing both parties in Parliament, invited that
sturdy Protestant, William of Orange, [28] to rescue England from Stuart
absolutism.
ACCESSION OF WILLIAM AND MARY, 1689 A.D.
William landed in England with a small army and marched unopposed to
London. The wretched king, deserted by his courtiers and his soldiers,
soon found himself Harness alone. He fled to France, where he lived the
remainder of his days as a pensioner at the court of Louis XIV. Parliament
granted the throne conjointly to William and Mary, William to rule during
his lifetime and Mary to have the succession, should she survive him.
THE BILL OF RIGHTS
In settling the crown on William and Mary, Parliament took care to
safeguard its own authority and the of Protestant religion. It enacted the
Bill of Rights, which has a place by the side of Magna Carta and the
Petition of Right among the great documents of English constitutional
history. This act decreed that the sovereign must henceforth be a member
of the Anglican Church. It forbade the sovereign to "suspend" the
operation of the laws, or to levy money or maintain a standing army except
by consent of Parliament. It also declared that election of members of
Parliament ought to be free; that they ought to enjoy freedom of speech
and action within the two Houses; and that excessive bail ought not to be
required, or excessive fines imposed, or cruel and unusual punishments
inflicted. Finally, it affirmed the right of subjects to petition the
sovereign and ordered the holding of frequent Parliaments. These were not
new principles of political liberty, but now the English people were
strong enough not only to assert, but also to uphold them. They reappear
in the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States.
THE TOLERATION ACT
At this time, also, England took an important step in the direction of
religious liberty. Parliament passed a Toleration Act, conceding to the
Dissenters the right of worship, though not the right of holding any civil
or military office. The Dissenters might now serve their God as they
pleased, without fear of persecution. Unitarians and Roman Catholics, as
well as Jews, were expressly excluded from the benefits of the act. The
passage of this measure did much to remove religion from English politics
as a vital issue.
THE "GLORIOUS REVOLUTION"
The revolution of 1688-89 A.D. thus struck a final blow at absolutism and
divine right in England. An English king became henceforth the servant of
Parliament, holding office only on good behavior. An act of Parliament had
made him and an act of Parliament might depose him. It is well to
remember, however, that the revolution was not a popular movement. It was
a successful struggle for parliamentary supremacy on the part of the upper
and middle classes--the nobles, squires, merchants, and clergy. England
now had a "limited" or "constitutional" monarchy controlled by the
aristocracy. Not till the nineteenth century did the common people succeed
in establishing a really democratic government in England.
249. ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
SOCIAL ENGLAND
The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century exceeded
five millions, of whom at least two-thirds lived in the country. Except
for London there were only four towns of more than ten thousand
inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its limits and
had become the largest city in Europe. Town life still wore a medieval
look, but the increase of wealth gradually introduced many new comforts
and luxuries. Coal came into use instead of charcoal; tea, coffee, and
chocolate competed with wine, ale, and beer as beverages; the first
newspapers appeared, generally in weekly editions; amusements multiplied;
and passenger coaches began to ply between London and the provincial
centers. The highways, however, were wretched and infested with robbers.
The traveler found some recompense for the hardships of a journey in the
country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The transport of
goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because of the poor roads and
the absence of canals. Postal arrangements also remained very primitive,
and in remote country districts letters were not delivered more than once
a week. The difficulties of travel and communication naturally made for
isolation; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited the
metropolis.
[Illustration: A LONDON BELLMAN
Title-page of a tract published in 1616 A.D. It was part of the duties of
a bellman, or night-watchman, to call out the hours, the state of the
weather, and other information as he passed by.]
ECONOMIC ENGLAND
As the population of England increased, old industries developed and new
ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was that of wool, while that of silk
flourished after the influx of Huguenots which followed the revocation
[29] of the Edict of Nantes. The absence of large textile mills made it
necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in the homes of the operatives.
The vast mineral deposits, which in later times became the main source of
England's prosperity, were then little worked. Farming and the raising of
sheep and cattle still remained the principal occupations. But agriculture
was retarded by the old system of common tillage and open fields, just as
industry was fettered by the trade monopoly of the craft guilds. These
survivals of the Middle Ages had not yet disappeared.
[Illustration: COACH AND SEDAN CHAIR
Title-page of a tract published in 1636 A.D.]
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
The seventeenth century in England saw a notable advance in science. At
this time Harvey revealed the circulation of the blood. [30] Napier, a
Scotchman, invented logarithms, which lie at the basis of the higher
mathematics. Boyle, an Irishman, has been called the "father of modern
chemistry," so many were his researches in that field of knowledge. Far
greater than any of these men was Sir Isaac Newton, who discovered the law
of gravitation and the differential calculus. During the Civil War a group
of students interested in the natural world began to hold meetings in
London and Oxford, and shortly after the Restoration they obtained a
charter under the name of the Royal Society. It still exists and enrolls
among its members the most distinguished scientists of England. The Royal
Observatory at Greenwich also dates from the period of the Restoration.
Altogether much was being done to uncover the secrets of nature.
[Illustration: DEATH MASK OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON.
In the possession of the Royal Society of London.]
PROGRESS OF ART
Seventeenth century England produced no very eminent painters or
sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and Van Dyck, were
welcomed there. Among architects the most famous was Sir Christopher Wren,
who did much to popularize the Renaissance style of building. [31] A great
fire which destroyed most of old London during the reign of Charles II
gave Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty parish churches, as well
as St. Paul's Cathedral. His tomb in the crypt of the cathedral bears the
famous inscription: _Si monumentum requieris, circumspice_: "If you seek
his monument, look around you."
LITERATURE
English literature in the seventeenth century covered many fields.
Shakespeare and Bacon, the two chief literary ornaments of the Elizabethan
Age, did some of their best work during the reign of James I. In 1611 A.D.
appeared the Authorized Version of the Bible, sometimes called the King
James Version because it was dedicated to that monarch. The simplicity,
dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never been excelled, and
it still remains in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the English-
speaking world. [32] The Puritan poet, John Milton, composed his epic of
_Paradise Lost_ during the reign of Charles II. About the same time
another Puritan, John Bunyan, wrote the immortal _Pilgrim's Progress_, a
book which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and
adults, to the ignorant and the learned. But these are only a few of the
eminent poets and prose writers of the age.
POSITION OF ENGLAND
Thus, aside from its political importance, the seventeenth century formed
a noteworthy period in English history. England until this time had been,
on the whole, a follower rather than a leader of Europe. The defeat of the
Spanish Armada, the overthrow of Stuart absolutism, and the check
administered to the aggressive designs of Louis XIV were so many
indications that England had risen to a place of first importance in
European affairs. During this century, too, the American colonies of
England began to lay the basis for Anglo-Saxon predominance in the New
World.
STUDIES
1. Give dates for (a) Peace of Utrecht, (b) execution of Charles I, (c)
the "Glorious Revolution," and (d) revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
2. For what were the following men notable: Pym; Bossuet; duke of
Marlborough; Louvois; Hampden; Mazarin; William III; and Colbert?
3. Explain and illustrate the following terms: (a) balance of power; (b)
budget system; (c) absolutism; (d) writ of _habeas corpus_; (e)
militarism; (f) "ship money," and (g) Star Chamber.
4. Compare the theory of the divine right of kings with the medieval
theory of the papal supremacy.
5. In what European countries do kings still rule by divine right?
6. What is the essential distinction between a "limited" or
"constitutional" monarchy and an "absolute" or "autocratic" monarchy?
7. Why is it very desirable for the United States to adopt the budget
system?
8. After what French king was Louisiana named?
9. Why did the French language in the seventeenth century become the
language of fashion and diplomacy? Is this still the case?
10. "The age of Louis XIV in France is worthy to stand by the side of the
age of Pericles in Greece and of Augustus in Italy." Does this statement
appear to be justified?
11. How does the preservation of the balance of power help to explain the
Great European War?
12. By reference to the map on page 699 show how far the "natural
boundaries" of France were attained during the reign of Louis XIV.
13. How did the condition of Germany after 1648 A.D. facilitate the
efforts of Louis XIV to extend the French frontiers to the Rhine?
14. Show that in the Peace of Utrecht nearly all the contestants profited
at the expense of Spain.
15. Explain: "Rump Parliament"; "Pride's Purge"; the "New Model"; the
"Ironsides"; "Cavalier"; and "Roundhead."
16. What circumstances gave rise to (a) the Petition of Right; (b) the
Institute of Government; (c) the Habeas Corpus Act; and (d) the Bill of
Rights?
17. Why were the reformers within the Church of England called "Puritans"?
18. Contrast the Commonwealth as a national republic with the Athenian and
Roman city-states, the medieval Italian cities, the Swiss Confederation,
and the United Netherlands.
19. Under what circumstances does the Constitution of the United States
provide for the suspension of the writ of _habeas corpus_?
20. Why has the Bill of Rights been called the "third great charter of
English liberty"?
21. Show that the revolution of 1688 A.D. was a "preserving" and not a
"destroying" revolution.
22. How did the revolution of 1688 A.D. affect the fortunes of Louis XIV?
23. Why did it prove more difficult to establish a despotic monarchy in
England than in France during the seventeenth century?
24. What is the present population of England? of "Greater London?"
FOOTNOTES
[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter xxv,
"Characters and Episodes of the Great Rebellion"; chapter xxvi, "Oliver
Cromwell"; chapter xxvii, "English Life and Manners under the
Restoration"; chapter xxviii, "Louis XIV and his Court."
[2] _Hamlet_, iv, Y,123.
[3] _King Richard the Second_, in, ii, 54-57.
[4] _Politics as derived from the Very Words of the Holy Scriptures_. This
work was prepared for the use of the young son of Louis XIV, the French
king.
[5] See pages 682, 684.
[6] "_L'État, c'est moi._"
[7] See page 514, 515.
[8] See page 681.
[9] See page 597, note 4.
[10] See page 601.
[11] See page 573.
[12] In America the war was known as "King William's War."
[13] In 1689 A.D. he ascended the English throne as William III. See page
720.
[14] In America the war was known as "Queen Anne's War."
[15] See page 315, note 2
[16] His great-grandson, then a child of five years. The reign of Louis XV
covered the period 1715-1774 A.D.
[17] See pages 518-519, 658, 675-676.
[18] See page 507.
[19] See page 511, note 1, 676 and note 1.
[20] See page 505.
[21] See page 657, 664, note 1, 676.
[22] So called, because some of them wore closely cropped hair, in
contrast to the flowing locks of the "Cavaliers."
[23] Also called Separatists, and later known as Congregationalists.
[24] See pages 511, 676.
[25] Or Noncomformists. This name is still applied to English Protestants
not members of the Anglican Church.
[26] A Latin phrase meaning "You may have the body."
[27] Whig had originally been applied to rebellious Presbyterians in
Scotland; Tory had designated Roman Catholic outlaws in Ireland.
[28] See page 701. William had married James's eldest daughter, Mary.
[29] See page 696.
[30] See page 609.
[31] See page 597.
[32] Many important corrections were embodied in the Revised Version,
published in 1881-1885 A.D. by a committee of English scholars.
APPENDIX
TABLE OF EVENTS AND DATES
Before 1000 B.C., and in some instances even later, nearly all dates must
be regarded as merely approximate.
(Specially important dates are in italics)
THE ORIENT
B.C.
3400 _Menes, king of Egypt_
3000-2500 The pyramid kings
2000 _Hammurabi, king of Babylonia_
1800-1600 Rule of the Hyksos in Egypt
1292-1225 Rameses II, king of Egypt
1035-925 The undivided Hebrew monarchy
Saul, 1035-1015
David, 985-955
Solomon, 955-925
925-722 Kingdom of Israel
925-586 Kingdom of Judea
722-705 Sargon II, king of Assyria
705-681 Sennacherib, king of Assyria
606 _Destruction of Nineveh_
604-561 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia
553-465 Persian kings
Cyrus the Great, 553-529
Cambyses, 529-522
Darius I, 521-485
Xerxes I, 485-465
539 _Capture of Babylon by Cyrus the Great_
GREECE
B.C.
1600-1100 The Aegean Age
1100-750 Homeric Age
776 _First recorded Olympiad_
750-500 Period of colonial expansion
594-593 Reforms of Solon
560-527 Tyranny of Pisistratus
508-507 Reforms of Clisthenes
499-493 Ionian Revolt
490 _Battle of Marathon_
480 _Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis_
479 _Battles of Plataea and Mycale_
477-454 Delian League
461-429 Age of Pericles
431-404 _The Peloponnesian War_
404-371 Spartan supremacy
401-400 _Expedition of the "Ten Thousand"_
371-362 Supremacy of Thebes
371 _Battle of Leuctra_
362 Battle of Mantinea
359-336 Philip II, king of Macedonia
338 _Battle of Chaeronea_
336-323 Reign of Alexander the Great
335 Destruction of Thebes
334 Battle of the Granicus
333 Battle of Issus
332 Siege of Tyre; founding of Alexandria
331 _Battle of Arbela_
323 _Death of Alexander_
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
B.C.
753(?) _Founding of Rome_
753(?)-509(?) Legendary Roman kings
509(?) Establishment of the republic
449 Laws of the Twelve Tables
390(?) _Battle of the Allia; capture of Rome by the
Gauls_
340-338 Latin War; dissolution of the Latin League
327-290 Samnite Wars
281-272 War between Rome and Tarentum; invasion of Pyrrhus
264-241 _First Punic War_
218-201 _Second Punic War_
216 Battle of Cannae
202 _Battle of Zama_
201 Peace between Rome and Carthage
197 Macedonia becomes a dependent ally of Rome
190 Syria becomes a dependent ally of Rome
149-146 Third Punic War
146 _Destruction of Carthage and Corinth; Africa and
Macedonia become Roman provinces_
133 Acquisition of the province of Asia; final
subjugation of Spain
133 Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus
123-122 Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus
112-106 Jugurthine War
102-101 Invasion of the Germans
90-88 The Social War
88-84 War with Mithridates
83-82 Civil War between Marius and Sulla
82-79 Dictatorship of Sulla
70 Impeachment of Verres
67 Pompey and the war with the pirates
63 _Conspiracy of Catiline_
60-53 First Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar
58-50 Conquest of Gaul by Caesar
53 Defeat of Crassus by the Parthians at Carrhae
48 Battle of Pharsalus
44 _Assassination of Caesar_
43 Second Triumvirate: Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian
42 Battles of Philippi
31 _Battle of Actium_
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
31 B.C.-68 A.D. The Julian and Claudian Caesars
Augustus, 31 B.C.-I4 A.D.
Tiberius, 14-37
Gaius (Caligula), 37-41
Claudius, 41-54
Nero 54-68
27 Octavian receives the title _Augustus_
4(?) Birth of Christ
A.D.
43-85 Conquest of Britain
64 The Great Fire in Rome; Nero's persecution of the
Christians
68-69 The year of military revolution; Galba, Otho, and
Vitellius emperors
69-96 The Flavian Caesars
Vespasian, 69-79
Titus, 79-81
Domitian, 81-96
70 Capture of Jerusalem by Titus
79 _Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum_
96-180 The "Good Emperors"
Nerva, 96-98
Trajan, 98-117
Hadrian, 117-138
Antoninus Pius, 138-161
Marcus Aurelius, 161-180
101-106 Conquest of Dacia by Trajan
180-284 The "Soldier Emperors"
Commodus, 180-192
Septimius Severus, 193-211
Aurelian, 270-275
212 _Edict of Caracalla_
227 Rise of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire
284 _Reorganization of the Roman Empire by Diocletian_
284-395 The "Absolute Emperors"
/Diocletian, 284-305
\Maximian, 286-305
Constantine I, 306-337
(sole emperor, 324-337)
Julian, 361-363
Theodosius I (East), 379-395
311 Edict of Galerius
312 Battle of the Milvian Bridge
313 _Edict of Milan_
325 _Council of Nicaea_
326 330 Removal of the capital to Constantinople
376 The Visigoths cross the Danube
378 Battle of Adrianople
395 _Death of Theodosius I_
410 _Capture of Rome by Alaric_
415-711 Visigothic kingdom in Spain (in Gaul, 415-507)
429-534 Vandal kingdom in Africa
443-534 Kingdom of the Burgundians
449 Invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons
451 _Battle of Châlons_
455 Sack of Rome by the Vandals
476 _Deposition of Romulus Angustulus_
THE MIDDLE AGES
486 Clovis defeats the Romans at Soissons
493-553 Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy
496 _Clovis accepts Christianity_
527-565 Justinian, Roman emperor in the East
529(?) Rule of St. Benedict
568-774 Lombards in Italy
590-604 Pontificate of Gregory the Great
597 Augustine's mission to the Anglo-Saxons
610-641 Heraclius, Roman emperor in the East
622 _The Hegira_
632-661 The "Orthodox Caliphs"
661-750 The Ommiad Caliphs
711 Arabs and Berbers invade Spain
716-717 Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs
732 _Battle of Tours_
750-1058 The Abbassid Caliphs
768-814 Reign of Charlemagne
800 _Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans_
829 England united under Egbert
843 Treaty of Verdun
862(?) Northmen under Ruric settle in Russia
870 Treaty of Mersen
871-901(?) Reign of Alfred the Great
911 Northmen settle in northwestern France (Normandy)
962 _Otto the Great crowned Holy Roman Emperor_
982 Greenland discovered
987-996 Reign of Hugh Capet
988 Christianity introduced into Russia
1000(?) Vinland discovered
1016 England conquered by Canute
1054 Final rupture of Greek and Roman churches
1066 _Battle of Hastings; Norman conquest of England_
1066-1087 William I, the Conqueror, king of England
1073-1085 Pontificate of Gregory VII
1077 Humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa
1090-1153 St. Bernard
1095-1291 The Crusades
1095 _Council of Clermont_
1099 Capture of Jerusalem
1147-1149 Second Crusade
1189-1192 Third Crusade
1202-1204 Fourth Crusade; sack of Constantinople
1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople
1291 _Fall of Acre; end of the crusades_
1122 Concordat of Worms
1152-1190 Reign of Frederick I, Barbarossa
1154-1189 Henry II, king of England
1180-1223 Philip II, Augustus, king of France
1181(?)-1226 St. Francis of Assisi
1198-1216 Pontificate of Innocent III
1206-1227 Mongol conquests under Jenghiz Khan
1215 _Magna Carta_
1226-1270 Louis IX, the Saint, king of France
1230 Union of Léon and Castile
1237-1240 Mongol conquest of Russia
1254-1273 The Interregnum
1261 Fall of Latin Empire of Constantinople
1271-1295 Travels of Marco Polo
1272-1307 Edward I, king of England
1273 _Rudolf of Hapsburg becomes Holy Roman Emperor_
1285-1314 Philip IV, the Fair, king of France
1291 First Swiss Confederation
1295 "Model Parliament" of Edward I
1309-1377 "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy
1314 Battle of Bannockburn
1337-1453 Hundred Years' War
1346 Battle of Crécy
1356 Battle of Poitiers
1429 Joan of Arc appears
1348-1349 Black Death in Europe
1378-1417 The "Great Schism"
1381 Peasants' Revolt in England
1396 Greek first taught at Florence
1405 Death of Timur the Lame
1415 John Huss burned
TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES
1453 _Constantinople captured by the Ottoman Turks_
1455-1485 War of the Roses
1461-1483 Louis XI, king of France
1462-1505 Ivan III, the Great, tsar of Russia
1476 Caxton's printing press set up in England
1479 Castile and Aragon united under Ferdinand and
Isabella
1485-1509 Henry VII, king of England
1488 Cape of Good Hope rounded by Diaz
1492 _America discovered by Columbus_
1497 North America rediscovered by John Cabot
1498 _Vasco da Gama reaches India_
1513 Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa
1517-1555 Reformation in Germany
1517 _The Ninety-five Theses_
1520 Burning of the papal bull
1521 Edict of Worms
1555 Peace of Augsburg
1519-1521 Mexico conquered by Cortés
1519-1522 Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe
1519-1556 Reign of Charles V
1531-1537 Peru conquered by Pizarro
1533-1558 Reformation in England
1534 Jesuit order founded by Loyola
1545-1563 Council of Trent
1556-1598 Reign of Philip II
1558-1603 Elizabeth, queen of England
1568-1609 Revolt of the Netherlands
1571 Battle of Lepanto
1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew
1579 Union of Utrecht
1588 _Defeat of the Spanish Armada_
1589-1610 Henry IV, king of France
1598 _Edict of Nantes_
1600 English East India Company chartered
1603-1625 Reign of James I
1607 Colonization of Virginia; Jamestown founded
1611 Authorized Version of the Bible
1618-1648 Thirty Years' War
1625-1649 Reign of Charles I
1628 The Petition of Right
1630-1640 Puritan exodus to Massachusetts
1640 Meeting of the Long Parliament
1642-1649 The Great Rebellion
1643-1715 Louis XIV, king of France
1648 _Peace of Westphalia_
1649 Execution of Charles I
1649-1660 The Commonwealth and the Protectorate
1651 First Navigation Act
1660 Restoration of Charles II
1688-1689 _The "Glorious Revolution"_
1692 Salem witchcraft persecution
1702-1713 War of the Spanish Succession
1713 _Peace of Utrecht_
1744-1748 "King George's War"
1754-1763 "French and Indian War"
1763 _Peace of Paris_