ATHENS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES.
[Note: The figures referred to in a few places in this chapter have had
to be omitted from the etext.]
At the commencement of the Peloponnesian war Athens was at the height
of its glory under the brilliant administration of Pericles. We may
therefore here pause to take a brief survey of the city and of its most
important buildings. Athens is situated about three miles from the
sea-coast, in the central plain of Attica. In this plain rise several
eminences. Of these the most prominent is a lofty insulated mountain,
with a conical peaked summit, now called the Hill of St. George, and
which bore in ancient times the name of LYCABETTUS. This mountain,
which was not included within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east
of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs of the
city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to
Edinburgh. South-west of Lycabettus there are four hills of moderate
height, all of which formed part of the city. Of these the nearest to
Lycabettus and at the distance of a mile from the latter, was the
ACROPOLIS, or citadel of Athens, a square craggy rock rising abruptly
about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long from east to
west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Immediately west of the
Acropolis is a second hill of irregular form, the AREOPAGUS. To the
south-west there rises a third hill, the PNYX, on which the assemblies
of the citizens were held; and to the south of the latter is a fourth
hill, known as the MUSEUM. On the eastern and western sides of the
city there run two small streams, which are nearly exhausted before
they reach the sea, by the heats of summer and by the channels for
artificial irrigation. That on the east is the Ilissus, which flowed
through the southern quarter of the city: that on the west is the
Cephissus. South of the city was seen the Saronic gulf, with the
harbours of Athens.
Athens is said to have derived its name from the prominence given to
the worship of Athena by its king Erechtheus. The inhabitants were
previously called Cranai and Cecropidae, from Cecrops, who according to
tradition, was the original founder of the city. This at first occupied
only the hill or rock which afterwards became the ACROPOLIS; but
gradually the buildings began to spread over the ground at the southern
foot of this hill. It was not till the time of Pisistratus and his
sons (B.C. 560-514) that the city began to assume any degree of
splendour. The most remarkable building of these despots was the
gigantic temple of the Olympian Zeus, which, however, was not finished
till many centuries later. In B.C. 500 the theatre of Dionysus was
commenced on the south-eastern slope of the Acropolis, but was not
completed till B.C. 340; though it must have been used for the
representation of plays long before that period.
Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of ashes. After the
departure of the Persians, its reconstruction on a much larger scale
was commenced under the superintendence of Themistocles, whose first
care was to provide for its safety by the erection of walls. The
Acropolis now formed the centre of the city, round which the new walls
described an irregular circle of about 60 stadia or 7 1/2 miles in
circumference. The space thus enclosed formed the ASTY, or city,
properly so called. But the views of Themistocles were not confined to
the mere defence of Athens: he contemplated making her a great naval
power, and for this purpose adequate docks and arsenals were required.
Previously the Athenians had used as their only harbour the open
roadstead of PHALERUM on the eastern side of the Phaleric bay, where
the sea-shore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles transferred the
naval station of the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus, which is
distant about 4 1/2 miles from Athens, and contains three natural
harbours,--a large one on the western side, called simply Piraeus or
The Harbour, and two smaller ones an the eastern side, called
respectively ZEA and MUNYCHIA, the latter being nearest to the city.
It was not till the administration of Pericles that the walls were
built which connected Athens with her ports. These were at first the
outer or northern Long Wall, which ran from Athens to Piraeus, and the
Phaleric wall connecting the city with Phalerum. These were commenced
in B.C. 457, and finished in the following year. It was soon found,
however, that the space thus enclosed was too vast to be easily
defended; and as the port of Phalerum was small and insignificant in
comparison with the Piraeus, and soon ceased to be used by the Athenian
ships of war, its wall was abandoned and probably allowed to fall into
decay. Its place was supplied by another Long wall, which was built
parallel to the first at a distance of only 550 feet, thus rendering
both capable of being defended by the same body of men. Their height
in all probability was not less than 60 feet. In process of time the
space between the two Long Walls was occupied on each side by houses.
It will be seen from the preceding description that Athens, in its
larger acceptation, and including its port, consisted of two circular
cities, the Asty and Piraeus, each of about 7 1/2 miles in
circumference, and joined together by a broad street of between four
and five miles long.
Such was the outward and material form of that city, which during the
period between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars reached the highest
pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory. The latter portion of
this period, or that comprised under the ascendency of Pericles,
exhibits Athenian art in its highest state of perfection, and is
therefore by way of excellence commonly designated as the age of
Pericles. The great sculptor of this period--perhaps the greatest the
world has ever seen--was Phidias, to whom Pericles intrusted the
superintendence of all the works executed in his administration.
The first public monuments that arose after the Persian wars were
erected under the auspices of Cimon, who was, like Pericles, a lover
and patron of the arts. The principal of these were the small Ionic
temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory), and the Theseum, or temple
of Theseus. The temple of Nike Apteros was only 27 feet in length by
18 in breadth, and was erected on the Acropolis in commemoration of
Cimon's victory at the Eurymedon. A view of it is given at the
beginning of this chapter, and its position on the Acropolis, on one
side of the Propylaea, is seen in the drawings on p. 91, as well as on
the Frontispiece of the work.
The Theseum is situated on a height to the north of the Areopagus, and
was built to receive the bones of Theseus, which Cimon brought from
Scyros in B.C. 469. It was probably finished about 465, and is the
best preserved of all the monuments of ancient Athens. It was at once
a tomb and temple, and possessed the privileges of an asylum. It is of
the Doric order, 164 feet in length by 45 feet broad, and surrounded
with columns.
But it was the Acropolis which was the chief centre of the
architectural splendour of Athens. After the Persian wars the
Acropolis had ceased to be inhabited, and was appropriated to the
worship of Athena and to the other guardian deities of the city. It was
covered with the temples of gods and heroes; and thus its platform
presented not only a sanctuary, but a museum, containing the finest
productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which the whiteness
of the marble was relieved by brilliant colours, and rendered still
more dazzling by the transparent clearness of the Athenian atmosphere.
It was surrounded with walls, and the surface seems to have been
divided into terraces communicating with one another by steps. The
only approach to it was from the Agora on its western side at the top
of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood the
Propylaea, constructed under the auspices of Pericles, and which served
as a suitable entrance to the exquisite works within. The Propylaea
were themselves one of the masterpieces of Athenian art. They were
entirely of Pentelic marble, and covered the whole of the western end
of the Acropolis, having a breadth of 168 feet. The central portion of
them consisted of two porticoes, of which the western one faced the
city, and the eastern one the interior of the Acropolis, each
consisting of a front of six fluted Doric columns. This central part
of the building was 58 feet in breadth, but the remaining breadth of
the rock at this point was covered by two wings, which projected 26
feet in front of the western portico. Each of these wings was in the
form of a Doric temple. The northern one, or that on the left of a
person ascending the Acropolis, was called the PINACOTHECA, from its
walls being covered with paintings. The southern wing consisted only
of a porch or open gallery. Immediately before its western front stood
the little temple of Nike Apteros already mentioned.
On passing through the Propylaea all the glories of the Acropolis
became visible. The chief building was the Parthenon (I.E. House of
the Virgin), the most perfect production of Grecian architecture. It
derived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos, or
Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It was also called
HECATOMPEDON, from its breadth of 100 feet. It was built under the
administration of Pericles, and was completed in B.C. 438. The
Parthenon stood on the highest part of the Acropolis near its centre,
and probably occupied the site of an earlier temple destroyed by the
Persians. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on a rustic basement of
ordinary limestone, and its architecture, which was of the Doric order,
was of the purest kind. Its dimensions were about 228 feet in length,
101 feet in breadth, and 66 feet in height to the top of the pediment.
It consisted of a cella, surrounded by a peristyle. The cella was
divided into two chambers of unequal size, the eastern one of which was
about 98 feet long, and the western one about 43 feet. The ceiling of
both these chambers was supported by rows of columns. The whole
building was adorned with the most exquisite sculptures, executed by
various artists under the direction of Phidias. These consisted of,
1. The sculptures in the tympana of the pediments (I.E. the inner
portion of the triangular gable ends of the roof above the two
porticoes), each of which was filled with about 24 colossal figures.
The group in the eastern or principal front represented the birth of
Athena from the head of Zeus, and the western the contest between
Athena and Poseidon (Neptune) for the land of Attica. 2. The metopes
between the triglyphs in the frieze of the entablature (I.E. the upper
of the two portions into which the space between the columns and the
roof is divided) were filled with sculptures in high relief,
representing a variety of subjects relating to Athena herself, or to
the indigenous heroes of Attica. Each tablet was 4 feet 3 inches
square. Those on the south side related to the battle of the Athenians
with the Centaurs. One of the metopes is figured below. 3. The
frieze which ran along outside the wall of the cella, and within the
external columns which surround the building, at the same height and
parallel with the metopes, was sculptured with a representation of the
Panathenaic festival in very low relief. This frieze was 3 feet 4
inches in height, and 520 feet in length. A small portion of the
frieze is also figured below. A large number of the slabs of the
frieze, together with sixteen metopes from the south side, and several
of the statues of the pediments, were brought to England by Lord Elgin,
of whom they were purchased by the nation and deposited in the British
Museum.
But the chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal statue of the
Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias himself, which stood in the eastern
or principal chamber of the cella. It was of the sort called
CHRYSELEPHANTINE, a kind of work said to have been invented by Phidias
in which ivory was substituted for marble in those parts which were
uncovered, while the place of the real drapery was supplied with robes
and other ornaments of solid gold. Its height, including the base, was
nearly 40 feet. It represented the goddess standing, clothed with a
tunic reaching to the ankles, with a spear in her left hand, and an
image of Victory in her right.
The Acropolis was adorned with another colossal figure of Athena, in
bronze, also the work of Phidias. It stood in the open air, nearly
opposite the Propylaea, and was one of the first objects seen after
passing through the gates of the latter. With its pedestal it must
have stood about 70 feet high, and consequently towered above the roof
of the Parthenon, so that the point of its spear and the crest of its
helmet were visible off the promontory of Sunium to ships approaching
Athens. It was called the "Athena Promachus," because it represented
the goddess armed, and in the very attitude of battle.
The only other monument on the summit of the Acropolis which it is
necessary to describe is the Erechtheum, or temple of Erechtheus. The
traditions respecting Erechtheus vary, but according to one set of them
he was identical with the god Poseidon. He was worshipped in his
temple under the name of Poseidon Erechtheus, and from the earliest
times was associated with Athena as one of the two protecting deities
of Athens. The original Erechtheum was burnt by the Persians, but the
new temple was erected on the ancient site. This could not have been
otherwise; for on this spot was the sacred olive-tree which Athena
evoked from the earth in her contest with Poseidon, and also the well
of salt-water which Poseidon produced by a stroke of his trident, the
impression of which was seen upon the rock. The building was also
called the temple of Athena Polias, because it contained a separate
sanctuary of the goddess, as well as her most ancient statue. The
building of the new Erechtheum was not commenced till the Parthenon and
Propylaea were finished, and probably not before the year preceding the
breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. Its progress was no doubt
delayed by that event, and it was probably not completed before 393
B.C. When finished it presented one of the finest models of the Ionic
order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric, It stood to the north of the
latter building and close to the northern wall of the Acropolis. The
form of the Erechtheum differed from every known example of a Grecian
temple. Usually a Grecian temple was an oblong figure with a portico
at each extremity. The Erechtheum, on the contrary, though oblong in
shape and having a portico at the eastern or principal front, had none
at its western end, where, however, a portico projected north and south
from either side, thus forming a kind of transept. This irregularity
seems to have been chiefly owing to the necessity of preserving the
different sanctuaries and religious objects belonging to the ancient
temple. A view of it is given opposite. The roof of the southern
portico, as shown in the view, was supported by six Caryatides.
Such were the principal objects which adorned the Acropolis at the time
of which we are now speaking. Their general appearance will be best
gathered from the engraving on the Frontispiece.
Before quitting the city of Athens, there are two or three other
objects of interest which must be briefly described. First, the
Dionysiac theatre, which occupied the slope at the south-eastern
extremity of the Acropolis. The middle of it was excavated out of the
rock, and the rows of seats ascended in curves one above another, the
diameter increasing with the height. It was no doubt sufficiently
large to accommodate the whole body of Athenian citizens, as well as
the strangers who flocked to Athens during the Dionysiac festival, but
its dimensions cannot now be accurately ascertained. It had no roof,
but the spectators were probably protected from the sun by an awning,
and from their elevated seats they had a distinct view of the sea, and
of the peaked hills of Salamis in the horizon. Above them rose the
Parthenon and the other buildings of the Acropolis, so that they sat
under the shadow of the ancestral gods of the country.
The Areopagus, or Hill of Ares (Mars), was a rocky height opposite the
western end of the Acropolis, from which it was separated only by some
hollow ground. It derived its name from the tradition that Ares (Mars)
was brought to trial here before the assembled gods, by Poseidon
(Neptune), for murdering Halirrhothius the son of the latter. It was
here that the Council of Areopagus met, frequently called the Upper
Council, to distinguish it from the Council of Five Hundred, which
assembled in the valley below. The Areopagites sat as judges in the
open air, and two blocks of stone are still to be seen, probably those
which were occupied respectively by the accuser and the accused. The
Areopagus was the spot where the Apostle Paul preached to the men of
Athens.
The Pnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the Athenians,
stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance of about a
quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. Projecting from the hill and
hewn out of it, still stands a solid rectangular block, called the Bema
or pulpit, from whence the orators addressed the multitude in the area
before them. The position of the Bema commanded a view of the
Propylaea and the other magnificent edifices of the Acropolis, while
beneath it was the city itself studded with monuments of Athenian
glory. The Athenian orators frequently roused the national feelings of
their audience by pointing to the Propylaea and to the other splendid
buildings before them. Between the Pnyx on the west, the Areopagus on
the north, and the Acropolis on the east, and closely adjoining the
base of these hills, stood the Agora (or market-place). In a direction
from north-west to south-east a street called the Ceramicus ran
diagonally through the Agora, entering it through the valley between
the Pnyx and the Areopagus. The street was named after a district of
the city, which was divided into two parts, the Inner and Outer
Ceramicus. The former lay within the city walls, and included the
Agora. The Outer Ceramicus, which formed a handsome suburb on the
north-west of the city, was the burial-place of all persons honoured
with a public funeral. Through it ran the road to the gymnasium and
gardens of the Academy which were situated about a mile from the walls.
The Academy was the place where Plato and his disciples taught. On
each side of this road were monuments to illustrious Athenians,
especially those who had fallen in battle.
East of the city, and outside the walls, was the Lyceum, a gymnasium
dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and celebrated as the place in which
Aristotle taught.