WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 476-962 A.D. [1]
102. THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY, 488-553 A.D.
TRANSITION TO THE MIDDLE AGES
We are not to suppose that the settlement of Germans within the Roman
Empire ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, near the close of
the fifth century. The following centuries witnessed fresh invasions and
the establishment of new Germanic states. The study of these troubled
times leads us from the classical world to the world of medieval Europe,
from the history of antiquity to the history of the Middle Ages.
THE OSTROGOTHS UNDER THEODORIC
The kingdom which Odoacer established on Italian soil did not long endure.
It was soon overthrown by the Ostrogoths. At the time of the "fall" of
Rome in 476 A.D. they occupied a district south of the middle Danube,
which the government at Constantinople had hired them to defend. The
Ostrogoths proved to be expensive and dangerous allies. When, therefore,
their chieftain, Theodoric, offered to lead his people into Italy and
against Odoacer, the Roman emperor gladly sanctioned the undertaking.
OSTROGOTHIC INVASION OF ITALY, 488-493 A.D.
Theodoric led the Ostrogoths--women and children as well as warriors--
across the Alps and came down to meet Odoacer and his soldiers in battle.
After suffering several defeats, Odoacer shut himself up in the strong
fortress of Ravenna. Theodoric could not capture the place and at last
agreed to share with Odoacer the government of Italy, if the latter would
surrender. The agreement was never carried into effect. When Theodoric
entered Ravenna, he invited Odoacer to a great feast and at its conclusion
slew him in cold blood. Theodoric had now no rival in Italy.
THEODORIC KING OF ITALY, 493-526 A.D.
Though Theodoric gained the throne by violence and treachery, he soon
showed himself to be, as a ruler, wise, broad-minded, and humane. He had
lived as a youth in the imperial court at Constantinople and there had
become well acquainted with Roman ideas of law and order. Roman
civilization impressed him; and he wished not to destroy but to preserve
it. Theodoric reigned in Italy for thirty-three years, and during this
time the country enjoyed unbroken peace and prosperity.
[Illustration: TOMB OF THEODORIC AT RAVENNA
A two storied marble building erected by Theodoric in imitation of a Roman
tomb. The roof is a single block of marble 33 feet in diameter and
weighing more than 300 tons. Theodoric's body was subsequently removed
from its resting place, and the mausoleum was converted into a church.]
THEODORIC'S RULE IN ITALY.
The enlightened policy of Theodoric was exhibited in many ways. He
governed Ostrogoths and Romans with equal consideration. He kept all the
old offices, such as the senatorship and the consulate, and by preference
filled them with men of Roman birth. His chief counselors were Romans. A
legal code, which he drew up for the use of Ostrogoths and Romans alike,
contained only selections from Roman law. He was remarkably tolerant and,
in spite of the fact that the Ostrogoths were Arians, [2] was always ready
to extend protection to Catholic Christians. Theodoric patronized
literature and gave high positions to Roman writers. He restored the
cities of Italy, had the roads and aqueducts repaired, and so improved the
condition of agriculture that Italy, from a wheat-importing, became a
wheat-exporting, country. At Ravenna, the Ostrogothic capital, Theodoric
erected many notable buildings, including a palace, a mausoleum, and
several churches. The remains of these structures are still to be seen.
THEODORIC'S FOREIGN POLICY
The influence of Theodoric reached far beyond Italy. He allied himself by
marriage with most of the Germanic rulers of the West. His second wife was
a Frankish foreign princess, his sister was the wife of a Vandal
chieftain, one of his daughters married a king of the Visigoths, and
another daughter wedded a Burgundian king. Theodoric by these alliances
brought about friendly relations between the various barbarian peoples. It
seemed, in fact, as if the Roman dominions in the West might again be
united under a single ruler; as if the Ostrogoths might be the Germanic
people to carry on the civilizing work of Rome. But no such good fortune
was in store for Europe.
END OF THE OSTROGOTHIC KINGDOM, 553 A.D.
Theodoric died in 526 A.D. The year after his death, a great emperor,
Justinian, came to the throne at Constantinople. Justinian had no
intention of abandoning to the Ostrogothic Germans the rich provinces of
Sicily and Italy. Although the Ostrogoths made a stubborn resistance to
his armies, in the end they were so completely overcome that they agreed
to withdraw from the Italian peninsula. The feeble remnant of their nation
filed sadly through the passes of the Alps and, mingling with other
barbarian tribes, disappeared from history.
103. THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY, 568-774 A.D.
INVASION OF ITALY BY THE LOMBARDS
The destruction of the Ostrogothic kingdom did not free Italy of the
Germans. Soon after Justinian's death the country was again overrun, this
time by the Lombards. The name of these invaders (in Latin, _Langobardi_)
may have been derived from the long beards that gave them such a ferocious
aspect. The Lombards were the last of the Germanic peoples to quit their
northern wilderness and seek new homes in sunny Italy. They seized the
territory north of the river Po--a region ever since known as Lombardy--
and established their capital at Pavia. The Lombards afterwards made many
settlements in central and southern Italy, but never succeeded in subduing
the entire peninsula.
[Illustration: Map, EUROPE IN THE SIXTH CENTURY]
LOMBARD RULE IN ITALY
The rule of the Lombards at first bore hardly on Italy, which they treated
as a conquered land. In character they seem to been far less attractive
than their predecessors the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Many of them were
still heathen when they entered Italy and others were converts to the
Arian [3] form of Christianity. In course of time, however, the Lombards
accepted Roman Catholicism and adopted the customs of their subjects. They
even forgot their Germanic language and learned to speak Latin. The
Lombard kingdom lasted over two centuries, until it was overthrown by the
Franks. [4]
RESULTS OF THE LOMBARD INVASION
The failure of the Lombards to conquer all Italy had important results in
later history. Sicily and the extreme southern part of the Italian
peninsula, besides large districts containing the cities of Naples, Rome,
Genoa, Venice, and Ravenna, continued to belong to the Roman Empire in the
East. The rulers at Constantinople could not exercise effective control
over their Italian possessions, now that these were separated from one
another by the Lombard territories. The consequence was that Italy broke
up into a number of small and practically independent states, which never
combined into one kingdom until our own time. The ideal of a united Italy
waited thirteen hundred years for its realization. [5]
104. THE FRANKS UNDER CLOVIS AND HIS SUCCESSORS
CLOVIS, KING OF THE FRANKS, 481-511 A.D.
We have already met the Franks in their home on the lower Rhine, from
which they pushed gradually into Roman territory. [6] In 486 A.D., just
ten years after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the Franks went
forth to conquer under Clovis, [7] one of their chieftains. By overcoming
the governor of Roman Gaul, in a battle near Soissons, Clovis destroyed
the last vestige of imperial rule in the West and extended the Frankish
dominions to the river Loire. Clovis then turned against his German
neighbors. East of the Franks, in the region now known as Alsace, lived
the Alamanni, a people whose name still survives in the French name of
Germany. [8] The Alamanni were defeated in a great battle near Strassburg
(496 A.D.), and much of their territory was added to that of the Franks.
Clovis subsequently conquered the Visigothic possessions between the Loire
and the Pyrenees, and compelled the Burgundians to pay tribute. Thus
Clovis made himself supreme over nearly the whole of Gaul and even
extended his authority to the other side of the Rhine. This great work
entitles him to be called the founder of the French nation.
THE FRANKS AND THE GALLO-ROMANS
Clovis reigned in western Europe as an independent king, but he
acknowledged a sort of allegiance to the Roman emperor by accepting the
title of honorary consul. Henceforth to the Gallo-Romans he represented
the distant ruler at Constantinople. The Roman inhabitants of Gaul were
not oppressed; their cities were preserved; and their language and laws
were undisturbed. Clovis, as a statesman, may be compared with his eminent
contemporary, Theodoric the Ostrogoth.
CHRISTIANIZATION OF THE FRANKS, 496 A.D.
The Franks were still a heathen people, when they began their career of
conquest. Clovis, however, had married a Burgundian princess, Clotilda,
who was a devout Catholic and an ardent advocate of Christianity. The
story is told how, when Clovis was hard-pressed by the Alamanni at the
battle of Strassburg, he vowed that if Clotilda's God gave him victory he
would become a Christian. The Franks won, and Clovis, faithful to his vow,
had himself baptized by St. Remi, bishop of Reims. "Bow down thy head,"
spoke the bishop, as the Frankish king approached the font, "adore what
thou hast burned, burn what thou has adored." [9] With Clovis were
baptized on that same day three thousand of his warriors.
[Illustration: Map, GROWTH OF THE FRANKISH DOMINIONS, 481-768 A.D.]
SIGNIFICANCE OF CLOVIS'S CONVERSION
The conversion of Clovis was an event of the first importance. He and his
Franks naturally embraced the orthodox Catholic faith, which was that of
his wife, instead of the Arian form of Christianity, which had been
accepted by almost all the other Germanic invaders. Thus, by what seems
the merest accident, Catholicism, instead of Arianism, became the religion
of a large part of western Europe. More than this, the conversion of
Clovis gained for the Frankish king and his successors the support of
conversion the Roman Church. The friendship between the popes and the
Franks afterwards ripened into a close alliance which greatly influenced
European history.
THE EARLIER MEROVINGIAN KINGS
The descendants of Clovis are called Merovingians. [10] They occupied the
throne of the Franks for nearly two hundred and fifty years. The annals of
their reigns form an unpleasant catalogue of bloody wars, horrible
murders, and deeds of treachery without number. Nevertheless, the earlier
Merovingians were strong men, under whose direction the Frankish territory
continued to expand, until it included nearly all of what is now France,
Belgium, and Holland, besides a considerable part of Germany.
CHARACTER OF THE FRANKISH CONQUESTS
The Frankish conquests differed in two important respects from those of
the other Germanic peoples. In the first place, the Franks did not cut
themselves off completely from their original homes. They kept permanently
their territory in Germany, drawing from it continual reinforcements of
fresh German blood. In the second place, the Franks steadily added new
German lands to their possessions. They built up in this way what was the
largest and the most permanent of all the barbarian states founded on the
ruins of the Roman Empire.
105. THE FRANKS UNDER CHARLES MARTEL AND PEPIN THE SHORT
THE LATER MEROVINGIAN KINGS
After the middle of the seventh century the Frankish rulers, worn out by
violence and excesses, degenerated into weaklings, who reigned but did not
rule. The actual management of the state passed into the hands of
officers, called "mayors of the palace." They left to the kings little
more than their title, their long hair,--the badge of royalty among the
Franks,--and a scanty allowance for their support. The later Merovingians,
accordingly, are often known as the "do-nothing kings."
CHARLES MARTEL
The most illustrious of these mayors was Charles, surnamed Martel, "the
Hammer," from the terrible defeat which he administered to the Mohammedans
near Tours, in central France. [11] Charles Martel was virtually a king,
but he never ventured to set aside the Merovingian ruler and himself
ascend the throne. This step was taken, however, by Charles's son, Pepin
the Short.
PEPIN THE SHORT BECOMES KING OF THE FRANKS, 751 A.D.
Before dethroning the last feeble "do-nothing," Pepin sought the approval
of the bishop of Rome. The pope, without hesitation, declared that it was
only right that the man who had the real authority in the state should
have the royal title also. Pepin, accordingly, caused himself to be
crowned king of the Franks, thus founding the Carolingian [12] dynasty.
(751 A.D.). Three years later Pope Stephen II came to Pepin's court and
solemnly anointed the new ruler with holy oil, in accordance with ancient
Jewish custom. The rite of anointing, something unknown to the Germans,
gave to Pepin's coronation the sanction of the Roman Church. Henceforth
the Frankish sovereigns called themselves "kings by the grade of God."
"DONATION OF PEPIN," 756 A.D.
Pepin was soon able to repay his great obligation to the Roman Church by
becoming its protector against the Lombards. These barbarians, who were
trying to extend their rule in Italy, threatened to capture Rome and the
territory in the vicinity of that city, then under the control of the
pope. Pepin twice entered Italy with his army, defeated the Lombards, and
forced them to cede to Pope Stephen an extensive district lying between
Rome and Ravenna. Pepin might have returned this district to the emperor
at Constantinople, to whom it belonged, but the Frankish king declared
that he had not fought for the advantage of any man but for the welfare of
his own soul. He decided, therefore, to bestow his conquests on St.
Peter's representative, the pope. Before this time the bishops of Rome had
owned much land in Italy and had acted as virtual sovereigns in Rome and
its neighborhood. Pepin's gift, known as the "Donation of Pepin," greatly
increased their possessions, which came to be called the States of the
Church. They remained in the hands of the popes until late in the
nineteenth century. [13]
106. THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE, 768-814 A.D.
CHARLEMAGNE THE MAN
Pepin was succeeded in 768 A.D. by his two sons, one of whom, Charlemagne,
three years later became sole king of the Franks. Charlemagne reigned for
nearly half a century, and during this time he set his stamp on all later
European history. His character and personality are familiar to us from a
brief biography, written by his secretary, Einhard. Charlemagne, we learn,
was a tall, square-shouldered, strongly built man, with bright, keen eyes,
and an expression at once cheerful and dignified. Riding, hunting, and
swimming were his favorite sports. He was simple in his tastes and very
temperate in both food and drink. Except when in Rome, he wore the old
Frankish costume, with high-laced boots, linen tunic, blue cloak, and
sword girt at his side. He was a clear, fluent speaker, used Latin as
readily as his native tongue, and understood Greek when it was spoken. "He
also tried to learn to write and often kept his tablets and writing book
under the pillow of his couch, that, when he had leisure, he might
practice his hand in forming letters; but he made little progress in this
task, too long deferred and begun too late in life." [14] For the times,
however, Charlemagne was a well-educated man--by no means a barbarian.
[Illustration: CHARLEMAGNE (Lateran Museum, Rome)
A mosaic picture, made during the lifetime of Charlemagne and probably a
fair likeness of him.]
CONQUEST AND CONVERSION OF THE SAXONS, 772-804 A.D.
Much of Charlemagne's long life, almost to its close, was filled with
warfare. He fought chiefly against the still-heathen peoples on the
frontiers of the Frankish realm. The subjugation of the Saxons, who lived
in the forests and marshes of northwestern Germany, took many years.
Charlemagne at the head of a great army would invade their territory, beat
them in battle, and receive their submission, only to find his work undone
by a sudden rising of the liberty-loving natives, after the withdrawal of
the Franks. Once when Charlemagne was exasperated by a fresh revolt, he
ordered forty-five hundred prisoners to be executed. This savage massacre
was followed by equally severe laws, which threatened with death all
Saxons who refused baptism or observed the old heathen rites. By such
harsh means Charlemagne at length broke down the spirit of resistance
among the people. All Saxony, from the Rhine to the Elbe, became a
Christian land and a permanent part of the Frankish realm.
[Illustration: THE IRON CROWN OF LOMBARDY
A fillet of iron, which, according to pious legend, had been beaten out of
one of the nails of the True Cross. It came to the Lombards as a gift from
Pope Gregory I. as a reward for their conversion to Roman Catholicism.
During the Middle Ages it was used to crown the German emperors kings of
Italy. This precious relic is now kept in a church at Monza in northern
Italy.]
CONQUEST OF THE LOMBARDS, 774 A.D.
Shortly after the beginning of the Saxon wars the king of the Franks
received an urgent summons from the pope, who was again being threatened
by his old enemies, the Lombards. Charlemagne led a mighty host across the
Alps, captured Pavia, where the Lombard ruler had taken refuge, and added
his possessions to those of the Franks. Thus passed away one more of the
Germanic states which had arisen on the ruins of the Roman Empire.
Charlemagne now placed on his own head the famous "Iron Crown," and
assumed the title of "King of the Franks and Lombards, and Patrician of
the Romans."
CHARLEMAGNE'S OTHER CONQUESTS
Charlemagne's conquests were not confined to Germanic peoples. He forced
the wild Avars, who had advanced from the Caspian into the Danube valley,
to acknowledge his supremacy. He compelled various Slavic tribes,
including the Bohemians, to pay tribute. He also invaded Spain and wrested
from the Moslems the district between the Ebro River and the Pyrenees. By
this last conquest Charlemagne may be said to have begun the recovery of
the Spanish peninsula from Mohammedan rule. [15]
[Illustration: Map, EUROPE In the Age of Charlemagne, 800 A.D.]
CHARLEMAGNE'S GOVERNMENT
Charlemagne was a statesman, as well as a warrior. He divided his wide
dominions into counties, each one ruled by a count, who was expected to
keep order and administer justice. The border districts, which lay exposed
to invasion, were organized into "marks," under the military supervision
of counts of the mark, or margraves (marquises). These officials had so
much power and lived so far from the royal court that it was necessary for
Charlemagne to appoint special agents, called _missi dominici_ ("the
lord's messengers"), to maintain control over them. The _missi_ were
usually sent out in pairs, a layman and a bishop or abbot, in order that
the one might serve as a check upon the other. They traveled from county
to county, bearing the orders of their royal master and making sure that
these orders were promptly obeyed. In this way Charlemagne kept well
informed as to the condition of affairs throughout his kingdom.
REVIVAL OF LEARNING UNDER CHARLEMAGNE
Charlemagne made a serious effort to revive classical culture in the West
from the low state into which it had fallen during the period of the
invasions. We still possess a number of laws issued by this Frankish king
for the promotion of education. He founded schools in the monasteries and
cathedrals, where not only the clergy but also the common people might
receive some training. He formed his whole court into a palace school, in
which learned men from Italy, Spain, and England gave instruction to his
own children and those of his nobles. The king himself often studied with
them, under the direction of his good friend, Alcuin, an Englishman and
the foremost scholar in western Europe. He had the manuscripts of Latin
authors collected and copied, so that the knowledge preserved in books
should not be forgotten. All this civilizing work, together with the peace
and order which he maintained throughout a wide territory, made his reign
the most brilliant period of the early Middle Ages.
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE
Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) was the capital city and favorite residence of
Charlemagne. The church which he built here was almost entirely destroyed
by the Northmen in the tenth century. The octagonal building surmounted by
a dome which forms the central part of the present cathedral is a
restoration of the original structure. The marble columns pavements and
mosaics of Charlemagne's church were brought by him from Ravenna.]
107. CHARLEMAGNE AND THE REVIVAL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 800 A.D.
CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE, 800 A.D.
Charlemagne, the champion of Christendom and the foremost ruler in Europe,
seemed to the men of his day the rightful successor of the Roman emperors.
He had their power, and now he was to have their name. In the year 800
A.D. the Frankish king visited Rome to investigate certain accusations
made against the pope, Leo III, by his enemies in the city. Charlemagne
absolved Leo of all wrong-doing and restored him to his office.
Afterwards, on Christmas Day Charlemagne went to old St. Peter's Church,
where the pope was saying Mass. As the king, dressed in the rich robes of
a Roman patrician, knelt in prayer before the high altar, the pope
suddenly placed on his head a golden crown, while all the people cried out
with one voice, "Long life and victory to Charles Augustus, the great and
pacific emperor of the Romans, crowned by God!"
REASONS FOR THE CORONATION
Although Charlemagne appears to have been surprised by the pope's act, we
know that he wished to become emperor. The imperial title would confer
upon him greater dignity and honor, though not greater power, than he
possessed as king of the Franks and of the Lombards. The pope, in turn,
was glad to reward the man who had protected the Church and had done so
much to spread the Catholic faith among the heathen. The Roman people also
welcomed the coronation, because they felt that the time had come for Rome
to assume her old place as the capital of the world. To reject the eastern
ruler, in favor of the great Frankish king, was an emphatic method of
asserting Rome's independence of Constantinople.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORONATION
The coronation of Charlemagne was one of the most important events in
medieval history. It might be thought a small matter that he should take
the imperial title, when he already exercised imperial sway throughout
western Europe. But Charlemagne's contemporaries believed that the old
Roman Empire had now been revived, and a German king now sat on the throne
once occupied by Augustus and Constantine. Henceforth there was
established in the West a line of Roman emperors which lasted until the
opening of the nineteenth century. [16]
CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE
Charlemagne's empire was not in any true sense a continuation of the Roman
Empire. It did not include the dominions over which the emperors at
Constantinople were to reign for centuries. Moreover, Charlemagne and his
successors on the throne had little in common with the old rulers of Rome,
who spoke Latin, administered Roman law, and regarded the Germans as among
their most dangerous enemies. Charlemagne's empire was, in fact, largely a
new creation.
108. DISRUPTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE, 814-870 A.D.
AFTER CHARLEMAGNE
The empire of Charlemagne did not long remain intact. So vast was its
extent and so unlike were its inhabitants in race, language, and customs
that it could be managed only by a ruler of the greatest energy and
strength of will. Unfortunately, the successors of Charlemagne proved to
be too weak for the task of maintaining peace and order. Western Europe
now entered on a long period of confusion and violence, during which
Charlemagne's possessions broke up into separate and warring kingdoms.
TREATY OF VERDUN, 843 A.D.
Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, who became emperor in 814 A.D., was a
well-meaning but feeble ruler, better fitted for the quiet life of a
monastery than for the throne. He could not control his rebellious sons,
who, even during his lifetime, fought bitterly over their inheritance. The
unnatural strife, which continued after his death, was temporarily settled
by a treaty concluded at the city of Verdun. According to its terms
Lothair, the eldest brother, received Italy and the imperial title,
together with a narrow stretch of land along the valleys of the Rhine and
the Rhone, between the North Sea and the Mediterranean. Louis and Charles,
the other brothers, received kingdoms lying to the east and west,
respectively, of Lothair's territory. The Treaty of Verdun may be said to
mark the first stage in the dissolution of the Carolingian Empire.
TREATY OF MERSEN, 870 A.D.
A second treaty, made at Mersen in Holland, was entered into by Louis and
Charles, after the death of their brother Lothair. They divided between
themselves Lothair's kingdom north of the Alps, leaving to his young son
the possession of Italy and the empty title of "emperor." The Treaty of
Mersen may be said to mark the second stage in the dissolution of the
Carolingian Empire. That empire, as such, had now ceased to exist.
[Illustration: Map, THE FRANKISH DOMINIONS AS DIVIDED BY THE TREATIES OF
VERDUN (843 A.D.) AND MERSEN (870 A.D.)]
IMPORTANCE OF THE TWO TREATIES
The territorial arrangements made by the treaties of Verdun and Mersen
foreshadowed the future map of western Europe. The East Frankish kingdom
of Louis, inhabited almost entirely by Germanic peoples, was to develop
into modern Germany. The West Frankish kingdom of Charles, inhabited
mainly by descendants of Romanized Gauls, was to become modern France.
Lothair's kingdom, separated into two parts by the Alps, never became a
national state. Italy, indeed, might be united under one government, but
the long, narrow strip north of the Alps had no unity of race, no common
language, and no national boundaries. It was fated to be broken into
fragments and to be fought over for centuries by its stronger neighbors.
Part of this territory now forms the small countries of Belgium, Holland,
and Switzerland, and another part, known as Alsace and Lorraine, [17]
still remains a bone of contention between France and Germany.
RENEWED BARBARIAN INVASIONS
Even had Charlemagne been followed by strong and able rulers, it would
have been a difficult matter to hold the empire together in the face of
the fresh series of barbarian inroads which began immediately after his
death. The Mohammedans, though checked by the Franks at the battle of
Tours, [18] continued to be dangerous enemies. They ravaged southern
France, Sicily, and parts of Italy. The piratical Northmen from Denmark
and Norway harried the coast of France and made inroads far beyond Paris.
They also penetrated into western Germany, sailing up the Rhine in their
black ships and destroying such important towns as Cologne and Aix-la-
Chapelle. Meanwhile, eastern Germany lay exposed to the attacks of the
Slavs, whom Charlemagne had defeated but not subdued. The Magyars, or
Hungarians, were also dreaded foes. Their wild horsemen entered Europe
from the plains of Asia and, like the Huns and Avars to whom they were
probably related, spread devastation far and wide. A great part of Europe
thus suffered from invasions almost as destructive as those which had
brought ruin to the old Roman world.
109. GERMANY UNDER THE SAXON KINGS, 919-973 A.D.
THE GERMAN STEM-DUCHIES
The tenth century saw another movement toward the restoration of law and
order. The civilizing work of Charlemagne was taken up by German kings,
not of the old Prankish stock, but belonging to that Saxon people which
had opposed Charlemagne so long and bitterly. Saxony was one of the five
great territorial states, or stem-duchies, as they are usually called,
into which Germany was then divided. [19] Germany at that time extended
only as far east as the river Elbe, beyond which lay the territory
occupied by half-civilized Slavic tribes.
ELECTIVE KINGSHIP OF GERMANY
The rulers of the stem-duchies enjoyed practical independence, though they
had recognized some king of Germany ever since the Treaty of Verdun. Early
in the tenth century the Carolingian dynasty died out in Germany, and the
German nobles then proceeded to elect their own kings. Their choice fell
first upon Conrad, duke of Franconia, but he had little authority outside
his own duchy. A stronger man was required to keep the peace among the
turbulent nobles and to repel the invaders of Germany. Such a man appeared
in the person of Henry, duke of Saxony, who, after Conrad's death, was
chosen king.
REIGN OF HENRY THE FOWLER, 919-936 A.D.
Henry I, called the Fowler, because he was fond of hunting birds, spent
the greater part of his reign in wars against the Slavs, Magyars, and
other invaders. He conquered from the Slavs the territory afterwards known
as Brandenburg. This country was to furnish Germany, in later centuries,
with its present dynasty--the Hohenzollerns. [20] He occupied the southern
part of Denmark (Schleswig) and Christianized it. He also recovered for
Germany Lorraine, a district which remained in German hands until the
eighteenth century.
REIGN OF OTTO THE GREAT, 936-973 A.D.
Henry the Fowler was succeeded by his son, Otto I, whom history knows as
Otto the Great. He well deserved the title. Like Charlemagne, Otto
presented the aspect of a born ruler. He is described as being tall and
commanding in presence, strong and vigorous of body, and gifted with great
charm of manner. In his bronzed face shone clear and sparkling eyes, and
down his breast hung a long, thick beard. Though subject to violent
outbursts of temper, he was liberal to his friends and just to his foes.
Otto was a man of immense energy and ambition, with a high conception of
his duties as a sovereign. His reign forms one of the most notable epochs
in German history.
[Illustration: RING SEAL OF OTTO THE GREAT
The inscription reads _Oddo Rex_.]
OTTO AND THE MAGYARS
Otto continued Henry's work of defending Germany from the foes which
threatened to overrun that country. He won his most conspicuous success
against the Magyars, who suffered a crushing defeat on the banks of the
river Lech in Bavaria (955 A.D.). These barbarians now ceased their raids
and retired to the lands on the middle Danube which they had seized from
the Slavs. Here they settled down, accepted Christianity from the Roman
Church, and laid the foundations of the kingdom of Hungary. [21] As a
protection against future Magyar inroads Otto established the East Mark.
This region afterwards rose to great importance under the name of Austria.
OTTO AND THE STEM-DUKES
Otto was an excellent ruler of Germany. He made it his business to
strengthen the royal authority by weakening that of the stem-dukes. He had
to fight against them on more than one occasion, for they regarded
themselves almost as independent kings. Otto was able to keep them in
check, but the rulers who followed him were less successful in this
respect. The struggle between the kings and their powerful nobles formed a
constant feature of the medieval history of Germany.
110. OTTO THE GREAT AND THE RESTORATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 962 A.D.
CONDITION OF ITALY
Otto the Great is not to be remembered only as a German king. His reign
was also noteworthy in the history of Italy. The country at this time was
hopelessly divided between rival and contending peoples. The emperor at
Constantinople controlled the southern extremity of the peninsula. The
Mohammedans held Sicily and some cities on the mainland. The pope ruled at
Rome and in the States of the Church. A so-called king of Italy still
reigned in Lombardy, but he could not manage the powerful counts, dukes,
and marquises, who were virtually independent within their own domains.
Even the imperial title died out, and now there was no longer a Roman
emperor in the West.
CORONATION OF OTTO THE GREAT, 962 A.D.
The deplorable condition of Italy invited interference from abroad.
Following in the footsteps of Charlemagne, Otto the Great led two
expeditions across the Alps, assumed the "Iron Crown" [22] of Lombardy,
and then proceeded to Rome, where he secured the pope (John XII) against
the latter's enemies in that city. Otto's reward was the same as
Charlemagne's. On Candlemas Day, (February 2d) 962 A.D., the grateful pope
crowned him Roman emperor.
MEANING OF THE CORONATION
The coronation of Otto the Great seemed to his contemporaries a necessary
and beneficial act. They still believed that the Roman Empire was
suspended, not extinct; and that now, one hundred and fifty years after
Charlemagne, the occasion was opportune to revive the name and power
associated with the golden age of the first Frankish emperor. Otto's
ardent spirit, one may well believe, was fired with this vision of
imperial sway and the renewal of a title around which clustered so many
memories of success and glory.
[Illustration: Map, EUROPE IN THE AGE OF OTTO THE GREAT, 962 A.D.]
ULTIMATE RESULTS OF THE CORONATION
But the outcome of Otto's restoration of the Roman Empire was good neither
for Italy nor for Germany. It became the rule, henceforth, that the man
whom the German nobles chose as their king had a claim, also, to the
Italian crown and the imperial title. The efforts of the German kings to
make good this claim led to their constant interference in the affairs of
Italy. They treated that country as a conquered province which had no
right to a national life and an independent government under its own
rulers. At the same time they neglected Germany and failed to keep their
powerful territorial lords in subjection. Neither Italy nor Germany, in
consequence, could become a unified, centralized state, such as was formed
in France and England during the later Middle Ages.
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
The empire of Charlemagne, restored by Otto the Great, came to be called
in later centuries the "Holy Roman Empire." The title points to the idea
of a world monarchy--the Roman Empire--and a world religion--Roman
Christianity--united in one institution. This magnificent idea was never
fully realized. The popes and emperors, instead of being bound to each
other by the closest ties, were more generally enemies than friends. A
large part of medieval history was to turn on this conflict between the
Empire and the Papacy. [23]
111. THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN BRITAIN, 449-839 A.D.
ANGLO-SAXON CONQUEST OF BRITAIN
From the history of Continental Europe we now turn to the history of
Britain. That island had been overrun by the Germanic barbarians after the
middle of the fifth century. [24] They are commonly known as Anglo-Saxons,
from the names of their two principal peoples, the Angles and Saxons. The
Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain was a slow process, which lasted at least
one hundred and fifty years. The invaders followed the rivers into the
interior and gradually subdued more than a half of what is now England,
comprising the fertile plain district in the southern and eastern parts of
the island.
NATURE OF THE CONQUEST
Though the Anglo-Saxons probably destroyed many flourishing cities and
towns of the Romanized Britons, it seems likely that the conquerors spared
the women, with whom they intermarried, and the agricultural laborers,
whom they made slaves. Other natives took refuge in the hill regions of
western and northern Britain, and here their descendants still keep up the
Celtic language and traditions. The Anglo-Saxons regarded the Britons with
contempt, naming them Welsh, a word which means one who talks gibberish.
The antagonism between the two peoples died out in the course of
centuries, conquerors and conquered intermingled, and an English nation,
partly Celtic and partly Germanic, came into being.
[Illustration: ANGLO-SAXON DRINKING HORN
Horn of Ulphus (Wulf) in the cathedral of York. The old English were heavy
drinkers chiefly of ale and mead. The evening meal usually ended with a
drinking bout.]
THE SEVEN KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN
The Anglo-Saxons started to fight one another before they ceased fighting
their common enemy, the Britons. Throughout the seventh and eighth
centuries, the Anglo-Saxon states were engaged in almost constant
struggles, either for increase of territory or for supremacy. The kingdoms
farthest east--Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia--found their expansion
checked by other kingdoms--Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex--which grew up
in the interior of the island. Each of these three stronger states gained
in turn the leading place.
EGBERT AND THE SUPREMACY OF WESSEX, 802-839 A.D.
The beginning of the supremacy of Wessex dates from the reign of Egbert.
He had lived for some years as an exile at the court of Charlemagne, from
whom he must have learned valuable lessons of war and statesmanship. After
returning from the Continent, Egbert became king of Wessex and gradually
forced the rulers of the other states to acknowledge him as overlord.
Though Egbert was never directly king of all England, he began the work of
uniting the Anglo-Saxons under one government. His descendants have
occupied the English throne to the present day.
ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN
When the Germans along the Rhine and the Danube crossed the frontiers and
entered the western provinces, they had already been partially Romanized.
They understood enough of Roman civilization to appreciate it and to
desire to preserve it. The situation was quite different with the Anglo-
Saxons. Their original home lay in a part of Germany far beyond the
borders of the Roman Empire and remote from the cultural influences of
Rome. Coming to Britain as barbarians, they naturally introduced their own
language, laws, and customs wherever they settled. Much of what the Anglo-
Saxons brought with them still lives in England, and from that country has
spread to the United States and the vast English colonies beyond the seas.
The English language is less indebted to Latin than any of the Romance
languages, [25] and the Common law of England owes much less to Roman law
than do the legal systems of Continental Europe. England, indeed, looks to
the Anglo-Saxons for some of the most characteristic and important
elements of her civilization.
[Illustration: Map, ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN]
112. CHRISTIANITY IN THE BRITISH ISLES
PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY
The Anglo-Saxons also brought to Britain their heathen faith. Christianity
did not come to them until the close the sixth century. At this time more
or less intercourse had sprung up between the people of Kent, lying
nearest to the Continent, and the Franks in Gaul. Ethelbert, the king of
Kent, had even married the Frankish princess, Bertha. He allowed his
Christian wife to bring a bishop to her new home and gave her the deserted
church of St. Martin at Canterbury as a place of worship. Queen Bertha's
fervent desire for the conversion of her husband and his people prepared
the way for an event of first importance in English history--the mission
of Augustine.
MISSION OF AUGUSTINE, 597 A.D.
The pope at this time was Gregory I, better known, from his services to
the Roman Church, as Gregory the Great. [26] The kingdom of Kent, with its
Christian queen, must have seemed to him a promising field for missionary
enterprise. Gregory, accordingly, sent out the monk Augustine with forty
companions to carry the Gospel to the heathen English. The king of Kent,
already well disposed toward the Christian faith, greeted the missionaries
kindly and told them that they were free to convert whom they would.
Before long he and his court embraced Christianity, and the people of Kent
soon followed the royal example. The monks were assigned a residence in
Canterbury, a city which has ever since remained the religious capital of
England. From Kent Christianity in its Roman form gradually spread into
the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
[Illustration: ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY
The present church, dating from the thirteenth century occupies the site
of a chapel built before the arrival of Augustine, The walls still contain
some of the Roman bricks used in the original structure. St Martin's
Church was the scene of the earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury.]
CELTIC CHRISTIANITY
Augustine and his monks were not the first missionaries to Britain. Roman
soldiers, merchants, and officials had introduced Christianity among the
Britons as early as second century. During the fifth century the famous
St. Patrick had carried Christianity to the heathen Irish. The Anglo-Saxon
invasion of Britain drove many Christians to Ireland, and that island in
the sixth and seventh centuries became a center from which devoted monks
went forth to labor in western Scotland and northern Britain [27] Here
they came in contact with the Roman missionaries.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CELTIC AND ROMAN CHRISTIANITY
The Celtic Christians followed some customs which differed from those
observed by Roman Christians. They computed the date on which Easter fell
according to a system unlike that of the Romans. They permitted their
priests to marry; the Romans forbade the practice. Their monks shaved the
front of the head from ear to ear as a tonsure, while Roman monks shaved
the top of the head, leaving a "crown of thorns." These differences may
not seem very important, but they were enough to prevent the cooperation
of Celtic and Roman missionaries for the conversion of the heathen.
[Illustration: CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL
The choir dates from the twelfth century, the nave, transepts, and central
tower, from the fifteenth century. One of the two towers at the west front
was built in 1834-1840 A.D. The beautiful stained glass in the windows of
the choir belongs to the thirteenth century.]
SYNOD OF WHITBY, 664 A.D.
The rivalry between Celtic and Roman Christians was finally settled at a
church gathering, or synod, called by the king of Northumbria at Whitby.
The main controversy at this synod concerned the proper date for Easter.
In the course of the debate it was asserted that the Roman custom had the
sanction of St. Peter, to whom Christ had intrusted the keys of heaven.
This statement was enough for the Northumbrian king, who thereupon decided
in favor of the Roman claim, declaring that he would not oppose St. Peter,
"lest when I come before the gates of the kingdom of heaven, he who holds
the keys should not open to me." [28] The representatives of the Celtic
Church then withdrew from England, leaving the field clear for Roman
missionaries.
THE BRITISH ISLES BECAME ROMAN CATHOLIC
The decision of the Synod of Whitby in favor of Rome meant that all
England henceforth would recognize the pope's authority in religious
matters. It remained a Roman Catholic country until the time of the
Reformation, nearly nine hundred years later. [29] The Celtic Christians
in Ireland and Scotland also in the course of time became the devoted
children of the Roman Church.
113. THE FUSION OF GERMANS AND ROMANS
THE GERMANIC KINGDOMS
We have now followed the fortunes of the Germans for five centuries from
the end of the Roman Empire in the West. Most of their kingdoms, it has
been seen, were not permanent. The Visigothic and Burgundian dominions in
Gaul yielded to the Franks, and those of the Visigoths in Spain, to the
Mohammedan Arabs. [30] The Vandal possessions in North Africa were
regained by the emperors at Constantinople. [31] The rule of the
Ostrogoths in Italy endured for only sixty years and that of the Lombards
passed away after two centuries. The kingdoms established by the Franks
and the Anglo-Saxons alone developed into lasting states.
HINDRANCES TO THE FUSION OF GERMANS AND ROMANS
But even where the Germans did not found permanent kingdoms, they mingled
with the subject provincials and adopted much of the old Roman
civilization. The fusion of the two peoples naturally required a long
time, being scarcely completed before the middle of the tenth century. It
was hindered, in the first place, by the desire of the Germans to secure
the lands of the Romans. Wherever the barbarians settled, they
appropriated a large part of the agricultural soil. How much they took
varied in different countries. The Ostrogoths seem to have seized one-
third of the land in Italy; the Visigoths, two-thirds of that in Gaul and
Spain; the Anglo-Saxons, perhaps all the tillable soil of Britain. It
could not but be galling to the Romans to surrender their farms to the
barbarians. In the second place, the Germans often assessed heavy taxes on
the Romans, which they themselves refused to pay. Tax-paying seemed to the
Germans a mark of servitude. In the third place, a barrier between the two
peoples arose from the circumstance that each had its particular law. For
several centuries following the invasions there was one law for the
Romans--that which they had enjoyed under the empire--and another law for
the Germans--their old tribal customs. After the Germans had lived for
some time in contact with the Romans they wrote out their laws in the
Latin language. These "Laws of the Barbarians" still survive and throw
much light on their early beliefs and manners.
CONDITIONS FAVORING FUSION
In spite of the hindrances to fusion, it seems true that the Germans and
the Romans felt no great dislike for each other and that, as a rule, they
freely intermingled. Certain conditions directly favored this result.
First, many Germans had found their way within the empire as hired
soldiers, colonists, and slaves, long before the invasions began. Second,
the Germanic invaders came in relatively small numbers. Third, the Germans
entered the Roman world not as destroyers, but as homeseekers. They felt a
real reverence for Roman civilization. And fourth, some of the principal
Germanic nations, including the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals, were
already Christians at the time of their invasions, while other nations,
such as the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, were afterwards converted to
Christianity. As long, however, as most of the Germans remained Arian
Christians [32] their belief stood in the way of friendly intercourse with
the Roman provincials, who had accepted the Catholic faith.
[Illustration: Map, THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE at the beginning of the Tenth
Century.]
CONTRAST BETWEEN EAST AND WEST
If western Europe during the early Middle Ages presented a scene of
violence and confusion while the Germans were settling in their new homes,
a different picture was afforded by eastern Europe. Here the Roman Empire
still survived and continued to uphold for centuries the Roman tradition
of law and order. The history of that empire forms the theme of the
following chapter.
STUDIES
1. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Charlemagne,
distinguishing his hereditary possessions from those which he acquired by
conquest.
2. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Otto the
Great.
3. What events are connected with the following places: Soissons; Mersen;
Whitby; Reims; Verdun; Canterbury; and Strassburg?
4. What is the historical importance of Augustine, Henry the Fowler, Pepin
the Short, Charles Martel, Egbert, and Ethelbert?
5. Give dates for the following events: battle of Tours; crowning of
Charlemagne as emperor; crowning of Otto the Great as emperor; deposition
of Romulus Augustulus; Augustine's mission to England; and the Treaty of
Verdun.
6. Explain the following expressions: "do-nothing kings"; _missi
dominici_; Holy Roman Empire; and "Donation of Pepin."
7. Why was the extinction of the Ostrogothic kingdom a misfortune for
Italy?
8. Why did Italy remain for so many centuries after the Lombard invasion
merely "a geographical expression"?
9. What difference did it make whether Clovis became an Arian or a
Catholic?
10. What events in the lives of Clovis and Pepin the Short contributed to
the alliance between the Franks and the popes?
11. What provinces of the Roman Empire in the West were not included
within the limits of Charlemagne's empire?
12. What countries of modern Europe are included within the limits of
Charlemagne's empire?
13. Compare the _missi dominici_ with the "eyes and ears" of Persian
kings.
14. What is the origin of the word "emperor"? As a title distinguish it
from that of "king."
15. Why has Lothair's kingdom north of the Alps been called the "strip of
trouble"?
16. In what parts of the British Isles are Celtic languages still spoken?
17. How did the four English counties, Sussex, Essex, Norfolk, and
Suffolk, receive their names?
18. What was the importance of the Synod of Whitby?
19. Set forth the conditions which hindered, and those which favored, the
fusion of Germans and Romans.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter i,
"Stories of the Lombard Kings"; chapter ii, "Charlemagne."
[2] See page 236.
[3] See page 236.
[4] See page 309.
[5] The modern kingdom of Italy dates from 1861-1870 A.D.
[6] See page 245.
[7] His name is properly spelled Chlodweg, which later became Ludwig, and
in French, Louis.
[8] _Allemagne_. On the other hand, the inhabitants of Gaul came to call
their country _France_ and themselves _Français_ after their conquerors,
the Germanic Franks.
[9] Gregory of Tours, _Historia Francorum_, ii, 31.
[10] From Merovech, grandfather of Clovis.
[11] See page 379.
[12] So called from Pepin's son, Charles the Great (in Latin, _Carolus
Magnus_). The French form of his name is Charlemagne.
[13] In 1870 A.D. the States of the Church were added to the newly formed
kingdom of Italy.
[14] Einhard, _Vita Caroli Magni_, 25.
[15] The rearguard of Charlemagne's army, when returning from Spain, was
attacked and overwhelmed by the mountaineers of the Pyrenees. The incident
gave rise to the famous French epic known as the _Song of Roland_.
[16] The title of "Holy Roman Emperor," assumed by the later successors of
Charlemagne, was kept by them till 1806 A.D.
[17] The French name Lorraine and the German name Lothringen are both
derived from the Latin title of Lothair's kingdom--_Lotharii regnum_.
[18] See page 306.
[19] The others were Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and Lorraine.
[20] The Hohenzollerns became electors of Brandenburg in 1415 A.D., kings
of Prussia in 1701, and emperors of Germany in 1871.
[21] The Magyar settlement in central Europe had the important result of
dividing the Slavic peoples into three groups. Those who remained south of
the Danube (Serbians, Croatians, etc.) were henceforth separated from the
northwestern Slavs (Bohemians, Moravians, and Poles) and from the eastern
Slavs (Russians). See the map facing page 326.
[22] See the Illustration, page 308.
[23] See pages 455-463.
[24] See page 246.
[25] See page 208.
[26] See page 350.
[27] The enthusiasm of the Celtic Christians reached such proportions that
it swept back upon the Continent. In the seventh and eighth centuries
Irish missionaries worked among the heathen Germans and founded
monasteries in Burgundy, Lombardy, and southern Germany (now Switzerland).
[28] Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, iii, 25.
[29] The separation from Rome occurred in 1534 A.D., during the reign of
Henry VIII.
[30] See page 378.
[31] See page 330.
[32] See page 236.