Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military use
of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing
spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence of
this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing by
night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the
miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish
killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the
fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of
Egypt and Palestine.
As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take the
simplest plan, that of the hook and line, as is mentioned in the
passage quoted above from Ezekiel. Sundry other references are made to
angling, both in the Old and New Testaments. See, for example, the
well-known passage respecting the leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst
thou draw out leviathan with an hook? or his tongue with a cord which
thou lettest down?
"Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with a
thorn?"
It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to the
actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they were kept in
the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook and line, so that it
might be taken when wanted.
On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher Apostles
used both the hook and the net. See Matt. xvii. 27: "Go thou to the
sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish that first cometh up." Now
this passage explains one or two points.
In the first place, it is one among others which shows that, although
the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not throw away
their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy, nor exist ever
afterwards on the earnings of others. On the contrary, they retained
their fisher equipment, whether boats, nets, or hooks; and here we
find St. Peter, after the way of fishermen, carrying about with him
the more portable implements of his craft.
Next, the phrase "casting" the hook into the sea is exactly expressive
of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea and large pieces
of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The fisherman does not require
a rod, but takes his line, which has a weight just above the hook,
coils it on his left arm in lasso fashion, baits the hook, and then,
with a peculiar swing, throws it into the water as far as it will
reach. The hook is allowed to sink for a short time, and is then drawn
towards the shore in a series of jerks, in order to attract the Fish,
so that, although the fisherman does not employ a rod, he manages his
line very much as does an angler of our own day when "spinning" for
pike or trout.
Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage, and in this
case he acts in a slightly different manner. After throwing out the
loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a short stick, notched at
one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts the sharp end into the
ground at the margin of the water, and hitches the line on the notch.
He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession, and
when he has flung the last hook into the water, he sits down on a heap
of leaves and grass which he has gathered together, and watches the
lines to see if either of them is moved in the peculiar jerking manner
which is characteristic of a "bite." After a while, he hauls them in
successively, removes the Fish that may have been caught, and throws
the lines into the water afresh.
This mode of fishing is mentioned in Habakkuk i. 15: "They take up all
of them with the angle."
There are one or two passages which seem to refer to the custom of
angling, though they really bear on a different subject. One of these
is to be found in Ezek. xxxviii.: "And I will turn thee back, and put
hooks into thy jaws, and I will bring thee forth and all thine army,
horses and horsemen." There is another passage of a similar character
in Amos iv. 2: "The Lord God hath sworn by His holiness, that, lo, the
days shall come upon you, that He will take you away with hooks, and
your posterity with fish-hooks."
The word which is here translated as "hook" may more properly be
rendered as "ring," and the prophet alludes to the cruel custom then
prevalent of passing a sharpened hook through the nose or cheek of a
prisoner taken in war, twisting it into a ring, tying a cord to it,
and so leading him just as a bull is led by the ring in the nose.
There are several references in the Scriptures to the hook used for
this cruel purpose. See 2 Kings xix. 28: "Because thy rage against Me
and thy tumult is come up into Mine ears, therefore I will put My hook
in thy nose, and My bridle in thy lips, and I will turn thee back by
the way by which thou camest."
The reader will perceive how much more forcible is this passage when
understood rightly than when the word "hook" is taken as signifying a
mere fish-hook, the sum of it being that the Assyrians should be made
captives and slaves, and driven back to the country whence they came.
The passage in Ezek. xxix. 4 must be taken in the same sense: "But I
will put hooks in thy jaws."
That the spear was used in the old Scriptural times as it is at the
present is shown from several passages of Holy Writ. See, for example,
Job xli. 7: "Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head
with fish-spears? as also in the same chapter, "The sword of him that
layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon.
"He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood.
"The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him into
stubble.
"Darts are counted as stubble: he laugheth at the shaking of a spear"
(ver. 26-29).
Fishing with the spear is much used in the smaller tributary streams
of the Jordan, and the weapon, instead of being many-pointed and
barbed in trident fashion, has but one point, and is without barbs.
With these spears the people contrive to catch a considerable variety
of Fish.
We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a custom to
which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer, sometimes in
course of historical narrative, and sometimes by way of allegory or
metaphor. The reader will remember that the net was also used on land
for the purpose of catching wild animals, and that many of the
allusions to the net which occur in the Old Testament refer to the
land and not to the water.
The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden times as it is
now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is circular, and is loaded
all round its edge with weights, and suspended by the middle to a
cord. When the fisherman throws this net, he gathers it up in folds in
his arms, and, with a peculiar swing of the arms, only to be learned
by long practice, flings it so that it spreads out and falls in its
circular form upon the surface of the water. It rapidly sinks to the
bottom, the loaded circumference causing it to assume a cup-like form,
enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that happen to be under it as
it falls. When it has reached the bottom, the fisherman cautiously
hauls in the rope, so that the loaded edges gradually approach each
other, and by their own weight cling together and prevent the Fish
from escaping as the net is slowly drawn ashore.
This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in nearly all
parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme in their
management of it. They have a net of extraordinary size, and cast it
by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle spreading itself out
in the most perfect manner as it falls on the water.
At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they wade into the
sea as far as they can, and then cast it. In consequence of this
custom, the fishermen are always naked while engaged in their work,
wearing nothing but a thick cap in order to save themselves from
sun-stroke. It is probable that on the memorable occasion mentioned by
St. John, in chap. xxi., all the fishermen were absolutely, and not
relatively naked--_i.e._ that they wore no clothes at all, not even
the ordinary tunic.
That a great variety of nets was used by the ancient Jews is evident
from the fact that there are no less than ten words to signify
different kinds of net. At the present day we have very great
difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation of these
technical terms, especially as in very few cases are we assisted
either by the context or by the etymology of the words. It is the same
in all trades or pursuits, and we can easily understand how our own
names of drag-net, seine, trawl, and keer-drag would perplex any
commentator who happened to live some two thousand years after English
had ceased to be a living language.
Four or five of the Hebrew words give no clue whatever, being simply
derived from a root that signifies weaving, and that therefore merely
indicates the fact that the articles in question are nets. Some of
them are derived from a word which signifies lying in wait, and
another from a word which signifies catching or seizing.
The translators who rendered the Hebrew into the familiar form of the
Septuagint either were unable to distinguish between the various
Hebrew terms, or did not think that any discrimination was needed,
inasmuch as they sometimes render the same Hebrew word by several
Greek equivalents, and sometimes use the same Greek word to express
several Hebrew terms.
When we come to the New Testament, we find a certain feeling of
relief, because the three words used to signify different kinds of
nets are easily understood.
There is, for example, the _amphiblêstron_ ([Greek: amphiblêstrun]),
which is undoubtedly a casting net, as is signified by the etymology
of the word, which is derived from two Greek words signifying to cast
around. This word is used by Herodotus in a sort of parable related by
Cyrus to the Ionians and Æolians, who had refused to revolt from
Croesus when Cyrus asked them to do so; but, when they found he was
sure to be their master, they sent an embassy to ask to be admitted
among his subjects on the same terms which they had enjoyed when under
the rule of Croesus.
When the embassy came before Cyrus, he only answered them with a
parable: "A piper, seeing some fishes in the sea, began to pipe,
expecting that they would come ashore; but, finding his hopes
disappointed, he took a casting-net, and enclosed a great number of
fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them leaping about, he said to
the fishes, 'Cease your dancing, since when I piped you would not come
out and dance.'"
The reader will doubtless have noticed the singular analogy between
this parable and the saying of our Lord, "I have piped to you, and ye
have not danced."
This is the net that is mentioned in Matt. iv. 18: "And Jesus, walking
by the Sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon called Peter and Andrew
his brother, casting a net (_amphiblêstron_) into the sea."
The second word, _diktuon_ ([Greek: dikton]), is derived from another
word signifying to throw; so that if we use the expression
"casting-net" for the word _amphiblêstron_, and "throwing-net" for the
word _diktuon_, we shall be tolerably accurate. Practically both words
are used for the same net, as we find by proceeding further with the
sacred narration.
After mentioning that the future Apostles were casting a net
(_amphiblêstron_), St. Matthew proceeds as follows: "And He said unto
them, Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men.
"And they straightway left their nets (_diktua_), and followed Him"
(ver. 19, 20). In the following verse, where James and John are
mentioned as being occupied in mending their nets after the wont of
all practical fishermen, the word which is translated as "nets" is
_diktua_.
If we turn to John xxi. we find the same word employed.
After the Resurrection, the fisher Apostles were pursuing their craft
by night, as is still the custom, and had caught nothing--a very
serious loss to them. Then at daybreak they saw their risen Lord
standing on the seashore, and, as was several times the case after the
Resurrection, did not recognise Him. He then told them to cast the net
(_diktuon_) over the right hand of the boat, and as soon as that was
done the net was filled with Fishes.
Now the knowledge of the real meaning of the word diktua gives to this
passage a signification which it would not otherwise possess.
In ver. 11, St. John (who was one of the actors in the scene, and who
therefore writes with the precision of an eye-witness) states that the
number of large Fishes was a hundred and fifty-three, and yet the net
was not broken. Knowing that the casting-net is comparatively small,
we now see that a hundred and fifty-three _large_ Fishes would
completely fill a net which could be cast by one man, and that the
miraculous element was twofold.
Firstly, the complete filling of the net with large Fishes, whereas
six or seven small Fishes are the usual complement of a casting-net;
and, secondly, the fact that the net which was held merely by a single
rope in the middle, and which retained its contents simply by the
weight of the leads round its margin, did not give way, and allow the
enclosed Fish to escape.
Indeed, the very fact that a casting-net took such a multitude of
Fishes at once opened the eyes of St. John, who exclaimed to his
fellow Apostles, "It is the Lord." St. Peter, with the impetuous zeal
of his nature, acknowledged the truth of the exclamation, and, too
impatient to wait until the boats could land, girt his fisher's tunic
upon him, leaped into the sea, and swam ashore.
The third Greek word which is translated as "net" is _sagênê_ ([Greek:
sagênê]), a word which still survives in our term "Seine."
The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of which
could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of water. The
upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by floats, and the
lower edge sunk by weights.
This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when "shot" the
various lengths were joined together, and the net extended in a line,
with a boat at each end. The boats then gradually approached each
other, so as to bring the net into a semicircle, and finally met,
enclosing thereby a vast number of Fishes in their meshen walls. The
water was then beaten, so as to frighten the Fishes and drive them
into the meshes, and the net was then either taken ashore, or lifted
by degrees on board the boats, and the Fish removed from it.
As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the
contents are carefully examined, and those which are unfit for eating
are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is taken in the
selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen were still more
cautious, every Fish having to be separately examined in order that
the presence both of fins and scales might be assured before the
captors could send it to the market.
It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known parable of
the net: "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was
cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind;
"Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and
gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away." Compare also
Habakkuk i. 14-17.
The important part taken by Fish in the earlier scriptural days is
shown by the fact that in Jerusalem there was not only a fish-market,
but that the gate which opened upon that market was called the
Fish-gate. See 2 Chron. xxxiii. 14: "Now after this he built a wall
without the city of David, on the west side of Gihon, in the valley,
even to the entering in at the fish-gate."
Afterwards, when Nehemiah obtained permission from Artaxerxes to
rebuild the burnt and broken-down walls of Jerusalem, he restored the
Fish-gate as it had been before: "But the fish-gate did the sons of
Hassenaah build, who also laid the beams thereof, and set up the doors
thereof, the locks thereof, and the bars thereof" (Neh. iii. 3).
About ten years afterwards, when the city had been rebuilt and
repeopled, the fish-market was again established, the dealers being
chiefly men of Tyre, who took advantage of the neglect of the law
which had been the result of the captivity among idolaters, and sold
their goods on the Sabbath day: "There dwelt men of Tyre also therein,
which brought fish, and all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath
unto the children of Judah, and in Jerusalem" (Neh. xiii. 16).
It is evident that the Fish which these traders brought must have been
dried and salted, or otherwise they would not have borne the journey
to Jerusalem from Tyre. Dried Fish were, according to Herodotus,
largely used in Egypt, and it is probable that the Jews learned the
art of drying and salting Fish for future use during their captivity
in that land.
There are one or two passages in the Scriptures which relate to Fish,
though in a less direct manner than those which have been quoted. One
of them refers to the times of drought which occasionally visit
Palestine, and which always bring with them terrible privations, and
sometimes cause actual famine. See, for example, Isa. 1. 2: "Behold,
at My rebuke I dry up the sea, I make the rivers a wilderness: their
fish stinketh, because there is no water, and dieth for thirst." These
words exactly express the condition of the country after a long
drought. The springs are gradually exhausted from the absence of rain,
the large rivers sink lower and lower in their beds, and the little
streams and tributaries dry up altogether, leaving their inhabitants
to perish for want of water.
By way of contrast to this passage, we will take another, which
speaks, not of death, but of life. It occurs in Ezek. xlvii. 10, and
forms part of the vision in which the future of the Church was
foretold:
"And it shall come to pass, that everything that liveth, which moveth,
whithersoever the rivers shall come, shall live: and there shall be a
very great multitude of fish, because these waters shall come thither:
for they shall be healed; and everything shall live whither the river
cometh.
"And it shall come to pass, that the fishers shall stand upon it from
En-gedi even unto En-eglaim; they shall be a place to spread forth
nets; their fish shall be according to their kinds, as the fish of the
great sea, exceeding many."
Now this is one of the many passages which might be passed over
lightly, because its general signification is so evident, and yet
which requires to be understood before its full force can be
comprehended. Both these places, En-gedi and En-eglaim, are on the
shores of the Dead Sea, in which no creature can live. Thousands of
small Fishes are daily carried into the Dead Sea from the Jordan, and
as soon as the fresh water of the river mingles with the poisonous
waves of the Dead Sea the Fishes die. Putting aside as foreign to the
purpose of this work the metaphorical signification of the passage, we
find that the prophet foretold a complete regeneration of the waters,
so that, instead of destroying every creature that entered them, the
Fishes should multiply so that fishermen should ply their trade from
one part of the Dead Sea to another.
Again, in Hosea iv: 3, where the destruction of Fish is mentioned
among the plagues that would follow the continual disobedience of the
Israelites: "Because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of
God in the land, ....
"Therefore shall the land mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein
shall languish, with the beasts of the field, and with the fowls of
heaven: yea, the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away."
Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious, part played
by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians employed Fish as
material symbols of Divine attributes we learn from secular writers,
such as Herodotus and Strabo.
The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to idolatry,
and to have adopted the idols of every people with whom they came in
contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of Egypt as soon as they found
themselves among the Philistines. We might naturally imagine that as
the Israelites were bitterly opposed to their persistent enemy, who
trod them under foot and crushed every attempt at rebellion for more
than three hundred years, they would repudiate the worship as well as
the rule of their conquerors. But, on the contrary, they adopted the
worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was the principal deity of the
Philistines, and erected temples in his honour.
Their tendency to this Fish-worship is specially noticed in the
commandment that they were not to worship "the likeness of anything
that creepeth on the ground" (i.e. serpent-worship), "the likeness of
any fish that is in the waters beneath the earth" (Deut. iv. 18).
We learn from 1 Sam. v. 4 the form of this idol: "When they arose
early on the morrow morning, behold, Dagon was fallen upon his face to
the ground before the ark of the Lord; and the head of Dagon and both
the palms of his hands were cut off upon the threshold; only the stump
of Dagon was left to him."
If the reader will refer to this passage, he will see that the latter
part is rendered in the marginal reading as "the fishy part was left
to him." The Jewish Bible has nearly the same reading, "only a
fish-stump had remained of him."
It is evident, therefore, that Dagon had the head, body, and arms of
a man, and that the figure terminated in a Fish's tail. In fact, there
is little doubt that to the various figures of this deity is owing the
wide-spread belief in mermen. We find the same image among the
Assyrians, who not only represented the god as half man and half fish,
but who dressed his priest in a garment representing the skin of a
Fish, with the head worn as a helmet, and the rest of the skin flowing
down the back.
We find precisely the same worship at the present day in Siam, where
Dagon has exactly the same form as among the Philistines of old. There
is now before me a photograph of a great temple at Ayutia, the
entrance to which is guarded by two huge images of the Fish-god. They
are about sixty feet in height, and have both legs and feet like man,
but in addition the lower part of the body is modified into the tail
of a Fish, which, in common with the whole of the body, is covered
with gilded scales.
It is conjectured that the Fish was chosen as an emblem of fecundity,
on account of the wonderful fertility of the Fish tribes. That the
Israelites were familiarly acquainted with this fact is shown by a
passage in the benediction of Jacob. In speaking of Joseph, he uses
these words: "The Angel which redeemed me from all evil, bless the
lads; and let my name be named on them, and the name of my fathers
Abraham and Isaac; and let them grow into a multitude" ("as fishes do
increase," marg. trans.) "in the midst of the earth" (Gen. xlviii.
16).
In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish which
are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added three more
species, which are represented in the following illustration.
The uppermost figure represents the NILE PERCH (_Lates Niloticus_).
This Fish is plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic
rivers. It is brown above, silvery white below, and may be
distinguished by the armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of
the anal fin. The tongue is smooth.
Immediately below the Nile Perch is the _Star-gazer_ (_Uranoscopus
scaber_).
This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name from the
singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head, so that it looks
upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the mud-lovers, a fact which
accounts for the peculiar position of the eyes. It is said to feed
after the fashion of the fishing-frog--_i.e._ by burying itself in the
mud and attracting other Fishes by a worm-like appendage of its mouth,
and pouncing on them before they are aware of their danger.
[Illustration: FISH OF EGYPT AND PALESTINE.
1. NILE PERCH. 2. SURMULLET. 3. STAR-GAZER.
"_We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely._"--NUMB. xi.
5.]
This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not pleasant to
the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much valued by those
who can obtain it.
The last Fish to be noticed is the SURMULLET (_Mullus Surmuletus_), a
Fish that is equally remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the
excellence of its flesh.
INVERTEBRATES.
MOLLUSCS.
The purple of Scripture--Various Molluscs from which it is
obtained--The common Dog-Whelk of England--The sac containing
the purple dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the
dye--The Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the
purple robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words
expressive of different shades of purple--Care taken to keep the
preparation of the dye secret.
Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the
Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture.
As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature which
prevails among the higher animals, the species which can be identified
are comparatively few, and of them but a very few details are given in
the Scriptures.
Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the
MOLLUSCS.
We are all familiar with the value which was set by the ancients upon
the peculiar dye which may be called by the name of Imperial Purple.
In the first place, it was exceedingly costly, not only for its
richness of hue, but from the great difficulty with which a sufficient
quantity could be procured for staining a dress. Purple was
exclusively a royal colour, which might not be worn by a subject.
Among the ancient Romans, during the times of the Cæsars, any one who
ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of
his life. In the consular days of Rome, the dress of the consuls was
white, striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced another step in
luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue.
The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the term
"purple," _i.e._ a mixture of blue and red. It has but very little
blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to the colour of
newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several Molluscs belonging
to the great Whelk family, the chief of which is the _Murex
brandaris_. Another species is _Murex trunculus_, another is _Purpura
hæmastoma_, and we have a fourth on our own coast, the common
Dog-Whelk, or Dog-Periwinkle (_Purpura lapillus_).
The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is very smooth
and porcelain-like, and is generally white, ornamented with several
coloured bands. It is, however, one of the most variable of shells,
differing not only in colour but in form. It always inhabits the belt
of the shore between tide-marks, and preys upon other Molluscs, such
as the mussel and periwinkle, literally licking them to pieces with
its long riband tongue.
This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like the
shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders, and with it
the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of mussels and
similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal. It is very
destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through the mouth of
the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which the entrance is
closed, and gradually scooping out the unfortunate inmate.
Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between two shells,
fare no better, the tongue of the Dog-Whelk rasping a hole in the hard
shell in eight-and-forty hours.
Any of my readers who desire to obtain a very fair specimen of the old
imperial purple can do so without difficulty.
Let him go down to the sea-shore, and collect a number of
Dog-Whelks--a task of no difficulty, as a bushel may be obtained in a
very short time. Let him provide himself with a piece of perfectly
clean linen, or pure white woollen fabric, and a pair of fine scissors
or a sharp knife.
In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with a sharp
blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the colouring matter can
then be seen behind the head, and recognised by its lighter hue.
When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is yellowish,
and gives no promise of its future richness of hue. There is only one
drop of this matter in each animal, and it is about sufficient in
quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a sixpence.
The best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to take a
number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as possible.
The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays of the sun, when
it will go through a most curious series of colours. The yellow begins
to turn green, and, after a while, the stained portions of the linen
will be entirely green, the yellow having been vanquished by the blue.
By degrees the blue predominates more and more over the yellow, until
the linen is no more green, but blue. Then, just as the yellow yielded
to the blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes first violet, then
purple, and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of royalty.
The colour is very permanent, and, instead of fading by time, seems
rather to brighten. Some two hundred years ago there was an
established trade in this dye in Ireland; but it has long ago been
crushed by the cheaper, though less permanent, dyes which have since
been invented.
In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves with
the complicated operation of taking the animal out of the shell,
opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents on the fabric to be
dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the Mollusc, so as to set the
colouring matter free, and steeped the cloth in the pulp. Tyre was one
of the most celebrated spots for this manufacture, the "Tyrian dye"
being celebrated for its richness. Heaps of broken shells remain to
the present day as memorials of the long-perished manufacture.
The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by many
passages in various books. Among others we may refer to Herodotus.
Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three nations, the
Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians. He determined to
invade the first by land, and the second by sea; but, being ignorant
of the best method of reaching the Ethiopians, he dispatched
messengers to them, nominally as ambassadors, but practically as
spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia valuable presents--namely, a
purple mantle, a golden necklace and bracelet, an elaborate box of
perfumed ointment, and a cask of palm-wine, these evidently being
considered a proof of imperial magnificence.
The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine, and asked
curiously concerning the dye with which the purple mantle was stained.
On being told the mode of preparation, he refused to believe the
visitors, and, referring to the changing hues of the mantle and to the
perfume of the ointment, he showed his appreciation of their real
character by saying that the goods were deceptive, and so were the
bearers.
This curious narrative occurs in the third book, chaps. 19-22.
The same historian has in another place a passing allusion to the
trade of catching the purple-producing whelks. In his fourth book,
chap. 151, he mentions a man who was a purple-dyer by trade, the word
signifying equally one who procures the Molluscs as one who dyes the
threads of which the purple fabrics are woven.
The dye-producing power is not restricted to the whelks, but is shared
by other Molluscs. For example, the Diadem Staircase Shell (_Scalaria
diadema_) secretes a substance which produces a purple hue, and the
_Cerithium telescopium_ produces a dye which retains its green hue,
instead of passing into blue and red.
The Hebrew word _argaman_, which signifies the regal purple, occurs
several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly different form
according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom.
For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4: "This is the offering which
ye shall take of them: gold, and silver, and brass,
"And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &c. &c.
It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7: "Send me now therefore a man
cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in iron, and
in purple, and crimson, and blue." These words are repeated in ver.
14.
A very important use of this word is found in Dan. v. 7: "And the king
spake, and said to the wise men of Babylon, Whosoever shall read this
writing, and show me the interpretation thereof, shall be clothed with
scarlet" ("purple" in margin), "and have a chain of gold about his
neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom." Here we find that
the dye in question was a regal one, that the wearing it was a matter
of sumptuary law, and that the fact of being allowed to wear it was a
sign that the wearer was of the very highest rank.
The Jewish Bible invariably translates the word as "red-purple."
That the preparers of the precious purple colour took care to preserve
their art a secret, is evident from the writings of the Talmudists,
who had the very vaguest ideas respecting the dye. They knew that it
was obtained from a marine Mollusc, but thought that the creature only
made its appearance once in seventy years, and that this scarcity was
the cause of its costliness. They said that the dye obtained from one
sea was blackish, evidently referring to the ink of the cuttle; that
when it was obtained from another it was violet, and that the
Phoenician waters alone produced the true red-purple hue.
They accounted for its colour by saying that the animal took the
colour of the sea which it inhabited: the sea was like the sky which
it reflected, the sky was like the throne of God, and the throne of
God was like the sapphire. Therefore, the dye was like the sapphire.
It is not impossible even that the dyers exhibited specimens of the
Violet Snail, or Janthina, which is of a rich blue colour, and which
would readily be accepted as the source of the Tyrian dye.
THE SNAIL.
The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory
respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word
_Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine.
There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage in Ps.
lviii. 8: "As a snail which melteth, let every one of them pass away."
The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way which explains the idea
which evidently prevailed at the time when the Psalms were composed:
"As a snail let him melt as he passeth on."
The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a Snail as it
crawled along was subtracted from the substance of its body, and that
in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller it became, until at
last it wasted entirely away. The commentators on the Talmud took this
view of the case. The Hebrew word _shablul_, which undoubtedly does
signify a Snail of some kind, is thus explained: "The Shablul is a
creeping thing: when it comes out of its shell, saliva pours from
itself, until it becomes liquid, and so dies."
Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but there is no
doubt that the view taken by these commentators is the correct one,
and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the terrible series of
denunciations in which the passage in question occurs, had in his mind
the popular belief regarding the gradual wasting away of the Snail as
it "passeth on."
It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is
mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine there are
many species of Snails, to any or all of which these words are equally
applicable.
THE ONYCHA.
Ingredients of the sacred incense--The Onyx, or
Onycha--Derivation of the word--The Arabic Dofr--The Doofu of
Abyssinia--Odour of the perfume.
In Exod. xxx. 34 there occurs a remarkable word, _shecheleth_, which
is used to describe one of the ingredients of the incense to be used
in Divine worship. The Jewish Bible renders the word rightly,
"onycha," while Buxtorf renders it by "onyx," a word which is likely
to mislead the reader, and to cause him to believe it to be a mineral,
and not an animal substance.
The Onycha is the operculum of one of the Strombi or Wing-shells, and
derives its name from the resemblance which it bears in those shells
to a nail or claw. The Greek word _onyx_ primarily signifies a nail,
and is indeed the origin of our own word. Secondarily, it is used to
denote a precious stone, partly because the white bands of the
sardonyx bear some resemblance to the white semi-lunar marks at the
base of human nails. In consequence of the resemblance of the
operculum to a claw or nail, the Arabs call the Wing-shell
"Dofr-el-afrit," or Afrit's (_i.e._ demon's) claw.
The operculum of the Wing-shells has a sharp and powerful scent when
burned, and, when mixed with substances more fragrant but less
powerful, it has the effect of adding to their potency if not to their
fragrance.
A remarkable corroboration of this rendering occurs in Mr. Mansfield
Parkyns's valuable "Life in Abyssinia." In the Appendix to vol. i. in
which the commerce of Abyssinia and the Red Sea is described, the
following entry occurs:--"_October 5, 1848._ Sailed for Suakim in a
native boat. Cargo: muslins, marawdi, Surat tobacco, sandal-wood, and
doofu. This article is the operculum or horny substance with which
some species of shell-fish are furnished to protect the mouth of their
shells. These in some parts of Nubia are used for perfume, being burnt
with sandal-wood."
Here we have one or two points worthy of notice. In the first place,
it is evident that the Doofu of the Abyssinians is identical with the
Dofr of the Arabs. In the second place we find that it is not used
alone as a perfume, but is burned together with the fragrant
sandal-wood. Lastly, we find that the materials of the incense which
were ordained for the special use of the Jewish worship were derived
from North-Eastern Africa, and were in all probability familiar to the
Jews from their long residence in Egypt.
The opercula of all the Strombidæ possess this powerful, though not
very fragrant odour, which has been compared to that of spices, or
castoreum, and probably acts the part which is played in many modern
perfumes by materials which in themselves possess an odour the reverse
of fragrant.
The mineral onyx is represented by a different Hebrew word, namely,
_shoham_.
THE PEARL.
The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Different
renderings of the Hebrew word--Opinions of the
Talmudists--Structure of Pearls--The Pearls of the marine and
aquatic mussels--Pearl-fisheries of the Conway--Metaphorical
uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls
before swine--An ancient proverb.
There is only one passage in the Old Testament in which can be found
the word which is translated as PEARL, and it is certain that the word
in question may have another interpretation.
The word in question is _gabish_, and occurs in Job xxviii. 18.
Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning, "But where
shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of understanding?" the
sacred writer uses these words, "No mention shall be made of coral, or
of pearls: for the price of wisdom is above rubies." This is the only
passage in the Bible which contains the word in its simple form, but
there are two others in which it is found with the addition of the
syllable _el_, connected with the word _abne_, or stone. In this form,
it is translated in the Authorized Version as "hailstones."
See Ezek. xiii. 11: "Say unto them which daub it with untempered
morter, that it shall fall: there shall be an overflowing shower; and
ye, O great Hailstones, shall fall; and a stormy wind shall rend it."
Also xxxviii. 22: "And I will plead against him with pestilence and
with blood; and I will rain upon him, and upon his bands, and upon the
many people that are with him, an overflowing rain, and great
Hailstones, fire, and brimstone."
The Jewish Bible accepts the rendering of "hailstones" in both these
passages, but affixes the mark of doubt to the word, whereas in Job
xxviii. 18 it translates the word _gabish_ as "pearls" without using
any mark of doubt. In Buxtorfs Hebrew Lexicon, the word is translated
as "_Unio, Margarita pretiosa._" It is not, however, difficult to see
that the word _gabish_ may primarily signify either ice or Pearl, and
that the one may have been used metaphorically for the other.
The Talmudical writers had much to say on the subject of Pearls, but,
before proceeding to their curious disquisitions, it will be as well
to describe briefly the Pearl and its origin.
We are all familiar with the shining inner coating or "nacre"
possessed by many bivalve molluscs, such as the common mussels and
oysters. This coating is sometimes found upon extraneous substances
deposited on the "mantle" of the animal, and then takes the name of
"Pearl." Sometimes these are found in the common oyster.
For example, I have before me some Pearls about as large as No. 5
shot, that I took out of a single plateful of oysters. They are dull
in colour and irregular in form, but they are perfect Pearls.
Then the common edible mussel frequently contains Pearls, which,
however, are almost invariably small, and comparatively valueless. It
is mentioned by Pliny that Julius Cæsar obtained in Britain a
sufficient number of Pearls to cover a breastplate, which he dedicated
to Venus, and hung in her temple. It is evident from Pliny's account
that the Pearls in question were small and comparatively valueless,
and it has been shrewdly suggested that Cæsar only presented them to
the goddess because the Roman ladies would not have worn them.
These Pearls were in all probability obtained from the common edible
mussel which grows so abundantly on our coasts, and not, as has been
generally thought, from the river Pearl-mussel, which really produces
Pearls of considerable value. The celebrated pearl-fishers of the
Conway employ the edible mussel, and sell the Pearls at a certain
price per ounce.
The scientific name of the river Pearl-shell is _Unio margaritiferus_,
which is found in best condition in rapid mountain streams. It is
plentiful in many of the Irish rivers, from which Pearls of
considerable value have been procured. One of these Pearls, seen by
Sir R. Redding set in a necklace, was purchased for thirty pounds by
the owner, who had refused nearly three times the sum for it.
Perhaps the most celebrated Pearl-mussel is that of the Chinese,
_Dipsas plicatus_. This species attains a considerable size, a
specimen in my possession being seven inches in length and five in
width.
[Illustration: PEARL OYSTER.
"_And the twelve gates were twelve pearls._"--REV. xxi. 21.]
The Chinese make a singular use of this mussel. They string a number
of globular pellets, and introduce them between the valves of the
mussel, so that in course of time the creature deposits a coating of
pearly substance upon them, and forms a very good imitation of real
Pearls. They also stamp little images, popularly called josses, out of
metal, and force the animal to cover them with nacre in a similar
manner. Six such josses are in my specimen. Frequently, however, these
incorrigible imitators actually counterfeit the sham pearls, merely
taking the josses and pellets, laying them in shells from which the
animal has been removed, and washing them with a solution which, when
dry, looks so like nacre that it cannot be distinguished from that
substance without much difficulty.
The best Pearls are those which are procured from the well-known PEARL
OYSTER (_Meleagrina margaritifera_), which is found in several parts
of the world, and which constitutes the principal source of wealth to
the localities where it most abounds.
The Talmudical commentators wrote rather copiously about the Pearl,
respecting the nature of which they were somewhat perplexed, as it was
a gem and yet not a mineral. They thought that it lay at the bottom of
the sea, under flat, slab-like stones some of which had Pearls beneath
them, but the greater part were without them. In consequence of the
difficulty of diving and the precariousness of the search, a number of
proverbs were current. For example, a person who persevered in some
fruitless search was said to be a diver who brought up stones without
Pearls. If one person laboured and another took the credit, it was
said that the one would not have found the Pearl if the other had not
brought up the stone.
In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking wisdom,
it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense we must
understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls before swine.
The "pearl of great price" is another form of the same metaphor.
This metaphor holds good in almost all Oriental languages.
There is also a proverb which bears a curious resemblance to the
well-known "painting the lily and gilding refined gold:" "Whoso
praises a priceless pearl undervalues it."
INSECTS.
Insects--Beetles not mentioned in Scripture--The Locust--Various
species of the insect, and different words used to signify
it--The Arbeh of Scripture, and its derivation--The two
migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing--The Locust
swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress of the insect
hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and down as a
Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east and the west
winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern travellers--The
food of St. John.
Considering the vast variety of insects which are found in Egypt,
Syria, and Palestine, it is somewhat remarkable that so few should be
mentioned by name. Not one single coleopteran is mentioned; for,
although the Hebrew word _chargol_, which occurs in Lev. xi. 21, 22,
is rendered in the Authorized Version as "beetle," the context shows
that it could not have been a coleopterous insect at all, but must
have belonged to the locusts. We will therefore pass to the insect
next in order.
THE LOCUST.
Of the LOCUSTS there are several species in Palestine, two of which
are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the ground are the
common Migratory Locusts (_OEdipoda migratoria_), while those on the
wing, which have long heads, are a species of _Truxalis_.
At least four species of Locust are mentioned in the Scriptures, one
of them being the beetle of the Authorized Version; and it is probable
that one or two words which are differently rendered in the Authorized
Version are either names of different species of Locusts, or are
synonyms for the same species.
We will first take the different Hebrew words which are translated as
"Locust," and then proceed to the description of the insects
themselves.
The first of those words is _arbeh_, about the rendering of which
there is no doubt whatever. It occurs many times in the Scriptures,
and, even if its signification were doubtful, the context would be
sufficient to denote the proper rendering of the word. Take, for
example, the account in Exod. x. of the threatened plague of Locusts.
Nothing can be more terse and graphic than the description of the
Arbeh, its vast multitudes, its sudden arrival, and its destructive
power.
In Judges vi. 5 the word is translated as "grasshopper." "For they
came up with their cattle and their tents, and they came as
grasshoppers for multitude; for both they and their camels were
without number: and they entered into the land to destroy it."
Translating the word rightly as "Locust," we see the real force of
this passage. Grasshoppers may inhabit a spot, and do no great harm,
but the Locusts invade whole districts, coming like destructive armies
upon it, and causing utter destruction as long as they remain.
In 1 Kings viii. 37, Solomon speaks of the presence of the Arbeh among
the most terrible calamities that can befall a country, and classes it
with famine, drought, pestilence, and siege. In Prov. xxx. 27 the same
writer remarks on the curious fact that these creatures are gregarious
and migratory, and yet have no leader, as is mostly the case with
gregarious animals. "The locusts have no king, yet go they forth all
of them by hands."
Allusion is made to the vast number of the Arbeh in Jer. xlvi.: "They
shall cut down her forest, saith the Lord, though it cannot be
searched; because they are more than the grasshoppers, and are
innumerable." The voracity of the Arbeh is mentioned in Joel i. 4 and
ii. 25. These are but a few passages selected out of the many in which
the Arbeh is mentioned, in order to show how completely the word
corresponds with the character of the Locust. The word is derived from
a Hebrew root signifying multitudes, and is therefore appropriately
used for these insects, which singly are so feeble, and collectively
are so terrible.
Next comes the word _chagab_, which evidently signifies some migratory
and gregarious Locust, though we cannot say precisely to which species
it refers. The word is mostly translated as "grasshopper," and, from
the context of several passages, it seems to have been less in size
than the Arbeh, inasmuch as it is used as a metaphor to express
smallness. See, for example, Numb. xiii. 31-33, where is recorded the
false report of the spies whom Moses sent to inspect the land. "The
men that went up said, We be not able to go up against the people; for
they are stronger than we.
"And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had
searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which
we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants
thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great
stature.
"And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the
giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers" (_chagabim_),
"and so we were in their sight."
A similar metaphor is employed by the Prophet Isaiah: "It is He that
sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are
as grasshoppers" (xl. 22). And in Eccles. xii. 5 extreme weakness is
forcibly indicated by the words, "the grasshopper" (_chagab_) "shall
be a burden."
Now the two principal species of Locust which travel in bands and
devastate the country are the common Migratory Locust (_OEdipoda
migratoria_) and the _Acridium peregrinum_. If, therefore, the word
_arbeh_ expresses one of these insects, it is probable that the word
_chagab_ signifies the other.
The Bald Locust of Lev. xi. 22 is probably some species of _Truxalis_,
the insects belonging to this genus having long and smooth heads. The
Hebrew word is _sallom_, and the Jewish Bible leaves it untranslated.
The word _chargol_ which also occurs in the same passage, and is
translated in the Authorized Version as "beetle," is in all
probability a species of Locust, as it is classed with those insects
which have "legs above their feet to leap withal."
Besides these words, we find that others translated as "caterpillar,"
"palmerworm," and "cankerworm" may be synonyms for the Locust, either
different species, or as expressing the same species in its various
stages of development. (See Lepidoptera, page 632.)
We will now pass on to the insect and its habits, taking the Migratory
Locust as the type of its family.
The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or
straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed, four wings,
the two front being thick and membraneous, while the two hinder wings
are large, delicate, translucent, and folded longitudinally under the
front pair of wings when the insect is at rest. In the Locusts these
characteristics are admirably shown. The appearance of a Locust when
at rest and when flying is so different that the creature is at first
sight scarcely recognisable as the same creature. When at rest, it is
a compact and tolerably stout insect, with a dull though delicately
coloured body; but when it takes flight it appears to attain twice its
previous dimensions.
The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they were
expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the hinder pair,
which were before invisible, became the most prominent part of the
insect, their translucent folds being coloured with the most brilliant
hues, according to the species. The body seems to have shrunk as the
wings have increased, and to have diminished to half its previous
size, while the long legs that previously were so conspicuous are
stretched out like the legs of a flying heron.
All the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm wherever they
happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws severing even the thick
grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it is only when they invade a
country that their real power is felt. They come flying with the wind
in such vast multitudes that the sky is darkened as if by
thunder-clouds; and when they settle, every vestige of green
disappears off the face of the earth.
Mr. Gordon Cumming once saw a flight of these Locusts. They flew about
three hundred feet from the ground, and came on in thick, solid
masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all sides nothing was to be
seen but Locusts. The air was full of them, and the plain was covered
with them, and for more than an hour the insect army flew past him.
When the Locusts settle, they eat with such voracity that the sound
caused by their jaws cutting the leaves and grass can be heard at a
great distance; and even the young Locusts, which have no wings, and
are graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern Africa
"voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power of jaw to
the fully-developed insect.
As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the progress of
the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast herds of antelopes
that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that blacken the
prairies of America, and the progress of even the wingless young is
as irresistible as that of the adult insects. Regiments of soldiers
have in vain attempted to stop them. Trenches have been dug across
their path, only to be filled up in a few minutes with the advancing
hosts, over whose bodies the millions of survivors continued their
march. When the trenches were filled with water, the result was the
same; and even when fire was substituted for water, the flames were
quenched by the masses of Locusts that fell into them. When they come
to a tree, they climb up it in swarms, and devour every particle of
foliage, not even sparing the bark of the smaller branches. They
ascend the walls of houses that come in the line of their march,
swarming in at the windows, and gnawing in their hunger the very
woodwork of the furniture.
We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy of Joel.
"A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick
darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains: a great people and
a strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any more
after it, even to the years of many generations.
"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth: the
land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate
wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape them.
"The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses; and as
horsemen, so shall they run.
"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap,
like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a
strong people set in battle array....
"They shall run like mighty men; they shall climb the wall like men of
war; and they shall march every one on his ways, and they shall not
break their ranks:
"Neither shall one thrust another; they shall walk every one in his
path: and when they fall upon the sword, they shall not be wounded.
"They shall run to and fro in the city; they shall run upon the wall,
they shall climb up upon the houses; they shall enter in at the
windows like a thief.
"The earth shall quake before them; the heavens shall tremble: the sun
and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their
shining:
"And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army: for His camp is
very great".(Joel ii. 2-11).
[Illustration: THE LOCUST.
"All thy trees shall the locust consume."--DEUT. xxviii. 42.]
Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid description of
the Locust armies. First we have the darkness caused by them as they
fly like black clouds between the sun and the earth. Then comes the
contrast between the blooming and fertile aspect of the land before
they settle on it, and its utter desolation when they leave it. Then
the poet-prophet alludes to the rushing noise of their flight, which
he compares to the sound of chariots upon the mountains, and to the
compact masses in which they pass over the ground like soldiers on the
march. The impossibility of checking them is shown in verse 8, and
their climbing the walls of houses and entering the chambers in verse
9.
There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight seems
rather obscure, but is clear enough when we understand the character
of the insect to which it refers: "I am gone like the shadow when it
declineth: I am tossed up and down as the locust" (Ps. cix. 23).
Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to remain on
the wing for a considerable period, and to pass over great distances,
they have little or no command over the direction of their flight, and
always travel with the wind, just as has been mentioned regarding the
quail. So entirely are they at the mercy of the wind, that if a sudden
gust arises the Locusts are tossed about in the most helpless manner;
and if they should happen to come across one of the circular
air-currents that are so frequently found in the countries which they
inhabit, they are whirled round and round without the least power of
extricating themselves.
The course then of the Locust-swarms depends entirely on the direction
of the wind. They are brought by the wind, and they are taken away by
the wind, as is mentioned in the sacred narrative. In the account of
the great plague of Locusts, the wind is mentioned as the proximate
cause both of their arrival and their departure. See, for example,
Exod. x. 12, 13:
"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the land of
Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the land of Egypt,
and eat every herb of the land, even all that the hail hath left.
"And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the
Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that
night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts."
Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and entreated to
remove the plague which had been brought upon the land, the west wind
was employed to take the Locusts away, just as the east wind had
brought them.
"He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord.
"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the
locusts, and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained not one locust
in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19).
Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies, which
exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One traveller mentions
that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were destroyed in such
multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort of wall, varying from
three to four feet in height, fifty miles in length, and almost
unapproachable, on account of the odour of their decomposing bodies.
We now come to the use of Locusts as food.
Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food, even
among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that the
Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should have
been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are, however,
eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent, and in some
places form an important article of diet, thus compensating in some
way for the amount of vegetable food which they consume.
Herodotus, for example, when describing the various tribes of Libyans,
mentions the use of the Locust as an article of diet. "The Nasamones,
a very numerous people, adjoin these Auschisæ westward.... When they
have caught locusts, they dry them in the sun, reduce them to powder,
and, sprinkling them in milk, drink them." (Melpomene, ch. 172.)
This is precisely the plan which is followed at the present day by the
Bosjesmans of Southern Africa.
To them the Locusts are a blessing, and not a plague. They till no
ground, so that they care nothing for crops, and they breed no cattle,
so that they are indifferent about pasture land.
When they see a cloud of Locusts in the distance they light great
fires, and heap plenty of green boughs upon them, so as to create a
thick smoke. The Locusts have no idea of avoiding these smoke columns,
but fly over the fires, and, stifled by the vapour, fall to the
ground, where they are caught in vast numbers by the Bosjesmans.
When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they can manage
to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize them between
two stones, and keep the meal for future use, mixing it with water,
or, if they can get it, with milk.
We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the present
day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Palgrave, in his
"Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description of the custom of
eating Locusts. "On a sloping bank, at a short distance in front, we
discerned certain large black patches, in strong contrast with the
white glisten of the soil around, and at the same time our attention
was attracted by a strange whizzing, like that of a flight of hornets,
close along the ground, while our dromedaries capered and started as
though struck with sudden insanity.
"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here alighted in
their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in the Dahna; their
camp extended far and wide, and we had already disturbed their
outposts. These insects are wont to settle on the ground after sunset,
and there, half-stupified by the night chill, await the morning rays,
which warm them once more into life and movement.
"This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it would be
hard to say which of the two were the most frightened, they or the
locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a beast lose his wits
for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless Insect, for, of all
timid creatures, none equal this 'ship of the desert' for cowardice.
"But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters. I really
thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts are here an article
of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of them is begged of Heaven
in Arabia....
"The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and boiled
and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent. However, I
never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever invitations the
inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips over large dishes full of
entomological 'delicatesses,' would make me to join them. Barakàt
ventured on one for a trial. He pronounced it oily and disgusting, nor
added a second to the first: it is caviare to unaccustomed palates.
"The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our Arabs, on no
account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all were forgotten, and
down the riders leaped from their starting camels. This one spread out
a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a third his shirt, over the unlucky
creatures, destined for the morning meal. Some flew away, whizzing
across our feet; others were caught, and tied up in sacks."
Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," mentions that the
true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the negroes and
Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being something between the
burnt end of a quill and a crumb of linseed cake. The flavour,
however, depends much on the mode of cooking, and, as some say, on the
nature of the Locusts' food.
Signor Pierotti states, in his "Customs and Traditions of Palestine,"
that Locusts are really excellent food, and that he was accustomed to
eat them, not from necessity, but from choice, and compares their
flavour to that of shrimps.
Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine, Locusts are
eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but, when preserved
for future use, they are dried in the sun, their heads, wings, and
legs picked off, and their bodies ground into dust. This dust has
naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is corrected by mixing it
with camel's milk or honey, the latter being the favourite substance.
We may now see that the food of St. John the Baptist was, like his
dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and that
there was no more hardship in the one than in the other. Some
commentators have tried to prove that St. John fed on the fruit of the
locust or carob tree--the same that is used so much in this country
for feeding cattle; but there is not the least ground for such an
explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires no explanation;
Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary article of food even
at the present day.
HYMENOPTERA.
THE BEE.
The Hebrew word _Debôrah_--The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance
of Bees in the Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--Hissing
for the Bee--Bees in dead carcases--The honey of
Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild
honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the
honey--Butter and honey--Oriental sweetmeats--The Dibs, or
grape-honey, and mode of preparation--Wax, its use as a
metaphor.
Passing for the moment the order of insects called Neuroptera, which
may possibly be represented in the Scriptural writings by the
Termites, which would be classed with the ants, we come to the vast
order of Hymenoptera, of which we find several representatives.
Beginning with that which is most familiar to us, we will take the
Bee, an insect which is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures, and to
which indirect allusion is made in many passages, such as those which
mention honey, honeycomb, and wax.
Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the Hebrew word
_debôrah_, which has always been acknowledged to be rightly translated
as "Bee." There has, however, been a difference of opinion as to the
derivation of the word, some Hebraists thinking that it is derived
from a word which signifies departure, or going forth, in allusion to
its habit of swarming, while others derive it from the Hebrew dabar, a
word which signifies speech, and is appropriate to the Bee on account
of the varied sounds of its hum, which were supposed to be the
language of the insect.
The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in some parts
of the country multiplying to such an extent that the precipitous
ravines in which it takes up its residence are almost impassable by
human beings, so jealous are the Bees of their domains. Although the
Bee is not exactly the same species as that of our own country, being
the Banded Bee (_Apis fasciata_), and not the _Apis mellifica_, the
two insects very much resemble each other in shape, colour, and
habits. Both of them share the instinctive dislike of strangers and
jealousy of intrusion, and the Banded Bee of Palestine has as great an
objection to intrusion as its congener of England.
[Illustration: THE BEE.
"_They shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys and in the holes
of the rocks._"--ISA. vii. 19.]
Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in the
character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i. 44: "And the
Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you, and
chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto Hormah."
All those who have had the misfortune to offend Bees will recognise
the truth of this metaphor, the Amorites swarming out of the mountain
like wild Bees out of the rocky clefts which serve them as hives, and
chasing the intruder fairly out of their domains.
A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms: "They compassed me
about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the name of the Lord I
will destroy them.
"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as the fire of
thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy them."
There is another passage in which the Bee is mentioned in the light of
an enemy: "And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall
hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt,
and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria.
"And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate
valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and upon
all bushes" (Isa. vii. 18, 19). Some commentators have thought that
the word which is translated as "Bee" may in this case refer to some
noxious fly, which, although it is not a Bee, and does not even belong
to the same order of insects, has a sufficiently Bee-like appearance
to cause it to be classed among the Bees by the non-zoological
Orientals. The context, however, sets the question at rest; for the
allusions to the resting of the insect in the holes of the rock, upon
the thorns, and on the bushes, clearly refers to the mode in which the
Honey Bee throws off its swarms.
The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier books of
Scripture. The reader will remember that, after Samson had killed the
lion which met him on the way, he left the carcase alone. The various
carnivorous beasts and birds at once discover such a banquet, and in a
very short time the body of a dead animal is reduced to a hollow
skeleton, partially or entirely covered with skin, the rays of the sun
drying and hardening the skin until it is like horn.
In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in this
country. Some years before this account was written there was a very
hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took place among the sheep.
So many indeed died that at last their owners merely flayed them, and
left their bodies to perish. One of the dead sheep had been thrown
into a rather thick copse, and had fallen in a spot where it was
sheltered from the wind, and yet exposed to the fierce heat of the
summer's sun. The consequence was that in a few days it was reduced to
a mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the external layer of flesh
so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it, while the
whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent state, and was
rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and other larvæ.
It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to it,
and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson received a simple
elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the whole process would have
been more rapid and more complete, and the skeleton of the lion, with
the hard and horny skin strained over it, would afford exactly the
habitation of which a wandering swarm of Bees would take advantage. At
the present day swarms of wild Bees often make their habitations
within the desiccated bodies of dead camels that have perished on the
way.
As to the expression "hissing" for the Bee, the reader must bear in
mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in Palestine, when
one person desires to attract the attention of another. A similar
sound, which may perhaps be expressed by the letters _tst_, prevails
on the Continent at the present day. Signor Pierotti remarks that the
inhabitants of Palestine are even now accustomed to summon Bees by a
sort of hissing sound.
Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained from wild
or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the manners of the
East are much the same now as they were three thousand years ago, it
is probable that Bees were kept then as they are now. The hives are
not in the least like ours, but are cylindrical vases of coarse
earthenware, laid horizontally, much like the bark hives employed in
many parts of Southern Africa.
In some places the hives are actually built into the walls of the
houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the interior,
while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end, so that the
insects have no business in the house. When the inhabitants wish to
take the honey, they resort to the operation which is technically
termed "driving" by bee-masters.
They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the tapping
until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive. They then
take out the circular door that closes the end of the hive, remove as
much comb as they want, carefully put back those portions which
contain grubs and bee-bread, and replace the door, when the Bees soon
return and fill up the gaps in the combs. As to the wasteful, cruel,
and foolish custom of "burning" the Bees, the Orientals never think of
practising it.
In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very great
extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled on one
another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in order to defend
them from the rays of the sun, which would soon melt the wax of the
combs.
In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy Land,
which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees in the
rocks, but abundance of thyme and similar plants, vast stores of
bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no small part of the
wealth of the people.
Reference to this kind of property is made by the Prophet Jeremiah.
When Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, had treacherously killed Gedaliah
and others, ten men tried to propitiate him by a bribe: "Slay us not,
for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, of barley, and of oil,
and of _honey_" (chap. xli. 8). References to the wild honey are
frequent in the Scriptures. For example, in the magnificent song of
Moses the Lord is said to have made Israel to "suck honey out of the
rock" (Deut. xxxii. 13). See also Psalm lxxxi. 16: "He should have fed
them also with the finest of the wheat: and with honey out of the rock
should I have satisfied thee."
The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable events recorded
in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the people from eating until
the evening. Jonathan, who had not heard the prohibition, was faint
and weary, and, seeing honey dripping on the ground from the abundance
and weight of the comb, he took it up on the end of his staff, and ate
sufficient to restore his strength.
Thus, if we refer again to the history of St. John the Baptist and his
food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving for want of
nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the desert places he
frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply of the very material
which was needed to correct the deficiencies of the dried locusts
which he used instead of bread.
The expression "a land flowing with milk and honey" has become
proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to whom the words
were spoken understood it as something more than a metaphor. In the
work to which reference has already been made Signor Pierotti writes
as follows:--"Let us now see how far the land could be said to flow
with milk and honey during the latter part of its history and at the
present day.
"We find that honey was abundant in the time of the Crusades, for the
English, who followed Edward I. to Palestine, died in great numbers
from the excessive heat, and from eating too much fruit and honey.
(See M. Sanutus, '_Liber secretorum fidelium Crucis_,' lib. iii. p.
xii.)
"At the present day, after traversing the country in every direction,
I am able to affirm that in the south-east and north-east, where the
ancient customs of the patriarchs are most fully preserved, and the
effects of civilization have been felt least, milk and honey may still
be said to flow, as they form a portion of every meal, and may even be
more abundant than water, which fails occasionally in the heat of
summer.... I have often eaten of the comb, which I found very good and
of delicious fragrance."
A reference to sickness occasioned by eating too much honey occurs in
Prov. xxv. 16: "Hast thou found honey? Eat so much as is sufficient
for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it." A similar
warning is given in verse 27: "It is not good to eat much honey: so
for men to search their own glory is not glory."
So plentiful indeed was the wild honey that it was exported to other
countries, and in the palmy days of Israel formed part of a regular
trade with Tyre. See Ezek. xxvii. 17: "Judah and the land of Israel,
they were thy merchants: they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith,
and Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm."
In one or two passages honey is mentioned as being eaten with butter.
(See, for example, 2 Sam. xvii. 29.) When David and his followers were
wearied at Mahanaim, the people brought presents to him, among which
are specially mentioned butter and honey.
Then there is the familiar prophecy, "Behold a virgin shall conceive
and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. Butter and honey
shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the
good." The same image is repeated in the same chapter: "And it shall
come to pass for the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall
eat butter: for butter and honey shall every one eat that is left in
the land" (ver. 22).
This mixture is at the present day a favourite one. All Orientals are
fond of sweets, and in the composition of many of their favourite
sweetmeats use honey instead of sugar. But an extemporized sweetmeat
is often made by mixing together honey and butter, and eating it
without further preparation.
It is right to mention here that there is a substance which is
sometimes called honey, but which is not made by Bees. This is still
used in Palestine under the name of "dibs," a word which is almost
identical with the Hebrew _d'bash_. A very excellent account of this
preparation is given by Mr. Urquhart in his "Lebanon." "The dibs, the
honey of Scripture, which Jacob sent to Joseph, is the inspissated
juice of the grape. It is of two sorts: one dark and liquid,
resembling molasses--this is the _racon_; the other is thick, and of a
yellow brown, and is called dibs (_jibes_). In every village there is
an establishment for making it, some of them bearing marks of great
antiquity. There are vats for pressing, and troughs cut in the rock
for holding the juice, and a furnace for boiling it.
"The grapes are not trodden by the feet, but laid in a heap and
pressed by a beam, of which one end is fixed in the wall, and a heavy
stone attached to the other, as the oil seems anciently to have been
expressed, judging from the relics I observed near Tyre. The juice is
then boiled in the iron pan for an hour, then poured back into the
trough. After it has cooled it is again returned into the pan and
boiled--if for the racon for three hours, if for the jibes four.
"The process is thus complete for the first; the second is still
liquid, and is conveyed home, where, during a month, it is daily for
an hour turned or beaten with a fresh branch of fig-tree, or botun.
This property of the fig-tree is curious.... The racon takes four okes
of grapes to make one oke; the jibes five. The first is worth forty
paras, and the second sixty."
The Hebrew word _donag_, which has been rightly interpreted as wax,
occurs very seldom in the Old Testament. No mention is made of any use
to which it was put, and in every instance it is employed simply as a
metaphor.
Three examples occur in the Psalms: "I am poured out like water, and
all my bones are out of joint: my heart is like wax; it is melted in
the midst of my bowels" (Psa. xxii. 14).
The word occurs again in Psa. lxviii. 2: "As smoke is driven away, so
drive them away: as wax melteth before the fire, so let the wicked
perish at the presence of God." It occurs for the third time in Psa.
xcvii. 5: "The hills melted like wax at the presence of the Lord, at
the presence of the Lord of the whole earth."
The Prophet Micah uses a similar image: "Behold the Lord cometh forth
out of His place, and will come down, and tread upon the high places
of the earth.
"And the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be
cleft, as wax before the fire, and as the waters that are poured down
a steep place." (i. 3, 4.)
The Bee represented on page 606 is the common Bee of Palestine, _Apis
fasciata_. The lowest figure in the corner, with a long body and shut
wings, is the queen. The central figure represents the drone,
conspicuous by means of his large eyes, that almost join each other at
the top of the head, and for his thicker and stouter body, while the
third figure represents the worker Bee. Near them is shown the
entrance to one of the natural hives which are so plentiful in the
Holy Land, and are made in the "clefts of the rocks." A number of Bees
are shown issuing from the hole.
THE HORNET.
The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven away by
Hornets--The Hornet used as metaphor--Oriental symbolism--The
Talmudical writers--Sting of the Hornet.
Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the Hornet.
There are three passages in which occurs the word _tzirah_, which has
been translated as Hornet. In every case when the word is mentioned
the insect is employed in a metaphorical sense. See, for example,
Exod. xxiii. 27, 28: "I will send my fear before thee, and will
destroy all the people to whom thou shalt come; and I will make all
thine enemies turn their backs unto thee.
"And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the
Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee."
A similar use of the word is made in Deut. vii. 20: "Moreover the Lord
thy God will send the hornet among them, until they that are left, and
hide themselves from thee, be destroyed."
The fulfilment of this promise is recorded in Josh. xxiv. 11, 12: "And
ye went over Jordan, and came unto Jericho: and the men of Jericho
fought against you, the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and the
Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the Girgashites, the Hivites, and
the Jebusites; and I delivered them into your hand.
"And I sent the hornet before you, which drave them out from before
you, even the two kings of the Amorites; but not with thy sword, nor
with thy bow."
It is most probable that in these passages the word is used rather as
a metaphor than as the statement of a fact, and that under the symbol
of the Hornet was signified some means whereby the people should be
driven out of the land as men are driven when chased by angry Hornets.
The reader may remember that the word "bee" is more than once used in
a similar manner. This view of the case is corroborated by such
passages as Deut. ii. 25: "This day will I begin to put the dread of
thee, and the fear of thee, upon the nations that are under the whole
heaven, who shall hear report of thee, and shall tremble, and be in
anguish because of thee." Also Josh. ii. 9-11: "I know that the Lord
hath given you the land, and that your terror is fallen upon us, and
that all the inhabitants of the land faint because of you.
[Illustration: THE HORNET.
"_I will send hornets before thee_."--EXOD. xxiii. 28.]
"For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea for
you, when ye came out of Egypt; and what ye did unto the two kings of
the Amorites, that were on the other side Jordan, Sihon and Og, whom
ye utterly destroyed.
"And as soon as we had heard these things, our hearts did melt,
neither did there remain any more courage in any man, because of you."
The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a promise as was
made to the Israelites, and was one which they must have thoroughly
comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine and the neighbouring countries
are far more common than our own Hornets in England, and they
evidently infested some parts to such an extent that they gave their
name to those spots. Thus the word _Zoreah_, which is mentioned in
Josh. xv. 33, signifies the "place of Hornets."
They make their nests in various ways; some species placing them
underground, and others disposing them as shown in the illustration,
and merely sheltering them from the elements by a paper cover. Such
nests as these would easily be disturbed by the animals which
accompanied the Israelites on their journeys, even if the people were
careful to avoid them. In such a case, the irritated insects rush out
at the intruders; and so great is the terror of their stings, that men
and beasts fly promiscuously in every direction, each only anxious to
escape from the winged foes.
The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the memory
of those who had taken part in them, and cause the metaphor to impress
itself strongly upon them.
It is needless to say that the passages in question might be literal
statements of facts, and that the various nations were actually driven
out of their countries by Hornets. Let the insects be brought upon the
land in sufficient numbers, and neither man nor beast could stay in
it. It is not likely, however, that such a series of miracles, far
exceeding the insect-plagues of Egypt, would have been worked without
frequent references to them in the subsequent books of the Scriptures;
and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong flight of the attack of
Hornets is a very different thing from the emigration which is
mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long journeys which such a
proceeding involved.
The Talmudical writers inclined to the literal view of the passage,
and dilated on the terrible power of the Hornet, four of which could
destroy a horse, and one kill a boy nine years of age, or a man,
provided he were stung in the forehead. The sting of the Hornet is
very severe indeed, exceeding in virulence that of the wasp, to which
it is closely allied; and it is possible that a boy, or even a man,
might be in so feeble a state of health, or be naturally so sensitive
to poison, that the sting of a Hornet would be fatal. As a rule,
however, the sting of the Hornet, although exceedingly painful, is
scarcely more injurious than that of a bee or wasp. The Talmudists
stated that the Hornets mentioned in Joshua killed the people by
stinging them in the eye.
The species of Hornet represented in the illustration is _Vespa
orientalis_, the insect and nest being drawn from specimens in the
British Museum.
THE ANT.
The Ant of Scripture--Solomon's allusion to the Ant--Habit of
laying up stores of food--A controversy respecting the Ant--The
Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or
Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping,
and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--Development of
the insect--The winged Ants--An Arab proverb.
There are two short passages in the Old Testament, around which an
animated controversy has long raged. They both occur in the Book of
Proverbs.
The first is found in chap. vi. 6-8: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard;
consider her ways, and be wise:
"Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler,
"Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the
harvest."
The Jewish Bible renders the passage in almost exactly the same
manner: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; see her ways, and be wise:
"Which having no captain, bailiff, or ruler,
"Provideth her bread in the summer, and gathereth her food in the
harvest."
The second passage is of a similar character: "There be four things
which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding wise.
"The ants are a people not strong, yet they prepare their meat in the
summer."
It has been objected to these passages that the Ant is a carnivorous
insect, and therefore could not gather her food in the harvest, and
that the very nature of that food would prevent it from being laid up
in store. The objectors thought that the sacred writer had been
deceived by appearances, and had mistaken the white cocoon of the
ant-pupæ (popularly called ant-eggs among ourselves) for grains of
corn which they were storing away for future use.
Those who took the other side of the question answered that, in the
first place, it was necessary to be sure of the real translation of
the word which is rendered as "ant" in the Authorized Version; and
that, in the second place, the Ants of a warm country like Palestine
might have different habits from those which inhabit the comparatively
cold and changeable climate of England.
As to the first point, there is no doubt that the rendering is the
right one, and that the word _nemâlah_ is correctly translated as
"ant." The Jewish Bible employs the word "ant," and does not add the
mark of doubt. Buxtorf, in his "Hebrew Lexicon," translates it as
"formica," and derives it from a root which signifies "to eat,"
because it eat the seeds which it conveys to its dwelling. The
lexicographer here alludes to a belief that when the Ant carries a
grain of corn into its home, it bites off the germ, so as to prevent
it from sprouting.
In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably numerous.
Among them are found some species which do convey seeds into their
subterranean home; and if their stores should be wetted by the heavy
rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring them to the outer
air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry them in the sun.
The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when he
alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only spoke the
truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding wise. Any one who
wishes to test the truth of his words can easily do so by watching the
first Ants' nest which he finds, the species of the Ant not being of
much consequence. The nests of the Wood-Ant are perhaps the best
suited for investigation, partly because the insect and its habitation
are comparatively large, and, secondly, because so much of the work is
done above-ground.
The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto is only
known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is _Atta
malefaciens_, and it has been called by various popular names, such as
the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural Ant on account of its
habits, and the Stinging Ant on account of the pungency of its venom.
This characteristic has gained for it the scientific name of
_malefaciens_, or villanous.
The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum for the
space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations was
communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. His abstract of
Dr. Lincecum's observations may be found in the "Journal of the
Linnæan Society," vol. vi. No. 21, page 29. It is so extraordinary an
account that it must be given in the narrator's own words:--
"The following is merely an abstract of Dr. Lincecum's communication,
containing only what appears to be most remarkable and novel in it in
the way of observation.
"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large brownish
ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities, and, like a
thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and timely
arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short, endowed with
skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to enable it
successfully to contend with the varying exigencies which it may have
to encounter in the life-confiict.
"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on ordinary
dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the surface three
and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular mound having a very
gentle inclination from the centre to the outer border, which on an
average is three or four feet from the entrance. But if the location
is chosen on low, flat, wet land liable to inundation, though the
ground may be perfectly dry at the time the ant sets to work, it
nevertheless elevates the mound, in the form of a pretty sharp cone,
to the height of fifteen to twenty inches or more, and makes the
entrance near the summit. Around the mound in either case the ant
clears the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths the surface
to the distance of three or four feet from the gate of the city,
giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as it really
is.
"Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is allowed to
grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass. Having planted
this crop in a circle around, and two or three feet from, the centre
of the mound, the insect tends and cultivates it with constant care,
cutting away all other grasses and weeds that may spring up amongst it
and all around outside of the farm-circle to the extent of one or two
feet more.
"The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy crop of
small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope very closely
resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully harvested, and
carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the granary cells, where
it is divested of the chaff and packed away. The chaff is taken out
and thrown beyond the limits of the paved area.
"During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that the
provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and spoil. In
this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the damp and
damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry, when they
carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds, leaving those that
had sprouted to waste.
"In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable elevation,
on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand-beds overlying
portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agricultural ants,
evidently very ancient. My observations on their manners and customs
have been limited to the last twelve years, during which time the
enclosure surrounding the orchard has prevented the approach of cattle
to the ant-farms. The cities which are outside of the enclosure as
well as those protected in it are, at the proper season, invariably
planted with the ant-rice. The crop may accordingly always be seen
springing up within the circle about the 1st of November every year.
"Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle has
greatly increased, and the latter are eating off the grass much closer
than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I notice
that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the turn-rows in
the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates, &c., where they
can cultivate their farms without molestation from the cattle.
"There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species of
grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted. In
farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully
divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is growing.
When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry stubble cut away
and carried off, the paved area being left unencumbered until the
ensuing autumn, when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within the same
circle, and receives the same agricultural attention as was bestowed
upon the previous crop; and so on year after year, as I _know_ to be
the case, in all situations where the ants' settlements are protected
from graminivorous animals."
In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from Mr.
Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for the ensuing
crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it. And my conclusions
have not been arrived at from hasty or careless observation, nor from
seeing the ants do something that looked a little like it, and then
guessing at the results. I have at all seasons watched the same
ant-cities during the last twelve years, and I know that what I stated
in my former letter is true. I visited the same cities yesterday, and
found the crop of ant-rice growing finely, and exhibiting also the
signs of high cultivation, and not a blade of any other kind of grass
or weed was to be seen within twelve inches of the circular row of
ant-rice."
The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass anything
that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too much to say
that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured to speak of an Ant
that not only laid up stores of grain, but actually prepared the soil
for the crop, planted the seed, kept the ground free from weeds, and
finally reaped the harvest, the statement would have been utterly
disbelieved, and the credibility not only of that particular writer
but of the rest of Scripture severely endangered. We all know that
Solomon's statement concerning the Ant has afforded one of the stock
arguments against the truth of Scripture; and here we have his
statements not only corroborated to the very letter by those who have
visited Palestine for the express purpose of investigating its
zoology, but far surpassed by the observations of a scientific man who
had watched the insects for a series of years. One of the Ants of
Palestine, shown on page 621, belongs to the same genus as the
Agricultural Ant.
As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of Ants vary
greatly according to their species and the climate in which they live.
All, however, are wonderful creatures; and whether we look at their
varied architecture, their mode of procuring food, the system of
slave-catching adopted by some, the "milking" of aphides practised by
others, their astonishing mode of communicating thought to each other,
and their perfect system of discipline, we feel how true were the
words of the royal naturalist, that the Ants are "little upon earth,
but are exceeding wise."
[Illustration: ANT OF PALESTINE (Atta barbara).
"_Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be
wise._"--PROV. vi. 6.]
There is one point of their economy in which all known species agree.
Only those which are destined to become perfectly developed males and
females attain the winged state. Before they assume the transitional
or pupal condition, each spins around itself a slight but tough silken
cocoon, in which it lies secure during the time which is consumed in
developing its full perfection of form.
When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it from
the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions of these
winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and, as they are
not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed about by every
gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish. Whole armies of them fall
into the water and are drowned or devoured by fish, while the
insectivorous birds hold great festival on so abundant a supply of
food. As soon as they are mated they bend their wings forward, snap
them off, and pass the rest of their lives on the ground.
In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the winged
Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is applied to those who are
over-ambitious: "If God purposes the destruction of an ant, He permits
wings to grow upon her."
HOMOPTERA.
THE CRIMSON WORM.
The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--Signification of the word
_Tolââth_--The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with
that of Mexico--Difference between the sexes--Mode of preparing
the insect--The Arabic word _Kermes_.
We now come to another order of insects.
Just as the purple dye was obtained from a mollusc, the scarcely less
valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an insect. The Hebrew
word _tolââth_ is translated in the Authorized Version either as
"crimson" or "scarlet," but its full signification is the
Crimson-worm. This is an insect scientifically named _Coccus ilicis_
on account of its food. It is closely allied to the well-known
cochineal of Mexico, which gives a more brilliant dye, and has at the
present day nearly superseded the native insect. It is, however,
still employed as a dye in some parts of the country.
As its name imports, it feeds on the holm oak (_Quercus coccifera_), a
tree which is very plentiful in Palestine, and attains a large size.
[Illustration: THE CRIMSON WORM.
"_Though your sins be as red as crimson, they shall be white as
snow._"--ISA i. 13.]