CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION [1]
88. THE CLASSICAL CITY
THE CENTER OF CLASSICAL LIFE
The history of the Greeks and Romans ought not to be studied only in their
political development and the biographies of their great statesmen and
warriors. We must also know something of ancient literature, philosophy,
and art. Especially do we need to learn about the private life of the
classical peoples--their manners, customs, occupations, and amusements.
This life centered in the city.
ORIGIN OF THE CITY
A Greek or a Roman city usually grew up about a hill of refuge
(_acropolis, capitolium_), to which the people of the surrounding district
could flee in time of danger. The hill would be crowned with a fortress
and the temples of the gods. Not far away was the market place (_agora,
forum_), where the people gathered to conduct their business and to enjoy
social intercourse. About the citadel and market place were grouped the
narrow streets and low houses of the town.
GENERAL APPEARANCE OF AN ANCIENT CITY
The largest and most beautiful buildings in an ancient city were always
the temples, colonnades, and other public structures. The houses of
private individuals, for the most part, had few pretensions to beauty.
They were insignificant in appearance and were often built with only one
story. From a distance, however, their whitewashed walls and red-tiled
roofs, shining brightly under the warm sun, must have made an attractive
picture.
LIFE IN THE CITY
To the free-born inhabitant of Athens or of Rome his city was at once his
country and his church, his club and his home. He shared in its
government; he took part in the stately ceremonies that honored its patron
god; in the city he could indulge his taste for talking and for politics;
here he found both safety and society. No wonder that an Athenian or a
Roman learned, from early childhood, to love his city with passionate
devotion.
89. EDUCATION AND THE CONDITION OF CHILDREN
IMPORTANCE OF MALE CHILDREN
The coming of a child, to parents in antiquity as to parents now, was
usually a very happy event. Especially welcome was the birth of a son. The
father felt assured that through the boy his old age would be cared for
and that the family name and the worship of the family ancestors would be
kept up after his own death. "Male children," said an ancient poet, "are
the pillars of the house." [2] The city, as well, had an interest in the
matter, for a male child meant another citizen able to take the father's
place in the army and the public assembly. To have no children was
regarded as one of the greatest calamities that could befall a Greek or a
Roman.
INFANTICIDE
The ancient attitude toward children was in one respect very unlike our
own. The law allowed a father to do whatever he pleased with a newly born
child. If he was very poor, or if his child was deformed, he could expose
it in some desert spot, where it soon died. An infant was sometimes placed
secretly in a temple, where possibly some kind-hearted person might rescue
it. The child, in this case, became the slave of its adopter. This custom
of exposure, an inheritance from prehistoric savagery, tended to grow less
common with advancing culture. The complete abolition of infanticide was
due to the spread of Christian teachings about the sacredness of human
life. [3]
NAMES
A Greek boy generally had but one name. The favorite name for the eldest
son was that of his paternal grandfather. A father, however, might give
him his own name or that of an intimate friend. The Romans at first seem
to have used only the one name, then two were given; and later we have the
familiar three-fold name, representing the individual, the clan, and the
family. [4]
GREEK EDUCATION
Greek education consisted of three main branches, known as gymnastics,
music, and grammar. By gymnastics the Greeks meant the physical training
in the palestra, an open stretch of ground on the outskirts of the city.
Here a private teacher gave instruction in the various athletic sports
which were so popular at the national games. The training in music was
intended to improve the moral nature of young men and to fit them for
pleasant social intercourse. They were taught to play a stringed
instrument, called the lyre, and at the same time to sing to their own
accompaniment. Grammar, the third branch of education, included
instruction in writing and the reading of the national literature. After a
boy had learned to write and to read, the schoolmaster took up with him
the works of the epic poets, especially Homer, besides _Aesop's Fables_
and other popular compositions. The student learned by heart much of the
poetry and at so early an age that he always remembered it. Not a few
Athenians, it is said, could recite the entire _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_.
[Illustration: AN ATHENIAN SCHOOL (Royal Museum, Berlin)
A painting by Duris on a drinking-cup, or cylix. The picture is divided by
the two handles. In the upper half, beginning at the left: a youth playing
the double flute as a lesson to the boy before him; a teacher holding a
tablet and stylus and correcting a composition; a slave (_paedagogus_),
who accompanied the children to and from school. In the lower half: a
master teaching his pupil to play the lyre; a teacher holding a half-
opened roll, listening to a recitation by the student before him; a
bearded _paedagogus_. The inner picture, badly damaged, represents a youth
in a bath.]
ROMAN EDUCATION
A Roman boy began his school days at about the age of seven. He learned to
read, to write with a stylus on wax tablets, and to cipher by means of the
reckoning board, or abacus. He received a little instruction in singing
and memorized all sorts of proverbs and maxims, besides the laws of the
Twelve Tables. [5] His studying went on under the watchful eyes of a harsh
schoolmaster, who did not hesitate to use the rod. After Rome began to
come into close contact with Greece, the curriculum was enlarged by the
study of literature. The Romans were the first people who made the
learning of a foreign tongue an essential part of education. Schools now
arose in which the Greek language and literature formed the chief subject
of instruction. As Latin literature came into being, its productions,
especially the orations of Cicero and the poems of Vergil and Horace, were
also used as texts for study.
[Illustration: A ROMAN SCHOOL SCENE
Wall painting, Herculaneum.]
[Illustration: YOUTH READING A PAPYRUS ROLL
Relief on a sarcophagus. The papyrus roll was sometimes very long. The
entire _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ might be contained in a single manuscript
measuring one hundred and fifty feet in length. In the third century A.D.
the unwieldy roll began to give way to the tablet, composed of a number of
leaves held together by a ring. About this time, also, the use of vellum,
or parchment made of sheepskin, became common.]
TRAVEL AND STUDY ABROAD
Persons of wealth or noble birth might follow their school training by a
university course at a Greek city, such as Athens, Alexandria, or Rhodes.
Here the Roman youth would listen to lectures on philosophy, delivered by
the deep thinkers whom Greece still produced, and would profit by the
treasures of art and science preserved in these ancient capitals. Many
famous Romans thus passed several years abroad in graduate study. During
the imperial age, as we have already seen, [6] schools of grammar and
rhetoric arose in the West, particularly in Gaul and Spain, and attracted
students from all parts of the empire.
90. MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN
ENGAGEMENTS
A young man in Athens or in Rome did not, as a rule, marry immediately on
coming of age. He might remain a bachelor for several years, sometimes
till he was thirty or over. The young man's father had most to do with the
selection of a wife. He tried to secure for his son some daughter of a
friend who possessed rank and property equal to his own. The parents of
the two parties would then enter into a contract which, among other
things, usually stated how large a dowry the bride's father was to settle
on his daughter. An engagement was usually very little a matter of romance
and very much a matter of business.
WEDDING CUSTOMS
The wedding customs of the Greeks and Romans presented many likenesses.
Marriage, among both peoples, was a religious ceremony. On the appointed
day the principals and their guests, dressed in holiday attire, met at the
house of the bride. In the case of a Roman wedding the auspices [7] were
then taken, and the words of the nuptial contract were pronounced in the
presence of witnesses. After a solemn sacrifice to the gods of marriage,
the guests partook of the wedding banquet. When night came on, the husband
brought his wife to her new abode, escorted by a procession of
torchbearers, musicians, and friends, who sang the happy wedding song.
POSITION OF WOMEN
An Athenian wife, during her younger years, always remained more or less a
prisoner. She could not go out except by permission. She took no part in
the banquets and entertainments which her husband gave. She lived a life
of confinement in that quarter of the house assigned to the women for
their special abode. Married women at Rome enjoyed a far more honorable
position. Although early custom placed the wife, together with her
children, in the power of the husband, [8] still she possessed many
privileges. She did not remain all the time at home, but mingled freely in
society. She was the friend and confidante of her husband, as well as his
housekeeper. During the great days of Roman history the women showed
themselves virtuous and dignified, loving wives and excellent companions.
91. THE HOME AND PRIVATE LIFE
CLOTHING
There were no great differences between the dress of the two classical
peoples. Both wore the long, loosely flowing robes that contrast so
sharply with our tight-fitting garments. [9] Athenian male attire
consisted of but two articles, the tunic and the mantle. The tunic was an
undergarment of wool or linen, without sleeves. Over this was thrown a
large woolen mantle, so wrapped about the figure as to leave free only the
right shoulder and head. In the house a man wore only his tunic; out of
doors and on the street he usually wore the mantle over it. Very similar
to the two main articles of Greek clothing were the Roman _tunica_ and
_toga_. [10]
COVERING FOR THE HEAD AND FEET
On a journey or out in the country broad-brimmed hats were used to shield
the head from the sun. In rainy weather the mantle, pulled up over the
head, furnished protection. Sandals, merely flat soles of wood or leather
fastened by thongs, were worn indoors, but even these were laid aside at a
dinner party. Outside the house leather shoes of various shapes and colors
were used. They cannot have been very comfortable, since stockings were
not known in antiquity.
EXTERIOR OF THE HOUSE
The ancient house lay close to the street line. The exterior was plain and
simple to an extreme. The owner was satisfied if his mansion shut out the
noise and dust of the highway. He built it, therefore, round one or more
open courts, which took the place of windows supplying light and air.
Except for the doorway the front of the house presented a bare, blank
surface, only relieved by narrow slits or lattices in the wall of the
upper story. The street side of the house wall received a coating of
whitewash or of fine marble stucco. The roof of the house was covered with
clay tiles. This style of domestic architecture is still common in eastern
lands.
[Illustration: HOUSE OF THE VETTII AT POMPEII (RESTORED)
Notice the large area of blank wall both on the front and on the side. The
front windows are very small and evidently of less importance for
admitting light than the openings of the two _atria_. At the back is seen
the large, well-lighted peristyle.]
[Illustration: ATRIUM OF POMPEIAN HOUSE
The view shows the _atrium_ with the basin for rainwater, in the center
the _tabinum_ with its wall paintings, and the peristyle at the rear.]
INTERIOR OF THE HOUSE
In contrast with its unpretentious exterior a classical dwelling indoors
had a most attractive appearance. We cannot exactly determine just what
were the arrangements of a Greek interior. But the better class of Roman
houses, such as some of those excavated at Pompeii, [11] followed Greek
designs in many respects. The Pompeian remains, therefore, will give some
idea of the sort of residence occupied by a well-to-do citizen of Athens
or Rome.
[Illustration: POMPEIAN FLOOR MOSAIC]
THE ATRIUM
The visitor at one of these ancient houses first entered a small
vestibule, from which a narrow passage led to the heavy oaken door. A dog
was sometimes kept chained in this hallway; in Pompeii there is a picture
of one worked in mosaic on the floor with the warning beneath it, "Beware
of the dog." Having made known his presence by using the knocker, the
guest was ushered into the reception room, or _atrium_. This was a large
apartment covered with a roof, except for a hole in the center admitting
light and air. A marble basin directly underneath caught the rain water
which came through the opening. The _atrium_ represents the single room of
the primitive Roman house without windows or chimney. [12]
THE PERISTYLE
A corridor from the _atrium_ led into the _peristyle_, the second of the
two main sections of a Roman house. It was a spacious court, open to the
sky and inclosed by a colonnade or portico. This delightful spot, rather
than the formal _atrium_, served as the center of family life. About it
were grouped the bedchambers, bathrooms, dining rooms, kitchen, and other
apartments of a comfortable mansion. Still other rooms occupied the upper
stories of the dwelling.
BUSINESS OF THE FORENOON
The ancient Athenian was no sluggard. At sunrise, or even before, he rose
from his couch, washed his face and hands, put on his scanty garments, and
was soon ready for the street. Before leaving the house, he broke his fast
with a meal as simple as the European "rolls and coffee"--in this case
merely a few mouthfuls of bread dipped in wine. After breakfast he might
call on his friends or perhaps ride into the country and visit his
estates. About ten o'clock (which the Athenians called "full market"), he
would be pretty sure to find his way to the Agora. The shops at this time
were crowded with purchasers, and every sociable citizen of Athens was to
be found in them or in the neighboring colonnades which lined the market
place.
[Illustration: PERISTYLE OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE
House of the Vettii Pompeii. The peristyle, excavated in 1894-1895 A.D.
has been carefully restored. The garden, fountains, tables, and marble
colonnades are all modern]
OCCUPATIONS IN THE AFTERNOON
The public resorts were deserted at noon, when the Athenian returned home
to enjoy a light meal and a rest during the heat. As the day grew cooler,
men again went out and visited a gymnasium, such as the Lyceum or the
Academy, in the city suburbs. [13] Here were grounds for running,
wrestling, discus-throwing, and other sports, as well as rooms for bathing
and anointing. While the younger men busied themselves in such active
exercises, those of maturer years might be content with less vigorous
games or with conversation on political or philosophical themes.
THE EVENING MEAL
The principal meal of the day came about sunset. The master of the house,
if he had no guests, shared the repast with his wife and children. For a
man of moderate means the ordinary fare was very much what it is now in
Greece--bread, olives, figs, cheese, and a little meat as an occasional
luxury. At the end of the meal the diners refreshed themselves with wine
mixed with water. The Greeks appear to have been usually as temperate in
their drink as they were frugal in their food. The remainder of the
evening would be devoted to conversation and music and possibly a little
reading. As a rule the Athenian went early to bed.
[Illustration: A GREEK BANQUET
From a vase painting by Duns.]
MORNING ROUND OF A ROMAN NOBLE
A Roman of the higher class, who lived in late republican or early
imperial times, passed through much the same daily routine as an Athenian
citizen in the days of Pericles. He rose at an early hour and after a
light breakfast dispatched his private business with the help of his
steward and manager. He then took his place in the _atrium_ to meet the
crowd of poor dependents who came to pay their respects to their patron
and to receive their usual morning alms--either food or sufficient money
to buy a modest dinner. Having greeted his visitors and perhaps helped
them in legal or business matters, the noble entered his litter and was
carried down to the Forum. Here he might attend the law courts to plead a
case for himself or for his clients. If he were a member of the Senate, he
would take part in the deliberations of that body. At eleven o'clock, when
the ordinary duties of the morning were over, he would return home to eat
his luncheon and enjoy the midday rest, or siesta. The practice of having
a nap in the heat of the day became so general that at noon the streets of
a Roman city had the same deserted appearance as at midnight.
[Illustration: A ROMAN LITTER
The litter consists of an ordinary couch with four posts and a pair of
poles. Curtains fastened to the rod above the canopy shielded the occupant
from observation.]
THE AFTERNOON EXERCISE AND BATH
After an hour of refreshing sleep it was time for the regular exercise out
of doors in the Campus Martius or indoors at one of the large city baths.
Then came one of the chief pleasures of a Roman's existence--the daily
bath. It was taken ordinarily in one of the public bathing establishments,
or _thermae_, to be found in every Roman town. [14] A Roman bath was a
luxurious affair. After undressing, the bathers entered a warm anteroom
and sat for a time on benches, in order to perspire freely. This was a
precaution against the danger of passing too suddenly into the hot bath,
which was taken in a large tank of water sunk in the middle of the floor.
Then came an exhilarating cold plunge and anointing with perfumed oil.
Afterwards the bathers rested on the couches with which the resort was
supplied and passed the time in reading or conversation until the hour for
dinner.
THE LATE DINNER
The late dinner, with the Romans as with the Greeks, formed the principal
meal of the day. It was usually a social function. The host and his guests
reclined on couches arranged about a table. The Romans borrowed from the
Greeks the custom of ending a banquet with a symposium, or drinking-bout.
The tables were cleared of dishes, and the guests were anointed with
perfumes and crowned with garlands. During the banquet and the symposium
it was customary for professional performers to entertain the guests with
music, dancing, pantomimes, and feats of jugglery.
92. AMUSEMENTS
ATHENIAN RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
The Athenians celebrated many religious festivals. One of the most
important was the Great Panathenaea, [15] held every fourth year in the
month of July. Athletic contests and poetical recitations, sacrifices,
feasts, and processions honored the goddess Athena, who presided over the
Athenian city. Even more interesting, perhaps, were the dramatic
performances held in midwinter and in spring, at the festivals of
Dionysus. The tragedies and comedies composed for these entertainments
took their place among the masterpieces of Greek literature.
[Illustration: THEATER OF DIONYSUS, ATHENS
The theater of Dionysus where dramatic exhibitions were held lay close to
the south eastern angle of the Acropolis. The audience at first sat upon
wooden benches rising tier after tier on the adjacent hillside. About the
middle of the fourth century B.C. these were replaced by the stone seats
which are still to be seen. Sixteen thousand people could be accommodated
in this open air theater.]
FEATURES OF A GREEK PLAY
There is very little likeness between the ancient and the modern drama.
Greek plays were performed out of doors in the bright sunlight. Until late
Roman times it is unlikely that a raised stage existed. The three actors
and the members of the chorus appeared together in the dancing ring, or
orchestra. The performers were all men. Each actor might play several
parts. There was no elaborate scenery; the spectator had to rely chiefly
on his own imagination for the setting of the piece. The actors indulged
in few lively movements or gestures. They must have looked from a distance
like a group of majestic statues. All wore elaborate costumes, and tragic
actors, in addition, were made to appear larger than human with masks,
padding, and thick-soled boots, or buskins. The performances occupied the
three days of the Dionysiac festivals, beginning early in the morning and
lasting till night. All this time was necessary because they formed
contests for a prize which the people awarded to the poet and chorus whose
presentation was judged of highest excellence.
[Illustration: A DANCING GIRL
A Greek bronze statuette found in a sunken galley off the coast of Tunis.
The galley had been wrecked while on its way to Rome carrying a load of
art objects to decorate the villas of wealthy nobles. This statuette was
doubtless a life-like copy of some well-known entertainer. The dancer's
pose suggests the American "cakewalk" and her costume, the modern "hobble
skirt."]
PANTOMIME AND VAUDEVILLE AT ROME
Pantomimes formed the staple amusement of the Roman theater. In these
performances a single dancer, by movements and gestures, represented
mythological scenes and love stories. The actor took several characters in
succession and a chorus accompanied him with songs. There were also
"vaudeville" entertainments, with all manner of jugglers, ropedancers,
acrobats, and clowns, to amuse a people who found no pleasure in the
refined productions of the Greek stage.
CHARIOT RACES
Far more popular than even pantomime and vaudeville were the "games of the
circus." At Rome these were held chiefly in the Circus Maximus. Chariot
races formed the principal attraction of the circus. There were usually
four horses to a chariot, though sometimes the drivers showed their skill
by handling as many as six or seven horses. The contestants whirled seven
times around the low wall, or _spina_, which divided the race course. The
shortness of the stretches and the sharp turns about the _spina_ must have
prevented the attainment of great speed. A race, nevertheless, was a most
exciting sport. What we should call "fouling" was permitted and even
encouraged. The driver might turn his team against another or might
endeavor to upset a rival's car. It was a very tame contest that did not
have its accompaniment of broken chariots, fallen horses, and killed or
injured drivers.
[Illustration: THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS (RESTORATION)]
ANIMAL BAITINGS
The Circus Maximus was often used for a variety of animal shows. Fierce
wild beasts, brought from every quarter of the empire, were turned loose
to slaughter one another, or to tear to pieces condemned criminals. [16]
More popular still were the contests between savage animals and men. Such
amusements did something to satisfy the lust for blood in the Roman
populace--a lust which was more completely satisfied by the gladiatorial
combats.
[Illustration: GLADIATORS
From a stucco relief on the tomb of Scaurus, Pompeii. Beginning at the
left are two fully armed horsemen fighting with lances. Behind them are
two gladiators, one of whom is appealing to the people. Then follows a
combat in which the defeated party raises his hand in supplication for
mercy. The lower part of the relief represents fights with various wild
beasts.]
GLADIATORIAL SHOWS
Exhibitions of gladiators were known in Italy long before they became
popular at Rome. The combats probably started from the savage practice of
sacrificing prisoners or slaves at the funeral of their master. Then the
custom arose of allowing the victims a chance for their lives by having
them fight one another, the conquerors being spared for future battles.
From this it was but a step to keeping trained slaves as gladiators.
During the imperial epoch the number of such exhibitions increased
greatly. The emperor Trajan, for example, to celebrate his victories over
the Dacians, [17] exhibited no less than ten thousand men within the space
of four months. The gladiators belonged to various classes, according to
the defensive armor they wore and the style of fighting they employed.
When a man was wounded and unable to continue the struggle, he might
appeal to the spectators. He lifted his finger to plead for release; if he
had fought well, the people indicated their willingness to spare him by
waving their handkerchiefs. If the spectators were in a cruel mood, they
turned down their thumbs as the signal for his deathblow. These hideous
exhibitions continued in different parts of the Roman Empire until the
fifth century of our era.
"BREAD AND THE GAMES OF THE CIRCUS."
Gladiatorial combats, chariot races, and dramatic shows were free
performances. For the lower classes in the Roman city they became the
chief pleasure of life. The days of their celebration were public
holidays, which in the fourth century numbered no less than one hundred
and seventy-five. The once-sovereign people of Rome became a lazy,
worthless rabble, fed by the state and amused with the games. It was well
said by an ancient satirist that the Romans wanted only two things to make
them happy--"bread and the games of the circus." [18]
93. SLAVERY
PLACE OF SLAVERY IN CLASSICAL LIFE
The private life of the Greeks and Romans, as described in the preceding
pages, would have been impossible without the existence of a large servile
class. Slaves did much of the heavy and disagreeable work in the ancient
world, thus allowing the free citizen to engage in more honorable
employment or to pass his days in dignified leisure.
SOURCES OF SLAVES
The Greeks seem sometimes to have thought that only barbarians should be
degraded to the condition of servitude. Most Greek slaves, as a matter of
fact, were purchased from foreign countries. But after the Romans had
subdued the Mediterranean world, their captives included not only members
of inferior races, but also the cultivated inhabitants of Greece, Egypt,
and Asia Minor. We hear of slaves at Rome who served as clerks,
secretaries, librarians, actors, and musicians. Their education was often
superior to that of the coarse and brutal masters who owned them.
NUMBER AND CHEAPNESS OF SLAVES
The number of slaves, though great enough in Athens and other Greek
cities, reached almost incredible figures during the later period of Roman
history. Every victorious battle swelled the troops of captives sent to
the slave markets at Rome. Ordinary slaves became as cheap as beasts of
burden are now. The Roman poet Horace tells us that at least ten slaves
were necessary for a gentleman in even moderate circumstances. Wealthy
individuals, given to excessive luxury, might number their city slaves by
the hundreds, besides many more on their country estates.
SLAVES' TASKS
Slaves engaged in a great variety of occupations. They were domestic
servants, farm laborers, miners, artisans, factory hands, and even
shopkeepers. Household slaves at Rome were employed in every conceivable
way. Each part of a rich man's residence had its special staff of
servants. The possession of a fine troop of slaves, dressed in handsome
liveries, was a favorite method of showing one's wealth and luxury.
TREATMENT OF SLAVES
It is difficult for us to realize the attitude of ancient peoples toward
their slaves. They were regarded as part of the chattels of the house--as
on a level with domestic animals rather than human beings. Though Athenian
law forbade owners to kill their slaves or to treat them cruelly, it
permitted the corporal punishment of slaves for slight offenses. At Rome,
until the imperial epoch, [19] no restraints whatever existed upon the
master's power. A slave was part of his property with which he could do
exactly as he pleased. The terrible punishments, the beating with scourges
which followed the slightest misconduct or neglect of duty, the branding
with a hot iron which a runaway slave received, the fearful penalty of
crucifixion which followed an attempt upon the owner's life--all these
tortures show how hard was the lot of the bondman in pagan Rome.
POSSIBILITIES OF FREEDOM
A slave, under some circumstances, could gain his freedom. In Greece,
where many little states constantly at war bordered one another, a slave
could often run away to liberty. In a great empire like Rome, where no
boundary lines existed, this was usually impossible. Freedom, however, was
sometimes voluntarily granted. A master in his will might liberate his
favorite slave, as a reward for the faithful service of a lifetime. A more
common practice permitted the slave to keep a part of his earnings until
he had saved enough to purchase his freedom.
[Illustration: A SLAVE'S COLLAR
A runaway slave, if recaptured, was sometimes compelled to wear a metal
collar riveted about his neck. One of these collars, still preserved at
Rome, bears the inscription: _Servus sum dom(i)ni mei Scholastici v(iri)
sp(ectabüis). Tene me ne fugiam de domo._--"I am the slave of my master
Scholasticus, a gentleman of importance. Hold me, lest I flee from home."]
PERMANENCE OF SLAVERY
Slavery in Greece and Italy had existed from the earliest times. It never
was more flourishing than in the great age of classical history. Nor did
it pass away when the Roman world became Christian. The spread of
Christianity certainly helped to improve the lot of the slave and to
encourage his liberation. The Church, nevertheless, recognized slavery
from the beginning. Not until long after ancient civilization had perished
did the curse of slavery finally disappear from European lands. [20]
94. GREEK LITERATURE
EPIC POETRY
The literature of Greece begins with epic poetry. An epic may be defined
as a long narrative in verse, dealing with some large and noble theme. The
earliest epic poetry of the Greeks was inseparable from music. Wandering
minstrels sang at feasts in the palaces of kings and accompanied their
lays with the music of the clear-toned lyre. In time, as his verse reached
a more artistic character, the singer was able to give up the lyre and to
depend for effect solely on the poetic power of his narrative. Finally,
the scattered lays were combined into long poems. The most famous are the
_Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, works which the Greeks attributed to Homer.
[21]
LYRIC POETRY
Several centuries after Homer the Greeks began to create a new form of
poetic expression--lyric poetry. In short poems, accompanied by the flute
or the lyre, they found a medium for the expression of personal feelings
which was not furnished by the long and cumbrous epic. The greatest lyric
poet was Pindar. We still possess forty-four of his odes, which were
written in honor of victorious athletes at the Olympian and other national
games. [22] Pindar's verses were so popular that he became, as it were,
the "poet laureate" of Greece. When Alexander the Great destroyed Thebes,
[23] the native town of Pindar, he spared that poet's birthplace from the
general ruin.
[Illustration: SOPHOCLES (Lateran Museum, Rome)
This marble statue is possibly a copy of the bronze original which the
Athenians set up in the theater of Dionysus. The feet and the box of
manuscript rolls are modern restorations.]
ATHENIAN TRAGEDY
The three great masters of the tragic drama [24] lived and wrote in Athens
during the splendid half century between the Persian and the Peloponnesian
wars. Such was the fertility of their genius that they are said to have
written altogether nearly three hundred plays. Only thirty-two have come
down to us. Aeschylus, the first of the tragic poets, had fought at
Marathon and Salamis. One of his works, the _Persians_, is a magnificent
song of triumph for the victory of Hellas. Sophocles, while yet a young
man, gained the prize in a dramatic contest with Aeschylus. His plays mark
the perfection of Greek tragedy. After the death of Sophocles the
Athenians revered him as a hero and honored his memory with yearly
sacrifices. Euripides was the third of the Athenian dramatists and the
most generally popular. His fame reached far beyond his native city. We
are told that the Sicilians were so fond of his verses that they granted
freedom to every one of the Athenian prisoners captured at Syracuse who
could recite the poet's lines.
ATHENIAN COMEDY
Athenian comedy during the fifth century B.C. is represented by the plays
of Aristophanes. He was both a great poet and a great satirist. In one
comedy Aristophanes attacks the demagogue Cleon, who was prominent in
Athenian politics after the death of Pericles. In other comedies he
ridicules the philosophers, makes fun of the ordinary citizen's delight in
sitting on jury courts and trying cases, and criticizes those responsible
for the unfortunate expedition to Sicily. The plays of Aristophanes were
performed before admiring audiences of thousands of citizens and hence
must have had much influence on public opinion.
HISTORY
The "father of history," Herodotus, flourished about the middle of the
fifth century B.C. Though a native of Asia Minor, Herodotus spent some of
the best years of his life at Athens, mingling in its brilliant society
and coming under the influences, literary and artistic, of that city. He
traveled widely in the Greek world and in the East, as a preparation for
his great task of writing an account of the rise of the Oriental nations
and the struggle between Greece and Persia. Herodotus was not a critical
historian, diligently sifting truth from fable. Where he can he gives us
facts. Where facts are lacking, he tells interesting stories in a most
winning style. A much more scientific writer was Thucydides, an Athenian
who lived during the epoch of the Peloponnesian War and became the
historian of that contest. An Athenian contemporary of Thucydides,
Xenophon, is best known from his _Anabasis_, which describes the famous
expedition of the "Ten Thousand" Greeks against Persia. [25]
BIOGRAPHY
Of the later prose writers of Greece it is sufficient to name only one--
the immortal Plutarch. He was a native of Chaeronea in Boeotia and lived
during the first century of our era. Greece at that time was only a
province of the Roman Empire; the days of her greatness had long since
passed away. Plutarch thus had rather a melancholy task in writing his
_Parallel Lives_. In this work he relates, first the life of an eminent
Greek, then of a famous Roman who in some way resembled him; and ends the
account with a short comparison of the two men. Plutarch had a wonderful
gift of sympathy for his heroes and a keen eye for what was dramatic in
their careers. It is not surprising, therefore, that Plutarch has always
been a favorite author. No other ancient writer gives us so vivid and
intimate a picture of the classical world.
ORIGINALITY OF GREEK LITERATURE
From the foregoing survey it is clear that the Greeks were pioneers in
many forms of literature. They first composed artistic epic poems. They
invented lyric and dramatic poetry. They were the first to write histories
and biographies. In oratory, as has been seen, they also rose to eminence.
[26] We shall now find that the Greek intellect was no less fertile and
original in the study of philosophy.
95. GREEK PHILOSOPHY
THE SOPHISTS
The Greek philosophy took its rise in the seventh century B.C., when a few
bold students began to search out the mysteries of the universe. Their
theories were so many and so contradictory, however, that after a time
philosophers gave up the study of nature and proposed in turn to study man
himself. These later thinkers were called sophists. They traveled
throughout Greece, gathering the young men about them and lecturing for
pay on subjects of practical interest. Among other things they taught the
rhetoric and oratory which were needed for success in a public career.
SOCRATES
One of the founders of Greek philosophy and the greatest teacher of his
age was Socrates the Athenian. He lived and taught during the period of
the Peloponnesian War. Socrates resembled the sophists in his possession
of an inquiring, skeptical mind which questioned every common belief and
superstition. But he went beyond the sophists in his emphasis on problems
of every-day morality.
Though Socrates wrote nothing, his teaching and personality made a deep
impression on his contemporaries. The Delphic oracle declared that no one
in the world was wiser than Socrates. Yet he lived through a long life at
Athens, a poor man who would neither work at his trade of sculptor, nor
(as did the sophists) accept money for his instruction. He walked the
streets, barefoot and half-clad, and engaged in animated conversation with
anyone who was willing to discuss intellectual subjects with him. Socrates
must have been a familiar figure to the Athenians. His short body, large,
bald head, and homely features hardly presented the ideal of a
philosopher. Even Aristophanes in a comedy laughs at him.
[Illustration: SOCRATES (Vatican Gallery, Rome)]
CONDEMNATION AND DEATH OF SOCRATES
Late in life Socrates was accused of impiety and of corrupting the youth
of Athens with his doctrines. As a matter of fact he was a deeply
religious man. If he objected to the crude mythology of Homer, he often
spoke of one God, who ruled the world, and of a divine spirit or
conscience within his own breast. A jury court found him guilty, however,
and condemned him to death. He refused to escape from prison when
opportunity offered and passed his last days in eager conversation on the
immortality of the soul. When the hour of departure arrived, he bade his
disciples farewell and calmly drained the cup of hemlock, a poison that
caused a painless death. Although Socrates gave his life for his
philosophy, this did not perish with him.
PLATO
One of the members of the Socratic circle was Plato, a wealthy noble who
abandoned a public career for the attractions of philosophy. After the
death of Socrates, Plato traveled widely in the Greek world and even
visited Egypt, where he interviewed the learned priests. On his return to
Athens Plato began teaching in the garden and gymnasium called the
Academy. [27] His writings, known as _Dialogues_, are cast in the form of
question and answer that Socrates had used. In most of them Plato makes
Socrates the chief speaker. Plato's works are both profound in thought and
admirable in style. The Athenians used to say that if Zeus had spoken
Greek he would have spoken it as did Plato.
ARISTOTLE
As great a philosopher as Plato, but a far less attractive writer, was
Aristotle. He was not an Athenian by birth, but he passed many years in
Athens, first as a pupil of Plato, who called him the "mind" of the
school, and then as a teacher in the Athenian city. Aristotle seems to
have taken all knowledge for his province. He investigated the ideas
underlying the arts of rhetoric and poetry; he gathered the constitutions
of many Greek states and drew from them some general principles of
politics; he studied collections of strange plants and animals to learn
their structure and habits; he examined the acts and beliefs of men in
order to write books on ethics. In all this investigation Aristotle was
not content to accept what previous men had written or to spin a pleasing
theory out of his own brain. Everywhere he sought for facts; everything he
tried to bring to the test of personal observation. Aristotle, then, was
as much a scientist as a philosopher. His books were reverently studied
for centuries after his death and are still used in our universities.
EPICUREANISM
The system of philosophy called Epicureanism was founded by a Greek named
Epicurus. He taught in Athens during the earlier part of the third century
B.C. Epicurus believed that pleasure is the sole good, pain, the sole
evil. He meant by pleasure not so much the passing enjoyments of the hour
as the permanent happiness of a lifetime. In order to be happy men should
not trouble themselves with useless luxuries, but should lead the "simple
life." They must be virtuous, for virtue will bring more real satisfaction
than vice. Above all, men ought to free themselves from idle hopes and
fears about a future existence. The belief in the immortality of the soul,
said Epicurus, is only a delusion, for both soul and body are material
things which death dissolves into the atoms making up the universe. And if
there are any gods, he declared, they do not concern themselves with human
affairs. Some of the followers of Epicurus seemed to find in his
philosophic system justification for free indulgence in every appetite and
passion. Even to-day, when we call a person an "Epicurean," we think of
him as a selfish pleasure seeker.
STOICISM
The noblest of all pagan philosophies was Stoicism, founded by Zeno, a
contemporary of Epicurus. Virtue, said the Stoic, consists in living
"according to nature," that is, according to the Universal Reason or
Divine Providence that rules the world. The followers of this philosophy
tried, therefore, to ignore the feelings and exalt the reason as a guide
to conduct. They practiced self-denial, despised the pomps and vanities of
the world, and sought to rise above such emotions as grief, fear, hope,
and joy. The doctrines of Stoicism gained many adherents among the Romans
[28] and through them became a real moral force in the ancient world.
Stoicism is even now no outworn creed. Our very word "stoical" is a
synonym for calm indifference to pleasure or to pain.
96. ROMAN LITERATURE
RISE OF ROMAN LITERATURE
The beginnings of Roman literature go back to the third century B.C., when
some knowledge of the Greek language became increasingly common in Rome.
The earlier writers--chiefly poets and dramatists--did little original
work, and usually were content to translate and adapt the productions of
Greek authors for Roman audiences. During this period the Romans gradually
discovered the capabilities of their language for prose composition. The
republican institutions of Rome, like those of Athens, were highly
favorable to the art of public speaking. It was the development of oratory
which did most to mold the Latin language into fitness for the varied
forms of prose.
CICERO
Cicero, the greatest of Roman orators, created a style for Latin prose
composition which has been admired and imitated by men of letters even to
our own day. Latin, in his hands, became a magnificent instrument for the
expression of human thought. Cicero's qualities as an author are shown,
not only by his _Orations_, but also by the numerous _Epistles_ which he
wrote to friends and correspondents in all parts of the Roman world.
Besides their historical interest Cicero's letters are models of what good
letters ought to be--the expression of the writer's real thoughts and
feelings in simple, unstilted language. Cicero also composed a number of
_Dialogues_, chiefly on philosophical themes. If not very profound, they
are delightfully written, and long served as textbooks in the schools.
CAESAR
Another eminent statesman--Julius Caesar--won success in literature. As an
orator he was admitted by his contemporaries to stand second to Cicero.
None of his speeches have survived. We possess, however, his invaluable
_Commentaries_ on the Gallic and Civil wars. These works, though brief and
in most parts rather dull, are highly praised for their simple, concise
style and their mastery of the art of rapid narration.
VERGIL AND HORACE
The half century included within the Augustan Age marks a real epoch in
the history of Latin literature. The most famous poet of this period was
Vergil. The _Aeneid_, which he undertook at the suggestion of Augustus, is
his best-known work. In form the poem is a narrative of the adventures of
the Trojan hero, Aeneas, [29] but its real theme is the growth of Rome
under the fostering care of the gods. The _Aeneid_, though unfinished at
the author's death, became at once what it has always remained--the only
ancient epic worthy of comparison with the _Iliad_ or with the _Odyssey._
Another member of the Augustan circle was Vergil's friend and fellow-
worker, Horace. An imitative poet, Horace reproduced in Latin verse the
forms, and sometimes even the substance, of his Greek models. But, like
Vergil, what Horace borrowed he made his own by the added beauty which he
gave to it. His _Odes_ are perhaps the most admirable examples of literary
art to be found in any language.
LIVY
The most famous prose writer of the Augustan Age was Livy. His _History of
Rome_, beginning with Romulus and extending to Augustus, traced the rise
and growth of the Roman state during eight centuries of triumphal
progress. It did in prose what Vergil's _Aeneid_ had done in verse.
TACITUS
The period of the "Good Emperors" saw the rise of several important
authors, of whom one, the historian Tacitus, was a man of genius. The
crowning labor of his life was a history of Rome from Tiberius to
Domitian. Of this work, issued under the two titles of _Histories_ and
_Annals_, only about one-half is extant.
SURVIVAL OF ROMAN LITERATURE
Less than two hundred years separate Cicero and Tacitus. During this
period Latin authors, writing under the influence of old Greece,
accomplished much valuable work. Some of their productions are scarcely
inferior to the Greek masterpieces. In later centuries, when Greek
literature was either neglected or forgotten in the West, the literature
of Rome was still read and enjoyed. Even to-day a knowledge of it forms an
essential part of a "classical" education.
97. GREEK ARCHITECTURE
CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE
The existing monuments of Greek architecture--chiefly ruined temples--
afford some idea of its leading characteristics. The building materials
were limestone and white marble. The blocks of stone were not bound
together by cement, but by metal clamps which held them in a firm grip. It
was usual to color the ornamental parts of a temple and the open spaces
that served as a background for sculpture. The Greeks did not employ the
principle of the arch, in order to cover large spaces with a vaulted
ceiling. Their temples and other public buildings had only flat ceilings,
resting on long rows of columns. The column probably developed from the
wooden post or tree trunk used in timber construction. The capital at the
top of the column originated in the square wooden slab which supported the
heavy beam of the roof.
[Illustration: CORNER OF A DORIC FAÇADE]
[Illustration: CORNER OF AN IONIC FAÇADE]
THE DORIC COLUMN
The two Greek orders of architecture, Doric and Ionic, [30] are
distinguished mainly by differences in the treatment of the column. The
Doric column has no base of its own. The sturdy shaft is grooved
lengthwise with some twenty flutings. The capital is a circular band of
stone capped by a square block, all without decoration. The mainland of
Greece was the especial home of the Doric order. This was also the
characteristic style of southern Italy and Sicily.
THE IONIC COLUMN.
The Ionic column rests upon a base. Its shaft is tall and slender. The
beautifully carved capital swells outward into two spiral rolls, the ends
of which are curled under to form the "volutes." The Ionic order
flourished particularly in Asia Minor. It was well known, too, at Athens.
[Illustration: CAPITALS
The highly decorative Corinthian capital, modeled on acanthus leaves, came
into fashion in Alexandrian and Roman times. The Composite capital, as its
name indicates, combined details from the Ionic and Corinthian into one
ornate whole. This and the plain Tuscan capital were quite generally
employed by the Romans.]
NATURE OF THE GREEK TEMPLE
The temple formed the chief structure in a Greek city. It was very simple
in outline--merely a rectangular building provided with doors, but without
windows. Around it was a single or a double row of columns. Above them
rose the architrave, a plain band of massive stones which reached from one
column to another. Then came the frieze, adorned with sculptured reliefs,
then the horizontal cornice, and at the ends of the building the
triangular pediments formed by the sloping roof. The pediments were
sometimes decorated with statues. Since the temple was not intended to
hold a congregation of worshipers, but only to contain the image of the
god, the interior usually had little ornamentation.
[Illustration: THE PARTHENON
RESTORATION
PRESENT CONDITION
After serving as a temple for about nine centuries the Parthenon was
turned into a Christian church and later into a Mohammedan mosque. In 1687
A.D. the Venetians bombarded Athens and sent a shell into the center of
the building which the Turks had used as a powder magazine. The result was
an explosion that threw down the side walls and many of the columns.]
[Illustration: FIGURES FROM THE PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON]
[Illustration: FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE]
[Illustration: CORNER OF THE PARTHENON (RESTORED)]
[Illustration: CARYATID PORCH OF THE ERECHTHEUM]
UNIQUENESS OF THE GREEK TEMPLE
Greek temples were not very large, for hugeness was no object to the
builders. They were not even lavishly decorated. Their beauty lies, most
of all, in their harmonious proportions and perfect symmetry. In the best
examples of the Greek temple there are, for instance, no straight lines.
The columns are not set at equal intervals, but closer together near the
corners of the building. The shafts of the columns, instead of tapering
upward at a uniform rate, swell slightly toward the center. The artistic
eyes of the Greeks delighted in such subtle curves. These characteristics
make a classical temple unique of its kind. [31]
98. GREEK SCULPTURE
THE GREEK GENIUS IN SCULPTURE
The greatest achievement of the Greeks in art was their sculpture. Roman
artists surpassed them in the creation of massive architectural works;
modern artists have surpassed them in painting. In sculpture the Greeks
still remain unexcelled.
LOSS OF THE MASTERPIECES
The existing remains of Greek sculpture are very scanty. The statues of
gold and ivory vanished long ago. The bronze statues, formerly numbered by
thousands, have nearly all gone into the melting pot. Sculptures in marble
were turned into mortar or used as building materials. Those which escaped
such a fate were often ruined by wanton mutilation and centuries of
neglect. The statues which we still possess are mainly marble copies, made
in Roman times from Greek originals. It is as if the paintings by the old
masters of Europe, four centuries ago, were now known only in the
reproductions by modern artists of inferior powers.
MATERIALS
The Greek sculptor worked with a variety of materials. Wood was in common
use during primitive times. Terra cotta was employed at all periods for
statuettes a few inches in height. Productions in gold and ivory, from the
costliness of these objects, were extremely rare. Bronze was the favorite
material of some of the most eminent artists. The Greek sculptor
especially relied on the beautiful marbles in which his country abounded.
TECHNICAL PROCESSES
The methods employed by the ancient sculptor differed in some respects
from those followed by his modern successors. A Greek marble statue was
usually built up out of several parts. The joining was accomplished with
such skill as to escape ordinary observation. The preliminary work of
hewing out from the rough was done by means of chisels. The surface of the
marble afterwards received a careful polishing with the file, and also
with sand. Marble statues were always more or less painted. The coloring
seems to have been done sparingly, being applied, as a rule, only to the
features and draperies. Still, it is worth while to remember that the pure
white statues of modern sculptors would not have satisfied Greek artists
of the classical age.
VARIETIES OF GREEK SCUPLTURE
Greek sculpture existed in the two forms of bas-reliefs and statuary in
the round. Reliefs were chiefly used for temple pediments and friezes, and
also for the many grave monuments. Statues consisted of the images of the
gods set up in their shrines, the sculptures dedicated as offerings to
divinities, and the figures of statesmen, generals, and victorious
athletes raised in public places and sanctuaries.
IMPORTANCE OF THE SCULPTOR'S ART
This list will show how many were the opportunities which the ancient
sculptor enjoyed. The service of religion created a constant demand for
his genius. The numerous athletic contests and the daily sports of the
gymnasium gave him a chance to study living models in the handsome,
finely-shaped bodies of the contestants. With such inspiration it is not
remarkable that sculpture reached so high a development in ancient Greece.
[32]
99. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE
THE ARCH AND DOME IN ROMAN BUILDINGS
In architecture the Romans achieved preëminence. The temples and other
public works of Greece seem almost insignificant beside the stupendous
edifices raised by Roman genius in every province of the empire. The
ability of the Romans to build on so large a scale arose from their use of
vaulted constructions. Knowledge of the round arch passed over from the
Orient to the Etruscans and from them to the Romans. [33] At first the
arch was employed mainly for gates, drainage sewers, aqueducts, and
bridges. In imperial times this device was adopted to permit the
construction of vast buildings with overarching domes. The principle of
the dome has inspired some of the finest creations of ancient and modern
architecture.
ROMAN USE OF CONCRETE AND RUBBLE
The Romans for many of their buildings made much use of concrete. Its
chief ingredient was _pozzolana_, a sand found in great abundance near
Rome and other sites. When mixed with lime, it formed a very strong
cement. This material was poured in a fluid state into timber casings,
where it quickly set and hardened. Small pieces of stone, called rubble,
were also forced down into the cement to give it additional stability.
Buildings of this sort were usually faced with brick, which in turn might
be covered with thin slabs of marble, thus producing an attractive
appearance.
TEMPLES
The triumphs of Roman architecture were not confined chiefly to sacred
edifices. Roman temples, indeed, are mostly copies from the Greek. In
comparison with their originals, they lack grace and refinement. There is
less accuracy in the masonry fitting and far less careful attention to
details of construction. A frequent departure from Greek models is found
in the restriction of the rows of pillars to the front of the building,
while the sides and rear are lined with "engaged" columns to give the idea
of a colonnade. [34] More characteristically Roman are vaulted temples,
such as the Pantheon, [35] where the circular dome is faced with a Greek
portico.
BASILICAS
Roman basilicas, of which only the ruins are now in existence, were once
found in every city. These were large, lofty buildings for the use of
judges and merchants. The chief feature of a basilica was the spacious
central hall flanked by a single or double row of columns, forming aisles
and supporting the flat roof. At one end of the hall was a semicircular
recess--the apse--where the judges held court. This arrangement of the
interior bears a close resemblance to the plan of the early Christian
church with its nave, choir (or chancel) and columned aisles. The
Christians, in fact, seem to have taken the familiar basilicas as the
models for their places of worship.
[Illustration: PLAN OF THE ULPIAN BASILICA
The hall measured 360 feet in length and 180 feet in width.]
[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF THE ULPIAN BASILICA (RESTORATION)
Built by the Emperor Trajan in connection with his Forum at Rome.]
AQUEDUCTS
Perhaps the most imposing, and certainly among the most useful, of Roman
structures were aqueducts. [36] There were sixty-eight in Italy and the
provinces. No less than fourteen supplied the capital city with water. The
aqueducts usually ran under the surface of the ground, as do our water
pipes. They were carried on arches only across depressions and valleys.
The Claudian aqueduct ran for thirty-six miles underground and for nine
and a half miles on arches. Though these monuments were intended simply as
engineering works, their heavy masses of rough masonry produce an
inspiring sense of power.
[Illustration: A ROMAN AQUEDUCT
The Pont du Gard near Nîmes (ancient Nemausus) in southern France. Built
by the emperor Antoninus Pius. The bridge spans two hilltops nearly a
thousand feet apart. It carries an aqueduct with three tiers of massive
stone arches at a height of 160 feet above the stream. This is the finest
and best preserved aqueduct in existence.]
THERMAE
The abundant water supply furnished by the aqueducts was connected with a
system of great public baths, or _thermae_. [37] Scarcely a town or
village throughout the empire lacked one or more such buildings. Those at
Rome were constructed on a scale of magnificence of which we can form but
a slight conception from the ruins now in existence. In addition to many
elaborate arrangements for the bathers, the _thermae_ included lounging
and reading rooms, libraries, gymnasia, and even museums and galleries of
art. The baths, indeed, were splendid clubhouses, open at little or no
expense to every citizen of the metropolis.
[Illustration: THE COLOSSEUM]
TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS
A very characteristic example of Roman building is found in the triumphal
arches. [38] Their sides were adorned with bas-reliefs, which pictured the
principal scenes of a successful campaign. Memorial structures, called
columns of victory, [39] were also set up in Rome and other cities. Both
arch and column have been frequently imitated by modern architects.
[Illustration: A ROMAN CAMEO
Portrait of a youth cut in sardonyx. Probably of the first century A.D.]
CIRCUSES, THEATERS, AND AMPHITHEATERS
The palaces of Roman emperors and nobles, together with their luxurious
country houses, or villas, have all disappeared. A like fate has befallen
the enormous circuses, such as the Circus Maximus [40] at Rome and the
Hippodrome [41] at Constantinople. The Roman theaters that still survive
reproduce, in most respects, the familiar outlines of the Greek
structures. In the amphitheaters, where animal shows and gladiatorial
combats were exhibited, we have a genuinely Roman invention. The gigantic
edifice, called the Colosseum, in its way as truly typifies Roman
architectural genius as the Parthenon represents at its best that of the
Greeks.
ROMAN SCULPTURE
Roman sculpture owed much to Greek models. However, the portrait statues
and bas-reliefs show originality and illustrate the tendency of the Romans
toward realism in art. The sculptor tried to represent an historic person
as he really looked or an historic event, for example, a battle or a
triumphal procession, as it actually happened. The portrait statues of
Roman emperors and the bas-reliefs from the arch of Titus impress us at
once with a sense of their reality.
WALL PAINTINGS
Our knowledge of Roman painting is almost wholly confined to the wall
paintings found at Rome, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. What has survived is
apparently the work of ordinary craftsmen, who, if not Greeks, were deeply
affected by the Greek spirit. Most of the scenes they depict are taken
from classical mythology. The coloring is very rich; and the peculiar
shade of red used is known to-day by the name of "Pompeian red." The
practice of mural painting passed over from the Romans to European
artists, who have employed it in the frescoes of medieval and modern
churches.
100. ARTISTIC ATHENS
ART CENTERS OF ANTIQUITY
Athens and Rome were the artistic centers of the classical world.
Architects, sculptors, and painters lavished their finest efforts on the
adornment of these two capitals. Here there are still to be seen some of
the most beautiful and impressive monuments of antiquity.
ROADS AND SUBURBS OF ATHENS
Athens lies in the center of the Attic plain, about four miles from the
sea. [42] The city commands a magnificent view of purple-hued mountains
and the shining waters of the Aegean. Roads approached the ancient city
from all parts of Attica. Among these were the highway from Piraeus,
running between the Long Walls, [43] and the Sacred Way from Eleusis,
where the famous mysteries were yearly celebrated. [44] The suburbs of
Athens included the Outer Ceramicus, part of which was used as a national
cemetery, and a pleasure ground and gymnasium on the banks of the
Cephissus, called the Academy. Another resort, known as the Lyceum,
bordered the little stream of the Ilissus.
WALLS OF ATHENS
The traveler who passed through these suburbs came at length to the great
wall, nearly five miles in circumference, raised by Themistocles to
surround the settlement at the foot of the Acropolis. [45] The area
included within this wall made up Old Athens. About six centuries after
Themistocles the Roman emperor Hadrian, by building additional
fortifications on the east, brought an extensive quarter, called New
Athens, inside the city limits.
HILLS OF ATHENS
The region within the walls was broken up by a number of rocky eminences
which have a prominent place in the topography of Athens. Near the center
the Acropolis rises more than two hundred feet above the plain, its summit
crowned with monuments of the Periclean Age. Not far away is the hill
called the Areopagus. Here the Council of the Areopagus, a court of
justice in trials for murder, held its deliberations in the open air.
Beyond this height is the hill of the Pnyx. This was the meeting place of
the Athenian Assembly until the fourth century B.C., when the sessions
were transferred to the theater of Dionysus.
[Illustration: Map, ATHENS]
THE AGORA
The business and social center of an ancient city was the agora or market
place. The Athenian Agora lay in the hollow north of the Areopagus and
Acropolis. The square was shaded by rows of plane trees and lined with
covered colonnades. In the great days of the city, when the Agora was
filled with countless altars and shrines, it presented a most varied and
attractive scene.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
Not all the splendid structures in Athens were confined to the Agora and
the Acropolis. On a slight eminence not far from the Agora, rose the so-
called "Theseum," [46] a marble temple in the Doric order. Another famous
temple, the colossal edifice known as the Olympieum, lay at some distance
from the Acropolis on the southeast. Fifteen of the lofty columns with
their Corinthian capitals are still standing. The theater of Dionysus [47]
is in a fair state of preservation. Beyond this are the remains of the
Odeum, or "Hall of Song," used for musical contests and declamations. The
original building was raised by Pericles, in imitation, it is said, of the
tent of Xerxes. The present ruins are those of the structure erected in
the second century A.D. by a public-spirited benefactor of Athens.
THE ACROPOLIS
The adornment of the Acropolis formed perhaps the most memorable
achievement of Pericles. [48] This rocky mount was approached on the
western side by a flight of sixty marble steps. To the right of the
stairway rose a small but very beautiful Ionic temple dedicated to Athena.
Having mounted the steps, the visitor passed through the superb entrance
gate, or Propylaea, which was constructed to resemble the front of a
temple with columns and pediment. Just beyond the Propylaea stood a great
bronze statue of the Guardian Athena, a masterpiece of the sculptor
Phidias.
[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS (RESTORATION)]
[Illustration: ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS FROM THE SOUTHWEST]
THE ERECHTHEUM
The Erechtheum, a temple which occupies part of the Acropolis, is in the
Ionic style. It may be regarded as the best existing example of this light
and graceful order. Perhaps the most interesting feature is the porch of
the Caryatides, with a marble roof supported by six pillars carved in the
semblance of maidens. [49] This curious but striking device has been often
copied by modern architects.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE PARTHENON
The other temple on the Acropolis is the world-famed edifice known as the
Parthenon, the shrine of the Virgin of the Athena. [50] The Parthenon
illustrates the extreme simplicity of a Greek temple. It had no great size
or height and included only two chambers. The rear room stored sacred
vessels and furniture used in worship, state treasure, and the more
valuable offerings intrusted to the goddess for safekeeping. The second
and larger room contained a colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena, the
work of Phidias. It faced the eastern entrance so that it might be bathed
in the rays of the rising sun. Apart from the large doors a certain amount
of light reached the interior through the semi-transparent marble tiles of
the roof. The Doric columns surrounding the building are marvels of fine
workmanship. The Parthenon, because of its perfection of construction and
admirable proportions, is justly regarded as a masterpiece of
architecture.
[Illustration: PLAN OF THE PARTHENON
The larger room (cella) measured exactly one hundred feet in length.]
SCULPTURES OF THE PARTHENON
The Parthenon was also remarkable for its sculptures [51] executed under
the superintendence of Phidias. The subjects of the pediment sculptures
are taken from the mythic history of Athena. The frieze of the Parthenon
consists of a series of sculptured slabs, over five hundred feet in
length. The subject was the procession of the Great Panathenaea, [52] the
principal festival in honor of Athena. At this time the sacred robe of the
goddess, woven anew for each occasion, was brought to adorn her statue.
The procession is thought of as starting from the western front, where
Athenian youths dash forward on their spirited steeds. Then comes a
brilliant array of maidens, matrons, soldiers, and luteplayers. Near the
center of the eastern front they meet a group of divinities, who are
represented as spectators of the imposing scene. This part of the frieze
is still in excellent condition.
THE GLORY OF ATHENS
It was, indeed, a splendid group of buildings that rose on the Acropolis
height. If to-day they have lost much of their glory, we can still
understand how they were the precious possession of the Athenians and the
wonder of all the ancient world. "O shining, violet-crowned city of song,
great Athens, bulwark of Hellas, walls divine!" The words are those of an
old Greek poet, [53] but they are reëchoed by all who have come under the
magic spell of the literature and art of the Athenian city.
101. ARTISTIC ROME
DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME
The monuments of Rome, unlike those of Athens, cannot lay claim to great
antiquity. The destruction wrought by the Gauls in 390 B.C. and the great
fire under Nero in 64 A.D. removed nearly all traces of the regal and
republican city. Many buildings erected in the imperial age have also
disappeared, because in medieval and modern times the inhabitants of Rome
used the ancient edifices as quarries. The existing monuments give only a
faint idea of the former magnificence of the capital city.
HILLS OF ROME
The city of Rome lies on the Tiber. Where the river approaches Rome it
makes two sharp turns, first to the west and then to the east. On the
western, or Etruscan, bank stood the two hills called Vatican and
Janiculum. They were higher than the famous seven which rose on the
eastern side, where the ancient city was built. Two of these seven hills
possess particular interest. The earliest settlement, as we have seen,
[54] probably occupied the Palatine. It became in later days the favorite
site for the town houses of Roman nobles. In the imperial age the splendid
palaces of the Caesars were located here. The Capitoline, steepest of the
seven hills, was divided into two peaks. On one of these rose the most
famous of all Roman temples, dedicated to Jupiter and his companion
deities, Juno and Minerva. The other peak was occupied by a large temple
of Juno Moneta ("the Adviser"), which served as the mint. The altars,
shrines, and statues which once covered this height were so numerous that
the Capitoline, like the Athenian Acropolis, became a museum of art.
[Illustration: Map, ROME]
WALLS AND OPEN SPACES
Rome in early times was surrounded by a wall which bore the name of its
legendary builder, Servius Tullius. The present fortifications were not
constructed until the reign of the emperor Aurelian. [55] The ancient city
was closely built up, with only two great open spaces, in addition to the
Forum. These were the Circus Maximus, in the hollow between the Palatine
Mount and the Aventine, and the Campus Martius, stretching along the Tiber
to the northwest of the Capitoline Hill.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
Following the map of ancient Rome under the empire we may note the more
important monuments which still exist in something like their original
condition. Across the Tiber and beyond the Campus Martius stands the
mausoleum of Hadrian. [56] The most notable structure in the Campus
Martius is the Pantheon. [57] It is the one ancient building in the entire
Roman world which still survives, inside and out, in a fair state of
preservation. The depression between the Caelian and Esquiline hills
contains the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum. [58] It
was begun by Vespasian and probably completed by Titus. No less than
eighty entrances admitted the forty-five thousand spectators who could be
accommodated in this huge structure. Despite the enormous mass of the
present ruins probably two-thirds of the original materials have been
carried away to be used in other buildings. Close to the Colosseum stands
the arch [59] erected by the Senate in honor of the victory of Constantine
over his rival Maxentius. From this event is dated the triumph of
Christianity in the Roman state. The ruins of the huge baths of Caracalla
lie about half a mile from the Colosseum. Near the center of the city are
the remains of the Forum added by Trajan to the accommodations of the
original Forum. It contains the column of Trajan [60] under which that
emperor was buried.
THE FORUM
The Forum lies in the valley north of the Palatine Hill. It was the
business and social center of the Roman city. During the Middle Ages the
site was buried in ruins and rubbish, in some places to a depth of forty
feet or more. Recent excavations have restored the ancient level and
uncovered the remains of the ancient structures.
[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM AND THE SURROUNDING BUILDINGS (RESTORED)]
[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM AT THE PRESENT TIME]
APPROACH TO THE FORUM
The Forum could be approached from the east by one of the most famous
streets in the world, the Roman Sacred Way. The illustration of the Forum
at the present time gives a view, looking eastward from the Capitoline
Mount, and shows several of the buildings on or near the Sacred Way. At
the left are seen the ruins of the basilica of Constantine. Farther in the
distance the Colosseum looms up. Directly ahead is the arch of Titus,
which commemorates the capture of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. [61] The ruins of
the palaces of the Caesars occupy the slopes of the Palatine.
THE FORUM TO-DAY
The only well-preserved monument in the Forum is the beautiful arch
erected by the emperor Septimius Severus. Beyond it are three columns
which once formed part of the temple of Castor. They date from the time of
Tiberius. In front are the foundations of the Basilica Julia, built by
Augustus. Next come eight Ionic columns, all that remain of the temple of
Saturn. Near it and in the foreground are several columns in the
Corinthian style, belonging to a temple built by Vespasian.
THE FORUM IN ANTIQUITY
These ruined monuments, these empty foundations and lonely pillars, afford
little idea of all the wealth of architecture that once adorned this spot.
Here stood the circular shrine of Vesta, [62] guarding the altar and its
ever-blazing fire. Here was the temple of Concord, famous in Roman
history. [63] The Senate-house was here, and just before it, the Rostra, a
platform adorned with the beaks (_rostra_) of captured ships. From this
place Roman orators addressed their assembled fellow-citizens.
THE GRANDEUR OF ROME
How splendid a scene must have greeted an observer in ancient times who,
from the height of the Capitol, gazed at the city before him. The Forum
was then one radiant avenue of temples, triumphal arches, columns, and
shrines. And beyond the Forum stretched a magnificent array of theaters
and amphitheaters, enormous baths, colossal sepulchers, and statues in
stone and bronze. So prodigious an accumulation of objects beautiful,
costly, and rare has never before or since been found on earth.
STUDIES
1. What is the origin of our words _pedagogue_, _symposium_, _circus_, and
_academy_?
2. Make a list of such Roman names as you have met in your reading.
3. Write a letter describing an imaginary visit to the theater of Dionysus
during the performance of a tragedy.
4. What did civic patriotism mean to the Greek and to the Roman?
5. Have we anything to learn from the Greeks about the importance of
training in music?
6. What were the schoolbooks of Greek boys?
7. What features of Athenian education are noted in the illustration, page
254?
8. How did the position of women at Athens differ from their position in
Homeric Greece?
9. Why does classical literature contain almost no "love stories," or
novels?
10. What contrasts exist between the ancient and the modern house?
11. Describe a Roman litter (illustration, page 263).
12. What differences exist between an ancient and a modern theatre?
13. What features of our "circus" recall the proceedings at the Roman
games?
14. How many holidays (including Sundays) are there in your state? How do
they compare in number with those at Rome in the reign of Marcus Aurelius?
15. Describe the theater of Dionysus (illustration, page 264).
16. What is the "Socratic method" of teaching?
17. How did the Greeks manage to build solidly without the use of mortar?
18. Discuss the appropriateness of the terms: _severe_ Doric; _graceful_
Ionic; _ornate_ Corinthian.
19. Can you find examples of any of the Greek orders in public buildings
familiar to you?
20. How do you explain the almost total loss of original Greek sculptures?
21. By reference to the illustrations, page 279, explain the following
terms: _shaft_; _capital_; _architrave_; _frieze;_ and _cornice._
22. Explain the "Greek profile" seen in the Aphrodite of Cnidus and the
Apollo of the Belvedere (plate facing page 76).
23. Name five famous works of Greek sculpture which exist to-day only in
Roman copies.
24. What is your favorite Greek statue? Why do you like it?
25. "The dome, with the round arch out of which it sprang, is the most
fertile conception in the whole history of building." Justify this
statement.
26. What famous examples of domed churches and public buildings are
familiar to you?
27. What artistic objections to the use of "engaged columns" can you
mention?
28. Discuss the revival of cement construction in modern times. What are
its special advantages?
29. What examples of triumphal arches in the United States and France are
known to you?
30. Do you know of any modern columns of victory?
31. Why is it likely that the bust of Nerva (illustration, page 200) is a
more faithful likeness than that of Pericles (illustration, page 103)?
32. Write a brief essay describing an imaginary walk on the Athenian
Acropolis in the Age of Pericles.
33. Enumerate the most important contributions to civilization made in
classical antiquity.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Webster, _Readings in Ancient History_, chapter xxi, "Roman Life as
Seen in Pliny's Letters"; chapter xxii, "A Satirist of Roman Society."
[2] Euripides, _Iphigenia in Tauris_, 57.
[3] See page 237.
[4] In "Marcus Tullius Cicero," "Marcus," the _praenomen_, corresponds to
our "given" name; "Tullius," the _nomen_, marks the clan, or _gens;_
"Cicero," the _cognomen_, indicates the family.
[5] See pages 151, 206.
[6] See page 218.
[7] See page 148.
[8] See page 144.
[9] See the illustrations, pages 117, 271.
[10] The corresponding names of women's garments were _stola_ and
_pallet_.
[11] See page 199.
[12] See the illustration, page 145.
[13] See page 288.
[14] See page 285.
[15] Panathenaic means 'belonging to all the Athenians.' See page 292.
[16] See page 234.
[17] See page 200.
[18] _Panem et circenses_ (Juvenal x, 80-81).
[19] See page 215.
[20] See pages 436, 463.
[21] See page 73.
[22] See page 80.
[23] See page 120.
[24] See page 265.
[25] See page 121.
[26] See page 117.
[27] See page 261.
[28] See page 226.
[29] See page 142.
[30] The so-called Corinthian order differs from the Ionic only in its
capital.
[31] For illustrations of Greek temples, see pages 89, 101.
[32] For illustrations of Greek statues see pages 80, 81, 103, 117, 119,
129, 271 and the plates facing pages 76, 77, 80, 130, 131.
[33] See pages 61, 138.
[34] See the illustration, page 215.
[35] See the illustration, page 202.
[36] See the illustrations, pages 157, 285.
[37] See page 263.
[38] See the illustration, page 236.
[39] See the illustrations, pages 163, 201.
[40] See the illustration, page 266.
[41] See the illustration, page 339.
[42] See the map, page 107.
[43] See page 108.
[44] See page 227.
[45] See page 100.
[46] See the illustration, page 101.
[47] See the illustration, page 264.
[48] See page 108.
[49] See the plate facing page 281.
[50] See the plate facing page 280.
[51] See the plate facing page 281.
[52] See page 264.
[53] Pindar, _Fragments_, 76.
[54] See page 140.
[55] See the illustration, page 220.
[56] See the illustration, page 203.
[57] See the illustration, page 202.
[58] See the illustration, page 286.
[59] See the illustration, page 236.
[60] See the illustration, page 201.
[61] See the plate facing page 198.
[62] See page 146.
[63] See page 177.