than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is procured. At
the proper season of year the females are gathered off the trees and
carefully dried, the mode of drying having some effect upon the
quality of the dye. During the process of drying the insect alters
greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking to less than half its
original dimensions, and assuming a greyish brown hue instead of a
deep red. When placed in water it soon gives out its colouring matter,
and communicates to the water the rich colour with which we are
familiar under the name of carmine, or crimson. This latter name, by
the way, is only a corruption of the Arabic _kermes_, which is the
name of the insect.
The reader will remember that this was one of the three sacred
colours--scarlet, purple, and blue--used in the vestments of the
priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not taking rank
as a colour.
The Coccus belongs to the Homoptera in common with the cicadæ, the
lantern flies, the hoppers, and the aphides.
On page 623 the large females are shown on the prickly pear, and near
them are the tiny males, some flying and some on the leaves.
LEPIDOPTERA.
THE CLOTHES MOTH.
The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--The Sâs and
the 'Ash--Similitude between the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek
_sês_--Moths and garments--Accumulation of clothes in the
East--Various uses of the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust,
and the thief.
Only one Lepidopterous insect is mentioned by name in the Scriptures.
This is the MOTH, by which we must always understand some species of
Clothes Moth--in fact, one of the Tineidæ, which are as plentiful and
destructive in Palestine as in this country.
Two words are used in the Old Testament to express the Moth, one of
which, _sâs_, only occurs once, and then in connexion with the other
word _'ash_. The resemblance of the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek _sês_
is to be noted, both of them denominating the same insect. See Is. li.
8: "For the moth (_'ash_) shall eat them up like garment, and the worm
(_sâs_) shall eat them like wool." Buxtorf translates _sâs_ as _tinea,
blatta_.
Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, and nearly
all have reference to its destructive habits. The solitary exceptions
occur in the Book of Job, "Behold, He put no trust in His servants;
and His angels He charged with folly: how much less in them that dwell
in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, which are crushed
before the moth?" (Ch. iv. 18, 19.) A similar allusion to the Moth is
made in the same book: "He buildeth his house as a moth, and as a
booth that the keeper maketh" (xxvii. 18).
The Moth is mentioned in one of the penitential passages of the
Psalms: "When Thou with rebukes dost correct man for iniquity, Thou
makest his beauty to consume away like a moth: surely every man is
vanity" (Ps. xxxix. 11).
The prophets also make use of the same image. "Behold, the Lord God
will help me; who is he that shall condemn me? lo, they all shall wax
old as a garment; the moth shall eat them" (Isa. l. 9). The image is
repeated in the next chapter (ver. 8), in which the 'Ash and the Sâs
are both mentioned. Hosea employs the word as a metaphor expressive of
gradual destruction: "Therefore will I be unto Ephraim as a moth, and
to the house of Judah as rottenness" (v. 12).
In the New Testament reference is made several times to the Moth. "Lay
not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth
corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal" (Matt. vi. 19).
St. James, in a kind of commentary on this passage, writes as follows:
"Go to now, ye rich men, weep and howl for your miseries that shall
come upon you.
"Your riches are corrupted, and your garments are moth-eaten.
"Your gold and silver is cankered; and the rust of them shall be a
witness against you, and shall eat your flesh as it were fire. Ye have
heaped treasures together for the last days." (v. 1-3.)
Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but to the
Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a force which we
can hardly realize in this country. In the East large stores of
clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for their own use, but as
presents to others. At a marriage feast, for example, the host
presents each of the guests with a wedding garment. Clothes are also
given as marks of favour, and a present of "changes of raiment,"
_i.e._ suits of clothing, is one of the most common gifts. As at the
present day, there was anciently no greater mark of favour than for
the giver to present the very robe which he was wearing, and when that
robe happened to be an official one, the gift included the rank which
it symbolized. Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as well as
with the royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in the
king's robes: "Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth
to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which
is set upon his head.
"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the
king's most noble princes, that they may array the man withal whom the
king delighteth to honour, and bring him on horseback through the
street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall it be done to
the man whom the king delighteth to honour." (Esther vi. 8, 9.)
The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the case
with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits any man: so that
the powerful and wealthy could lay up great stores of clothing,
knowing that they would fit any person to whom they were given. An
allusion to this practice of keeping great stores of clothing is made
in Job xxvii. 26: "Though he heap up silver as the dust, and prepare
raiment as the clay;
"He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the innocent
shall divide the silver."
So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house, that
special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer, called
the "keeper of the garments" (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was appointed to
take charge of them.
Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression was a
synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6: "When a man shall take
hold of his brother of the house of his father, saying, Thou hast
clothing, be thou our ruler."
The reader will now see how forcible was the image of the Moth and the
garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures. The Moth would not
meddle with garments actually in use, so that a poor man would not
be troubled with it. Only those who were rich enough to keep stores
of clothing in their houses need fear the Moth, which would be
as destructive to that portion of their wealth represented by
their clothes as the "rust,"--_i.e._ the Grain Moth (_Tinea
granella_)--which consumed their stores, or the thief who came by
night and stole their gold and silver.
THE SILKWORM MOTH.
Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned--The virtuous woman
and her household--Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted
with Silk--Present cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms
of the Lebanon--Signification of the word _Meshi_--Silkworms and
thunder--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The Hebrew word _Gâzam_, and
its signification--The Palmer-worm of Scripture.
In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk is
mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be
correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And the
merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man
buyeth their merchandise any more:
"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of
pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii. 11, 12.)
In Prov. xxxi. 22 Solomon writes of the virtuous woman "that she
maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and
purple." The word which is here given as "silk" is translated in the
Jewish Bible as "fine linen."
In the other two passages, however, in which the word occurs it is
rendered as "silk:" "I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod
thee with badger's skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and
I covered thee with silk" (Ezek. xvi. 10). See also verse 13 of the
same chapter: "Thus wast thou decked with gold and silver, and thy
raiment was of fine linen and broidered work."
That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is
nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively late years
they only knew the manufactured material, and were ignorant of the
source whence it was derived. As to the date at which silk was
introduced into Palestine, nothing certain is known; but it is most
likely that Solomon's fleets brought silk from India, together with
the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that
monarch.
At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers of
the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is annually
produced. The greatest care is taken in rearing the worms. An
excellent account of these farms is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud in
his "Druses of the Lebanon:"--
"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's
rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were continually
encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the industry of the
Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from hatching the silkworms'
eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon, is one series of
anxiety and labour to the peasant. The worms are so delicate that the
smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction, and the
peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the
cocoon is fairly set."
After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and
ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the armies
of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, the writer
proceeds as follows:--
"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching
operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread of
the evil eye. If we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the worm,
it will, in his opinion, be productive of evil results; either the
cocoon will be badly formed, or the silk will be worthless. So, first
clearing the place of all intruders, he puts a huge padlock on the
door, and, locking the _khlook_ (room in which the silkworms are
kept), deposits the key in his _zinnar_, or waistband.
"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, separating them
from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for breeding purposes, and
all the rest are handed over to the women of his family. These first
of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and fibrous web with which
it is enveloped, and which constitutes an article of trade by itself.
The cocoons are then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else
sold to some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood, where they
are immediately reeled off, or are suffocated in an oven, and
afterwards, being well aired and dried, piled up in the magazines of
the factory.
"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which we were
continually encountering horseload after horseload.
"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in the
head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most agreeable;
but this arises partly from the neglect and want of care of the
peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after basketful of
cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown about and
accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and emit noxious
vapours."
The Hebrew word _meshi_, which is the one that occurs in Ezek. xvi.,
is derived from a root which signifies "to draw out," probably in
allusion to the delicacy of the fibre.
Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the Silkworm to
be described more fully, it may here be added that all silk-growers
are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the caterpillars,
and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will die of fear. The
noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation, fatal to Silkworms;
and the breeders were therefore accustomed to beat drums within the
hearing of the Silkworms, increasing the loudness of the sound, and
imitating as nearly as possible the crash and roll of thunder, so that
the caterpillars might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm
should happen to break near them.
A quaint use of this superstition is made by Luis of Grenada in one of
his discourses:--
_Dominica IV. post Pent., Concio 1._
"Sunt rursus alii, quorum pectora sic generis humani hostis obsedit,
ut nullius divinæ vocis fulminibus perterreantur, vel parum animo
commoveantur.
"Quâ autem ratione eorundem aures obstruat, proposito hoc exemplo
indicabo.
"Bombyces, hoc est vermes illi qui serica fìla nectunt, ita tonitruum
sonitu gravantur, ut interduin moriantur. Quo fit, ut qui eos nutriunt
tympana frequenter pulsent, ut sonitui molliori assueti a graviori
tonitrui sono non lædantur. Tales mihi multi sacrarum concionum
auditores hâc ætate esse videntur, qui quotidianis concionibus
audiendis sine ullo animi motu assueti, si quis concionator, a Deo
actus, gravius aliquid et formidibilius intonet, non idem magis animo
permoveantur; utpote qui negligenter audiendi consuetudine pene
insensibiles ad verbi Dei tonitrua affecti sint."
_Fourth Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon 1._
"Again, others there are of whose breasts the enemy of mankind hath
taken such possession, that they be terrified by the thunderbolts of
no Divine voice, or are in mind only a little disturbed thereby.
"Now after what sort he stoppeth the ears of these same men I will, by
this example, propound and set forth.
"The Bombyxes--that is to say, those worms which do spin the silk
threads--are by peals of thunder so troubled that sometimes they die.
Wherefore it comes to pass that the keepers of them do ofttimes beat
drums, to the end that, being used to the softer noise, they may take
no hurt from that sound of the thunder which is heavier. Of such a
sort do seem to me to be nowadays many hearers of sacred discourses.
For inasmuch as they be used to the hearing of common discourses, by
which their minds are nothing moved, if a preacher, urged of God, do
sound forth something in any wise solemn and dreadful, they are not,
therefore, any the more moved in mind, seeing that by their custom of
careless hearing they have grown well-nigh hardened to the thunders of
God's Word."
About the correct reading of the Hebrew word _gâzam_, which is
translated in the Authorized Version "palmer-worm," there has always
been some difficulty. It only occurs in three passages of Scripture,
and in each case reference is made to its destructive powers.
The first is in Joel i. 4: "That which the palmer-worm hath left, hath
the locust eaten."
The second is in chap. ii. 25 of the same book: "I will restore to you
the years that the locust hath eaten, the canker-worm, and the
caterpillar, and the palmer-worm, my great army which I sent among
you."
The third is in Amos iv. 9: "I have smitten you with blasting and
mildew: when your gardens, and your vineyards, and your fig-trees, and
your olive-trees increased, the palmer-worm devoured them: yet have
ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord."
[Illustration: BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE.
SYRIAN GRAYLING (Hipparchia Persephone). SYRIAN ORANGE-TIP (Antocharis
Glauce).
SYRIAN SWALLOW-TAIL (Papilio Virgatus).
"_That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten._"--JOEL
i. 4.]
The Jewish Bible retains the reading of palmer-worm, but affixes the
mark of doubt, as it does to the canker-worm. Some Hebraists have
thought that the word _gâzam_ is one of the names to designate the
locust, either some distinct species, or the same species in its
undeveloped condition. Others have thought that, as the Jews were very
loose in their nomenclature, they would not have made so great an
exception in favour of an insect as to apply two different names to
it.
Buxtorf derives the word from a root signifying "to shave," or "to
shear," in allusion to the havoc which the _gâzam_ makes among the
vegetation. The reader will see that it is impossible to decide with
any certainty upon the precise species of insect signified by the word
_gâzam_; but there can be no harm in following the translation of the
Septuagint and Vulgate, both of which render it as "caterpillar."
Assuming, therefore, that it is a caterpillar of some kind, I have
inserted figures of some butterflies found in Palestine, together with
the caterpillar and chrysalis of one of them, namely the Papilio.
DIPTERA.
FLIES.
Flies of Scripture--Dead Flies and the apothecary's
ointment--Gadflies and their attacks--Annoyance caused by the
House-fly--Flies and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of
the Flies--The sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their
prevalence.
Next we come to the Dipterous or two-winged insects, which are very
sparingly mentioned in the Scriptures, and only one species is
definitely named.
There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." One is
_zebub_, so familiar in the compound word _Baal-zebub_--_i.e._ "Lord
of Flies." This word only occurs in two passages, one being the
well-known proverb, "Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary
to send forth a stinking savour" (Eccles. x. 1).
This passage requires a little explanation. By the word "apothecary"
we must not understand a medical man, nor by the word "ointment" the
mollifying substance used as an application for wounds. The ointment
of Scripture signifies the various perfumed unguents used as scents
and cosmetics for the living, as part of the preparation of the dead
for the grave, and as an essential accessory to Jewish ritual.
These ointments were most carefully made, and the person who prepared
and sold them was called the apothecary. If, therefore, the unguents
were carelessly stored, and the Flies permitted to enter, the perfume
would be destroyed by the odour of their dead bodies.
The second passage is Isa. vii. 18: "The Lord shall hiss for the fly
that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt." No particular
species of fly is here indicated; but it is evident that some
peculiarly irritating and troublesome, not to say dangerous, insect is
signified.
Many species of gadfly would produce that effect, and inflict direful
torments on those whom they assail. Even in England the gadflies are
more than troublesome to human beings. In the New Forest I have been
fairly driven back by the attack of the gadflies, which wounded me
through a thick woollen coat, while they attacked the uncovered
portions of the skin so fiercely that, before reaching shelter, my
neck was bathed in blood.
Another word is _arôb_, which is applied to the flies which were
brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is probable that some
different species is here signified, but there is no certainty in the
matter. Any species, however, would be a sufficient plague if they
exceeded the usual number which infest Egypt, and which at first make
the life of a foreigner a burden to him. They swarm in such myriads,
that he eats flies, drinks flies, and breathes flies.
Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the eyes
of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, which is so
fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the infection with them. A
stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children, who
have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes, and yet seem
perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive a
European mad.
Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:--
"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine, as I
can vouch from my own experience. However large or however small they
may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack alike, and make
themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in every season and place,
in the house and in the field, by day and by night.
"Frequently in 1857 and 1860, while I was encamped near the tents of
the Bedawîn, in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of
Hebron, flies were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all,
beasts and men, were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept
into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant
and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over
like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn
themselves were not slow to follow our example.
"I am not the only person who has experienced this nuisance, for
Eugene Roger, who travelled in Palestine during the seventeenth
century, informs us that during his stay at Nazareth a swarm of small
black flies, called _bargash_, invaded the plain of Esdraelon, where a
tribe of Bedawîn, to the number of six hundred tents, were encamped,
who suffered greatly from them.
"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old,
except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of
the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the Pentateuch and
Joshua) to evacuate the country before them.
"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these
pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple was at Ekron. The
reason of this is evident at the present day, for the ancient country
of the Philistines is infested with insect plagues, as I experienced
together with his Excellency Surraya Pasha in the summer of 1859.
"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged to arm
ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many travellers bring
with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe as a protection
against these nuisances, and leave behind them this only efficacious
remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend; it is very portable, very
cheap, and equally useful in all climates.
"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they are
found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in the
dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies about,
the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage of
cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy clothing worn
by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though the country of
Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are still abundant and
free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked assistants in the
kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves in their
gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired seasoning in every dish."
GNATS.
The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the
camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and
the mosquito.
It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned
by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name of which occurs
in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat and
swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii. 24).
[Illustration: NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE.
MOSQUITO (Culex). CAMEL FLY (Tabanus marocanus).
"_He sent divers sorts of flies among them which devoured them._"--PSA
xxviii. 45.]
I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought to have been
printed "strain out," the substitution of the one for the other being
only a typographical error. The allusion is made to a custom which is
explained by reference to the preceding article on the fly. In order
to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth while drinking,
a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup, so that if any
insects, as was usually the case, had got into the liquid, they would
be "strained out" by the linen.
Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the
word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the word is only
used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects and
the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially those species which are
popularly known by the word "mosquito," are very plentiful in many
parts of Palestine, especially those which are near water, and are as
annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit.
APTERA AND APANIPTERA.
THE LOUSE.
Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the
magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability
that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their
dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast.
We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two
parasites of a singularly disagreeable character.
With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in the
account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues of the
waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the magicians,
_i.e._ the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which affected the
magicians even more than the people, for a reason which we shall
presently see:--
"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod,
and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, throughout
all the land of Egypt.
"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and
smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in beast;
all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt.
"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice,
but they could not: so there were lice upon man and upon beast."
Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have told
with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose advice Pharoah had
resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron.
Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, were
infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance of the
laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single
noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. The clothing,
being linen, could be kept clean by frequent washing, while the
possibility of the body being infested by parasites was prevented by
the custom of shaving the whole of the body, from the crown of the
head to the sole of the foot, at least once in every three days.
It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation
must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as the flesh of
cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite to the Egyptian
priest. He was degraded in his own estimation and in that of his
fellows. He could perform no sacred offices: so that, in fact, all the
idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until this particular plague had
been withdrawn.
We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by the
Hebrew word _chinnim_. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that the word
ought to have been translated as "ticks," and for the following
reasons:--
After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of Aaron's
rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, he proceeds as
follows: "Now the louse that infests the human body and hair has no
connexion whatever with dust, and, if subjected to a few hours'
exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand, it would shrivel and
die. But a tick is an inhabitant of the dust, a dry horny insect,
without any apparent moisture in its composition. It lives in hot sand
and dust, where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until some
wretched animal should lie down upon the spot, and become covered with
these horrible vermin.
"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks that
the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it would have been
impossible to have rested upon the earth. In such spots, the passage
in Exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference to these
vermin, which are the greatest enemy to man and beast. It is well
known that from the size of a grain of sand, in their natural state,
they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after having preyed for
some days on the body of an animal." ("Nile Tributaries," p. 122.)
Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly is
the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of Holy
Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, but would, if
anything, be more horrible. Only those who have suffered from them can
appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these ticks, which
cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed without being torn
in pieces, and without leaving some portion of their head beneath the
skin of their victim. Man and beast suffer equally from them, as is
implied in the words of Scripture, and, unless they are very
cautiously removed, painful and obstinate is the result of their
bites.
THE FLEA.
Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by
them to travellers--Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's
bedfellows--The Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture.
This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The inhabitants
are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not touch them, or
by long custom they become so inured to their attack that the bites
are not felt.
But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about the
Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions of the
country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity. Miss Rogers,
for example, in her "Domestic Life in Palestine," mentions how she was
obliged to stand upon a box in order to be out of the reach of a
large company of Fleas that were hopping about on the floor!
Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one occasion
that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had forgotten his curtain,
and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that marched steadily up the bed
and took possession of their prey. The people were quite amused at his
complaints, and said that their Bey could not sleep without a couple
of hundred of them in his bosom. Mr. Urquhart suggests that these
little creatures act as a wholesome irritant to the skin, and says
that the last two mouthfuls of every meal are for the benefit of the
Fleas.
In order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence of
these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from Mr. Farley's
"Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish bath, and was much amused
at a scene which presented itself.
"A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was occupying
himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of pursuing with great
eagerness something that, from the movement of his hands, seemed
continually to elude him, jumping about and taking refuge in the
creases and folds of his shirt, that was spread out over his lap as he
sat cross-legged on his bedstead like a tailor on his board. This
oddity was no less a dignitary than a Pasha."
This extract also serves to illustrate the two passages in Scripture
wherein the word "flea" is mentioned, and in both of which it is used
as a metaphor to express weakness on the one side and power on the
other.
The first occurs in 1 Sam. xxiv. 14:--"After whom is the king of
Israel come out? After whom dost thou pursue? After a dead dog, after
a flea?" The second is in chap. xxvi. of the same book, ver. 20: "Now
therefore ... the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when
one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains." The reader will see how
completely the anecdote of the Pasha in the bath illustrates this
passage.
ARACHNIDA.
THE SCORPION.
The Scorpions of Palestine--Signification of the word
_Akrabbim_--Habits of the Scorpion--Dangers of mud walls--Venom
of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion whip, and its
use--The Scorpion Pass.
The Arachnida are represented in Scripture by the Scorpion and Spider.
Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice are a
constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed to them.
The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to need description,
every one being aware that it is in reality a kind of spider that has
the venom claw at the end of its body, and not in its jaw. As to the
rendering of the word _akrabbim_ as "Scorpions," there has never been
any doubt.
These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves in
some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious where the
Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in the country
until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are beneath the stones on
or near which he is sitting. Holes in walls are favourite places of
refuge for the Scorpion, and are very plentiful, the mud walls always
tumbling down in parts, and affording homes for Scorpions, spiders,
snakes, and other visitors.
The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according to the
species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scorpions being
able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and even to kill him
if he should be a sensitive subject. So much feared were the Scorpions
that one of the chief privileges of the Apostles and their immediate
followers was their immunity from the stings of Scorpions and the bite
of venomous serpents.
It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by a
Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and that if
he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he suffers arises
from the puncture. Sailors also say that after a week at sea the
poison of the Scorpion loses its power, and that they care nothing for
the Scorpions which are sure to come on board inside the bundles of
firewood.
[Illustration: THE SCORPION.
"_And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there were stings in
their tails._"--REV. ix. 10.]
We will now take a few of the Scriptural passages which allude to the
Scorpion. As may be expected, most of them refer to the poisonous
quality of its sting, though one or two allude to its habit of
dwelling in desert places. See, for example, Deut. viii. 15, which
forms part of the address that Moses delivered to the Israelites:
"Lest ... thou forget the Lord thy God, which brought thee forth out
of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage;
"Who led thee through that great and terrible wilderness, wherein were
fiery serpents, and scorpions, and drought, where there was no water."
A similar image of desolation is found in Ezek. ii. 6: "And thou, son
of man, be not afraid of them, neither be afraid of their words,
though briars and thorns be with thee, and thou dost dwell among
scorpions."
Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are numerous,
though most, if not all, of them occur in the New Testament. See Rev.
ix. 5: "And to them it was given that they should not kill them, but
that they should be tormented five months, and their torment was as
the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man." Also ver. 10 of
the same chapter: "And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there
were stings in their tails: and their power was to hurt men five
months."
The venom of the Scorpion is indirectly mentioned in other passages.
There is, for example, the well-known saying of our Lord, "If a son
shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) And in
the preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are classed
with serpents in their power of injury: "Behold, I give unto you power
to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the
enemy; and nothing shall by any means hurt you."
There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testament, which
requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash counsel given to
Rehoboam by his friends: "My father made your yoke heavy, and I will
add to your yoke; my father also chastised you with whips, but I will
chastise you with scorpions."
The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely, that he
intended to be far more severe than his father had been. But his words
assume a new force when we remember that there was a kind of whip
called a Scorpion. This terrible instrument was made for the express
purpose of punishing slaves, so that the mere mention of it was an
insult. It consisted of several thongs, each of which was loaded with
knobs of metal, and tipped with a metal hook, so that it resembled the
jointed and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful instrument of
torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was even used in
combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a Scorpion being
matched against one armed with a spear.
The prevalence of the Scorpion in Palestine and its neighbourhood may
be inferred from the fact that a wady or pass between the south end of
the Dead Sea and Zion was named after it. The southern boundary of
Judah is said to be at Maaleh Akrabbim (Josh. xv. 3). Now the literal
translation of these words is "The Ascent of Scorpions," or The
Scorpion Pass.
THE SPIDER.
Signification of the word _Semamith_--Various interpretations of
a Scriptural passage--Talmudical opinions respecting the
creature--The 'Akkabish and its web--Spiders of Palestine.
Although the word "spider" is mentioned three times in the Authorized
Version of the Bible, one of them must be excluded, namely Prov. xxx.
28: "The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces."
There is much doubt whether the word _semamith_, which is here
translated a "spider," does not rather allude to the Gecko, a lizard
which has already been described. Moreover, the passage is rendered
very differently in the Jewish Bible: "A spider thou mayest catch with
the hands, and is in kings' palaces."
Buxtorf mentions some curious Talmudical opinions regarding the Semam.
For example, there is a kind of proverb--"Dreaded as a Semam by a
scorpion," founded on the belief that the Semam, whatever it might be,
crept into the ears of the scorpion. Another proverb is, "A Semam
against a scorpion," the idea being that if a Semam was crushed on the
wound made by a scorpion, it would destroy the effect of the poison.
He further mentions that the word has been translated as _araneus_ or
_aranea_, _i.e._ Spider, as _simia_, _i.e._ an ape, as _calamotes_,
which signifies a kind of fish, or as _kalabotes_ and _askalabotes_,
which is a kind of lizard. The Septuagint employs this rendering, to
which Buxtorf himself leans.
The same word _'akkabish_ occurs twice, and certainly does signify
some kind of Spider. The Prophet Isaiah writes of the wicked that they
"weave the spider's web" (lix. 5), and there is a similar image in Job
viii. 14: "So are the paths of all that forget God; and the
hypocrite's hope shall perish. Whose hope shall be cut off, and whose
hope shall be a spider's web" (or house). In both instances reference
is made to the fragility of the Spider's web as a metaphor to express
the futility of evil devices.
The reader will see that in neither of these passages is there
anything that indicates the species of Spider. There are very many
species of Spider in Palestine; some which spin webs, like the common
Garden Spider, some which dig subterranean cells and make doors in
them, like the well-known Trap-door Spider of Southern Europe, and
some which have no webs, but chase their prey upon the ground, like
the Wolf and Hunting Spiders. Notice is, however, only taken of those
which spin webs.
ANNELIDA.
THE WORM.
Various words translated as "Worm"--Probable confusion of the
words--The Rimmah and the Tole'ah--The Worm which destroyed
Jonah's gourd--The Earthworm.
The word "worm" occurs many times in the Authorized Version, and is a
rendering of three Hebrew words. One is _sâs_, which has been already
explained under the article Moth; the second is _rimmah_; and the
third _tole'ah_. There is very great difficulty in ascertaining the
real signification of these words, unless we assume that the Hebrews
were not aware of the distinction between actual Annelida and the
larvæ of various insects.
Even at the present day we commit a similar error. We speak of the
wire-worm, which is the larva of one kind of beetle. We say that wood
is worm-eaten, signifying that it has been attacked by the larva of
another kind of beetle. Then we use the word "palmer-worm" to signify
the larva of a moth, "glow-worm" to signify a beetle, "tape-worm" to
signify an entozoon, and--strangest of all--"blindworm" to signify a
lizard which can see perfectly well. We therefore need not wonder that
the Hebrew language produces similar confusion of nomenclature.
The other words are frequently used in connexion with each other. The
Rimmah is the "worm" that was bred in the manna when it had been kept
beyond the specified time, and it is evident that the larva of some
insect, such as the blow-fly, is signified.
The word is evidently used in the same sense by Job. The "worm shall
feed sweetly on him" (xxiv. 20). "They shall lie down alike in the
dust, and the worms shall cover them" (xxi. 26). The same word is
employed in his lamentation over his evil case: "My flesh is clothed
with worms and clods of dust; my skin is broken, and become loathsome"
(vii. 5). In xxv. 6 he uses both words: "Man that is a worm, and the
son of man that is a worm." This passage is more correctly rendered in
the Hebrew Bible: "Man that is a worm (_rimmah_), and the son of man
which is a maggot" (_tole'ah_). Both words are also used in connexion
with each other by Isaiah: "The worm (_rimmah_) is spread under thee,
and the worms (_tola'im_) cover thee" (xiv. 11).
The well-known passage in Job xix. 26 is altogether wrongly rendered
in the text, the marginal translation being much more correct. The
Worm is not mentioned at all in that passage, which the Jewish Bible
renders as follows: "Even after my skin shall have been stripped off
this [body] and flesh, I shall see God."
The Worm which destroyed the gourd of Jonah was a Tolaeth (another
form of _tole'ah_). See Jonah iv. 7.
The passage in Micah probably refers to the earthworm: "They shall
lick the dust like a serpent, they shall move out of their holes like
worms of the earth" (vii. 17). In this case, however, the expression
is a general one, and, as may be seen by reference to the marginal
translation, is more correctly rendered not as "worms," but as
"creeping things."
THE HORSE LEECH.
Signification of the word Alukah--The Arabic word--Leeches in
Palestine--The horse and the Leech--Leeches in England.
In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the
Scriptures. This is _alukah_, which is translated as horse-leech. "The
horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give."
The Hebrew Bible does not translate the word at all. There is,
however, no doubt that the translation is a correct one. Buxtorf
renders the word as _sanguisuga hirudo_, and it is worthy of remark
that the Arabic name for the Leech, Aluk, is identical with the Hebrew
Alukah.
The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the rivers to
such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals who come to
drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger. The following
anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his "Holy Land," gives us a good
idea of the prevalence of the Leeches, and the tenacity with which
they retain their hold:--
"At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the wheel and
well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the troughs. To slip
from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the fluid is the work of a
second; but no sooner has she lapped up a mouthful of water, than one
sees that the refuse falling back from her lips into the tank is
dabbled and red. Opening her mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling
from her gum. But the reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose
dipt into the cooling stream, the blood still flows from between her
teeth, and, forcing them open, I find two other leeches lodged in the
roof of her mouth.
"Poor little beast! how grateful and relieved she seems, how gay, how
gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh, and soused the
water about her wounds; and how my hunting-whip yearns to descend upon
the shoulders of that laughing and careless Nubian slave!"
Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them, and, if
they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly. Even in England this will
happen. While bathing in a Kentish stream, I have found, when coming
out of the water, that numbers of Leeches were adhering to me, and
have had considerable trouble in removing them.
PROTOZOA AND RADIATA.
SPONGE AND CORAL.
Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient
Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The
Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_.
There is little to be said on either of these subjects.
Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the
Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge upon
hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (_i.e._ the acid wine issued to the Roman
soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is little doubt that
the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the value of the Sponge, which
they could obtain from the Mediterranean which skirted all their
western coasts.
The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture: "No mention shall
be made of coral, or of pearls" (Job xxviii. 18). The second
occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16: "They occupied in thy
fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and
coral, and agate."
This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria, was
probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and where it
attains the greatest perfection. The Hebrew word, _ramoth_, is
expressive of the peculiar growth of the Coral, and signifies high, or
lofty.
[Illustration: CORAL.
"_No mention shall be made of coral._"--REV. xviii. 18.]
INDEX.
A.
Abou Hannes, 489.
Menzel, 489.
_Accipiter nisus_, 365.
_Acridium peregrinum_, 598.
Acronotus bubalis, 144.
Adas, 143.
Addax, 141.
Adder, 554.
African Elephant, 311.
_Akas_, 143.
_Akbar_, 91.
Ako, 207.
Alpine ibex, 204.
_Ammoperdix Heyii_, 427.
Ammotragus, 186.
Anakah, 69.
Annelida, 644.
Ant, 616.
Agricultural, 618.
Mound-making, 618.
Stinging, 618.
Aoudad, 186.
Ape, 1.
Aphaniptera, 636.
_Apis fasciata_, 612.
_mellifica_, 606.
Aptera, 636.
_Aquila chrysaëtos_, 354.
_mogilnik_, 355.
Arachnida, 640.
_Ardea cinerea_, 470.
Ariel, 136.
Arnebeth, 97.
_Arvicola arvalis_, 93.
_Asinus hemippus_, 280.
Ashkoko, 316.
Ass, 264.
Domesticated, 264.
Wild, 279.
_Athene noctua_, 371.
_Persica_, 371.
_Atta barbara_, 621.
_malefaciens_, 618.
_Ayzal_, 208.
_Ayzalah_, 208.
Azel, 203.
B.
Bactrian Camel, 244.
Badger, 70.
Barbel, 567.
Long-headed, 567.
_Barbus longiceps_, 566.
Bat, 11.
Bear, 75.
Beden, 203.
Bee, 605.
Banded, 606.
Honey, 605.
Behemoth, 318.
Bhunder, 3.
Bison, 131.
Bittern, 80, 462.
Black Vulture, 336.
Blue Thrush, 398.
Bog-bleater, 464.
Bonasus, 131.
Bonnet Monkey, 10.
Boomah, 371.
_Botaurus stellaris_, 462.
Bubale, 143.
_Bubalus buffelus_, 114.
_Bubo ascalaphus_, 373.
_maximus_, 374.
_Virginianus_, 374.
Buffalo, 114.
Bull, 101.
Wild, 119.
Butter, 203.
bump, 464.
C.
_Caccabis saxatilis_, 429.
Calf, 101.
Camel, 216.
Arabian, 244.
_Camelus Bactrianus_, 216.
_dromedarius_, 216.
Capistrated Sphænops, 533.
_Capra Angorensis_, 202.
_Mambrica_, 202.
_Nubiana_, 203.
_Syriaca_, 202.
_Caprovis Musimon_, 188.
Caspian Emys, 569.
Cat, 36.
Cattle, 101.
Cerastes, 559.
Chameleon, 534.
Chamois, 185.
Chasidah, 478.
_Chephor-peroth_, 88.
Chetah, 29.
Choled, 68.
Cicigna, 533.
_Ciconia nigra_, 483.
_Circaëtus gallicus_, 355.
_Circus æruginosus_, 368.
_cyaneus_ 369.
Climber, 203.
Cobra, 544.
Cockatrice, 554.
_Columba ænas_, 419.
_livia_, 418.
_palumbus_, 419.
_Schimperi_, 418.
Coney, 312.
Cora, 136.
Coral, 647.
Corine Antelope, 135.
Corinna, 135.
Cormorant, 490.
_Corvus agricola_, 447.
_corax_, 447.
_monedula_, 447.
_umbrinus_, 447.
_Coryphæna hippurus_, 571.
Corvphene, 571.
Cow, 101.
Crane, 474.
_Cricetus frumentarius_, 94.
Crocodile, 514.
Crow, Hooded, 447.
Cuckoo, 405.
Culex, 635.
Great Spotted, 405.
_Cyprinus_, 531.
_Cypselus affinis_, 389.
_melba_, 389.
D.
_Daboia xanthica_, 555.
_Dasypus_, 97.
Deer, 208.
Deloul, 229.
Deror, 384.
Dhubb, 512.
Diadem Staircase Shell, 588.
Dibs, 611.
_Dipsas plicatus_, 593.
Diptera, 632.
_Dipus_, 95.
Dishon, 141.
_Dôb_, 76.
Dog, 39.
Periwinkle, 586.
Whelk, 586.
Dor-hawk, 379.
Dormouse, 96.
Dove, 408.
Barbary, 421.
Blue Rock, 418.
Egyptian Rock, 418.
Ring, 419.
Stock, 419.
Wild Rock, 419.
Duck, Hawk, 369.
E.
Eagle, 354.
Fishing, 356.
Golden, 354.
Imperial, 355.
Short-toed, 355.
_Echis arenicola_, 552.
_carinata_, 553.
_Echeneis remora_, 570.
Egyptian Mastigure, 512.
Elephant, 302.
_Elephas Indicus_, 311.
_Emys caspica_, 509.
_Entellus_, 3, 4.
Epheh, 552.
_Ephialtes Scops_, 377.
_Erinaceus_, 83.
F.
_Falco lanarius_, 362.
_peregrinus_, 362.
Fallow-Deer, 143, 208.
Fan-foot, 69.
Father John, 489.
Sickle-bill, 489.
_Felis maniculatus_, 37.
Fern Owl, 378.
Ferret, 69.
Fichtall, 186.
Field-mouse, 92.
Fish, Sucking, 570.
Fishes, 563.
Flea, 638.
Fly, 632.
Camel, 635.
Fowl, Domestic, 421.
Fox, 55.
Francolin, 430.
Frog, 557.
Edible, 559.
Green, 559.
G.
_Gazella Dorcas_, 133.
Gazelle, 133.
Gecko, 534.
Gier-Eagle, 339.
Glass Snake, 531.
Glede, 361.
Gnat, 635.
Goat, 189.
Goatsucker, 379.
Grayling, Syrian, 631.
Great Shearwater, 407.
Greyhound, 49.
Griffon Vulture, 345.
Groaner, 69.
_Grus cinerea_, 476.
_Gyps fulvus_, 345.
H.
_Halicore hemprichii_, 72.
Hamster, 94.
Hare, 96.
Harier Hawk, 367.
Hen, 369.
Marsh, 368.
Hart, 208.
Hawk, 364.
Blue, 369.
Dove, 369.
Ring-tailed, 369.
White, 369.
Hedgehog, 80.
Heifer, 101.
Heirie, 229
Heron, 468
_Herpestes_, 68.
Hind, 208.
_Hircus ægragus_, 202.
_Hirundo cahirica_, 388.
_rufula_, 388.
Homoptera, 622.
Honey, 609.
Hoonuman, 3.
Hoopoe, 392.
Hornet, 613.
Horse, 248.
Hunting Leopard, 29.
Hyacinthine Gallinule, 486.
Hyæna, 62.
_Hydrosaurus niloticus_, 539.
Hymenoptera, 605.
Hyrax, 312.
_Hystrix_, 86.
I.
Ibex, Arabian, 203.
Ibis, 488.
_falcinellus_, 489.
Glossy or Green, 489.
_religiosa_, 488.
White or Sacred, 488.
Insects, 596.
Izab, 506.
J.
Jachmur, 143.
Jackal, 55.
Jackdaw, 447.
Jaela, 186, 204.
Jar-Owl, 378.
Jerboa, 95.
K.
Kaath, 497.
Kalong, 12.
Kestrel, 365.
Kevel, 136.
Kevella Antelope, 135.
Khopash, 15.
Kippôd, 80.
Kite, 357.
Black, 359.
Common, 358.
Egyptian, 360.
Red, 358.
Klip-das, 315.
_Kophim_, 2.
L.
_Lacerta viridis_, 530.
Lämmergeier, 334.
Lanner Falcon, 362.
Lapwing, 392.
Leech, Horse, 646.
Leopard, 29.
Lepidoptera, 624.
Lerwea, 186.
Letââh, 529.
Leviathan, 514.
Lion, 18.
Lizard, 529.
Green, 530.
Jersey, 530.
Scaly, 529.
Locust, 596.
Migratory, 596.
Long-horned Gazelle, 136.
Louse, 636.
M.
_Macacus Rhesus_, 3.
Macaques, 3.
Magpie, 448.
Maharik, 229.
Makur, 3.
Manx Shearwater, 407.
Martin, 388.
House, 388.
Sand, 388.
_Meleagrina margaritifera_, 595.
_Milvus atra_, 358.
_Egyptiacus_, 360.
_regalis_, 358.
Mohair Goat, 200.
Mole, 86.
Molluscs, 585.
Monitor, 534.
Land, 539.
Nilotic, 539.
Monoceros, 123.
Moor Buzzard, 369.
Mosquito, 635.
Moth, Clothes, 624.
Grain, 626.
Silkworm, 627.
Mouflon, 188.
Mouse, 91.
Mule, 285.
_Mullus sur muletus_, 552.
Muræna, 567.
_Muræna helena_, 566.
_Murex brandaris_, 586.
_trunculus_, 586.
_Mygale_, 69.
N.
_Naja haje_, 544.
_tripudians_, 545.
_Nates niloticus_, 581.
_Nectarinia Oseæ_, 384.
_Neophron percuopterus_, 341.
Netz, 364.
Night-hawk, 377.
-jar, 379.
Nil-Bhunder, 6.
Nile Perch, 581.
Nubian Wild Goat, 204.
O.
_OEdipoda migratoria_, 596.
Onycha, 590.
Orange-tip, Syrian, 631.
Oreb, 449.
Oryx, 120.
Ospray, 356.
Ossifrage, 334.
Ostrich, 450.
Ounce, 29.
_Ovis Capensis_, 160.
_cauda obesa_, 160.
_laticaudatus_, 160.
_laticauda platycerus_, 160.
_steatopyga_, 160.
Owl, 370.
Barn, 373.
Churn, 378.
Eagle, 374.
Egyptian Eagle, 373.
European Eagle, 374.
Great, 373.
Little, 371.
Little Night, 371.
Scops, 377.
Screech, 373.
Virginian Eared, 374.
White, 373.
Ox, 101.
_Oxylophus glandarius_, 406.
P.
_Pandion haliaëtus_, 356.
Parash, 245.
Partridge, 426.
Black, 430.
Desert, 427.
Greek, 429.
_Passer Cisalpinus_, 402.
_montanus_, 403.
_salicarius_, 404.
Peacock, 425.
Pearl, 592.
Mussel, 593.
Oyster, 595.
Pelican, 495.
Crested, 502.
_Pelicanus cristatus_, 502.
_Petrocossyphus cyaneus_, 398.
Pigeon, 418.
House, 419.
Rock, 418.
_Plestiodon auratum_, 531.
Porcupine, 85.
_Porphyrio veterum_, 339, 486.
Poultry, 421.
_Presbytes entellus_, 4.
Protozoa, 647.
_Psammosaurus scincus_, 539.
_Pseudopus pallasii_, 531.
Pteropus, 16.
_Puffinus Anglorum_, 407.
_cinereus_, 407.
_Purpura hæmastoma_, 586.
_lapillus_, 586.
Pygarg, 141.
Q.
Quail, 430.
_Quercus coccifera_, 623.
R.
Radiata, 647.
_Rana esculenta_, 559.
Raven, 439.
Ashy-necked, 447.
World-wide, 447.
Red Deer, 208.
Reêm, 121.
_Rhinopoma microphylla_, 18.
_Rhesus_, 3.
Rock Rabbit, 315.
Roe, 133.
Rook, 447.
S.
Sand-rat, 96.
Satyr, 10.
_Scalaria diadema_, 588.
Scheltopusic, 531.
_Scincus officinalis_, 531.
Scorpion, 640.
Selâv, 534.
Seps, 533.
Serpents, 540.
Shâlâk, 490.
Sheat-fishes, 565.
Sheep, 146.
Shephiphon, 554.
Shrew-mouse, 69.
_Silenus veter_, 6.
_Silurus macracanthus_, 566.
Skink, 531.
Snail, 589.
Snake, Dart, 543.
Horatta-pam, 553.
Solomon's fleet, 1.
_Spalax_, 88.
Sparrow, 395.
-hawk, 365.
House, 404.
_Sphænops sepsoides_, 543.
Spider, 443.
Sponge, 647.
Stannel Hawk, 365.
Star-gazer, 581.
Starling, 449.
Steinbok, 203.
Stork, 478.
Black, 483.
_Strix flammea_, 373.
Surmullet, 582.
_Sus_, 248.
Swallow, 381.
Oriental, 388.
Rufous or Russet, 388.
-tail, Syrian, 631.
White, 391.
Swan, 485.
Swine, 292.
Swift, 388.
Alpine, 389.
Galilean, 389.
Marsh, 404.
Spanish, 404.
Tree, 403.
Syrian Goat, 200.
Grayling, 631.
Orange-tip, 631.
Swallow-tail, 631.
T.
_Tabanus marocanus_, 635.
_Tachash_, 70.
_Testudo Græca_, 507.
_Thynnus thynnus_, 570.
_Tinea granella_, 626.
_Tinnunculus alaudarius_, 365.
_Tinshemeth_, 87, 488.
_Tô_, 116.
Tones, Sacred, 175.
Tortoise, 505.
Toxicoa, 552.
Trumpet, Ram's-horn, 175.
_Truxalis_, 598.
Tsebi, 133.
Tunny, 570.
Turtle Dove, 419.
Collared, 421.
Palm, 421.
_Turtur risorius_, 421.
_Senegalensis_, 421.
Tzippor-deror, 391.
Tzirah, 612.
U.
Unicorn, 121.
_Unio margaritiferus_, 593.
_Upupa epops_, 392.
_Uranoscopus-scaber_, 581.
_Ursus Isabellinus_, 76.
Urus, 127.
V.
_Vespa orientalis_, 616.
Viper, 552.
Horned, 551.
Sand, 552.
Yellow, 555.
Vulture, Arabian, 348.
Bearded, 36.
Egyptian, 339.
of Scripture, 357.
W.
Wall-lizard, 69.
Wanderoo, 6.
Weasel, 68.
Wheel-bird, 379.
Wild Bull, 116.
Goat, 203.
Ox, 116.
Wind-hover, 365.
Wing-shell, 590.
Wolf, 50.
Worm, 644.
Canker, 630.
Crimson, 622.
Palmer, 630.
X.
_Xantharpya ægyptiaca_, 16.
Y.
Yanshûph, 373.
Z.
Zamar, 186.
_Zeëb_, 50.
_Zootoca vivipara_, 529.
LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS
Transcriber's note:
In the Chapter titled "Serpents" there are words with diacritical
marks not available in the Latin-1 character set:
se[~c]d[~m],--[~c] c with a tilde above it and [~m] m with
a tilde above it,
similitudin[~e].--[~e] e with a tilde above it,
[~s]pentis,--[~s] s with a tilde above it,
Þa[~i],--[~i] i with a tilde above it,
[~t]ned,--[~t] t with a tilde above it,
hi[~r],--[~r] r with a tilde above it,
Þai[~i]r,--[~r] r with a tilde above it, and
Þa[~i],--[~i] I with a tilde above it.
In the Chapter titled "The Viper, or Epheh." is the word
[)a]k-shoob. The [)a] is an a with a breve accent above it.