the _toddy_-men take advantage, ascending to the summit, and descending
again to the plain, with wondrous agility. This is effected by a piece
of strong twine, about a yard or more in length, but doubled into a loop
of half that extent. The great toes are respectively put into the ends
of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended. The man first embraces
the tree, as high as he can reach, for the purpose of raising himself
from the ground; his feet being instantly carried, on opposite sides of
the trunk, as far asunder as the loop may admit. Then, sustaining
himself by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards to take a
second spring; following, in due time, by the removal of his feet, as
much higher as he has been able to reach. In this manner, successively
stretching up his arms, and swarming with his feet, he reaches the
summit; where, while he either suspends the pot, or releases it, his
weight generally rests on the loop. The great art, both in ascending,
and descending, is to keep the loop always stretched: should it be
allowed to slacken, in all probability it would fall off. Few persons,
following this profession, require more than half a minute to mount the
highest _palmira_; by which name the _toddy-palm_ is most generally
known to Europeans. The natives designate it the _taul_ (or
_taul-gautch_).
I believe very few kinds of wood, except those I have mentioned, ever
come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture; though, in
some few situations, the _soondry_ and _jarrool_ are employed for the
minor purposes; but, with some reserve on the part of the natives, who
hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft, and
to the formation of carriages of various descriptions. The _soondry_ is
a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic wood; while the _jarrool_, though
rather harder, more resembles the beech, than any other of our
indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building, it ranks next
to the _teak_, hence, many of the _donies_, (or coasting vessels,)
measuring from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are principally
built therewith. When _teak_ is scarce, we occasionally see the
ship-wrights apply _jarrool_ in their repairs of the upper works of
large vessels.
Having said thus much of the manner in which houses, and _bungalows_,
are constructed, I have only to observe, that, of late years, the
European architects have been rather prone to sacrifice comfort to
appearance. Those old houses built at a time when _punkahs_, _tatties_,
glass-sashes, &c., were not in use, certainly evince that attention was
paid to coolness, but without disregarding convenience. Now, although
building is full fifty per cent. cheaper than it was thirty years ago,
we see the walls much less substantial, and, on the whole, a want of
local fitness in the arrangement of the several apartments. I must
caution the reader, that what would appear an admirable plan for a
residence in our climate, would be found totally inconsistent with the
temperatures attendant upon the changes of season in India, and with the
several practices, and operations, peremptorily necessary towards
meeting those changes. It must never be forgotten, that, at some
seasons, and at some hours in all seasons, every door and window is
usually thrown open; likewise, that, during the continuance of the hot
winds, such apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool, by _tatties_
applied to some apertures on that floor, whence the current of
refrigerated air may find admission, will be scarcely habitable, and, at
night in particular, will glow like ovens.
The hot-wind commonly rises with the sun, blowing at first very gently,
but encreasing gradually, until about one or two o’clock; after which,
it subsides into a perfect calm. This is its ordinary course, but some
days remain calm throughout, while, at other times, the wind blows a
hurricane the whole night through. I have, indeed, known it to continue,
with very little change of temperature, or variation of force, for full
ten days; during which period, the nights were, if any thing, hotter
than the days; so that extra _b’heesties_ were retained to water the
_tatties_ during the night. That was, to be sure, a very singular
season, carrying with it a prodigious mortality; great numbers dying
suddenly. It was peculiar that the fit, which resembled apoplexy,
attacked all ages alike, and paid no deference to the abstemious and
temperate, any more than to the licentious and gormandizing classes.
In describing the habitations of the lower orders of natives, I
explained, that their chief attention was paid to privacy, and to the
exclusion of the glare. The superior ranks are not less intent upon the
same objects; though many of their state apartments do not indicate,
that either the one or the other were of the smallest consideration.
Some of the _Durbars_ are uncommonly exposed; and, in consequence of the
crowd, the fastidious ceremony observed, and the constant succession of
entrances and exits, form a most uncomfortable _tout ensemble_. Yet, it
appears that the natives have made little or no variation in their
system, not only within the time we have been acquainted with them, but,
if we examine their ancient structures, not for centuries before a
British foot was placed upon their soil. We ordinarily find nearly the
same aspect given to all their buildings, especially to their places of
worship: _nimauzes_, (or open temples,) where the Mussulmans are in the
habit of offering up their prayers, invariably are made to front the
west; under the idea of their facing the shrine of Mahomed. This error
may be considered on a par with the placing of altars in our churches
always at the east end, with the view to their standing towards the
place of our Saviour’s nativity: we also inter our dead with their heads
to the west, on the same account.
Having detailed what relates to the domestic habits, and to the
architecture of the country, I shall now proceed to describe the manner
of living among Europeans in India; observing, that there are two very
distinct classes, though perfectly on a footing; namely, the residents
of Calcutta, and those among the civil and military, who are subject to
be detached from the Presidency. Formerly, only such gentlemen as held
offices of considerable emolument, or those who were married, supported
a regular table: such might be said to keep open-house; at least, far
the greater number usually laid several spare covers, especially at
supper-time, under the hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake
of whatever might be in preparation. The dinner hour being known, (for
almost every family then dined between two and three o’clock,) it was
rarely needful to make enquiries respecting the proper moment for
repairing to the hospitable board. Little or no ceremony was required;
the host being as much pleased with the compliment paid by the visit of
a young friend, as the latter was to find a welcome among the most
opulent and respectable portion of the European community.
Nor did the benefit accruing to the latter, confine itself within the
limits of economical saving: it was generally found, that such as became
habitually inmates of this description, were recommended to the notice
of Government, or to such situations, (if not in the Company’s service,)
as afforded the immediate means of maintenance, or eventually led to
lucrative speculations. A variety of instances could be adduced, of
young gentlemen having, from the foregoing admission within the domestic
circle of visitants, been rescued from that most unpleasant situation,
namely, a want of respectable friends; these, as Shakespeare properly
remarks, ‘had greatness thrust upon them.’ Such _was_ the state of
society when I first arrived in India, [1778] and such _was_ the fair
expectation, with which not only young gentlemen, but many ‘far advanced
upon time’s list,’ landed on the shores of the Ganges. In fact, it
required that some very substantial objection should personally exist,
to deprive any individual of an implied right to the most friendly
reception. Still, however, it must be acknowledged, that a certain
distinction, rather too fastidious, was prevalent in favor of those who
came with appointments to the Company’s service; especially in the civil
line. To a certain extent, such might have been considered reasonable,
when we reflect that future association in the same duties was to be
expected; but, the matter was doubtless carried too far; it being
distinguished by that kind of deference which stamps a superior value
upon its object, the whole amount of which is deducted from the supposed
inferior; thus, causing the former to preponderate in society in a
multiplied ratio, in the same manner as taking from one scale to put
into the other, occasions the difference to encrease in the proportion
of three to one.
The gradual encrease of commercial transactions, and of intercourse,
with several parts of that extensive territory, which ultimately has
come under the influence, if not the control, of the British government,
served as invitations to many adventurers, who quitted Europe under
assurances of employ in the East. Their expectations were generally
confirmed by permanent establishments in various parts of the country;
whereby a complete change took place, as to the estimation in which
free-merchants, as they are generally termed, were held.
Among this class, there have, within a few years, appeared numbers,
whose industry, and extensive concerns, rendered them conspicuous; and
it would not, perhaps, be too bold to predict, that, in the course of a
few years, the success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to such an
encrease of private traders, as cannot fail to give birth to events of
great national importance.
It would not be in place to notice such probable results in this work,
but it may be permitted, without trespassing the bounds I have marked
out to myself, to anticipate, that the commercial society of India will,
in time, grow out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its state some
thirty years ago. We have, at the same time, to lament, that, owing to
such an augmentation of all ranks, it has been found necessary to drop
many customs suited only to a limitted society, and to adopt a certain
reserve, which may not be exactly conformable to those very sanguine
ideas entertained by persons who may have read of the ancient regime of
Oriental hospitality; the declination of which has unavoidably kept pace
with the additional imports consequent to extended commerce. There will,
however, even at this day, be found much to approve; and the mind endued
with sensibility will have to acknowledge many a civility, very nearly
akin to kindness, and sufficiently poignant to give an ample scope for
many a grateful acknowledgment.
Morning visits are not, generally speaking, so uncommon as they were:
formerly, few went to pay visits of ceremony during the forenoon; for,
the dinner-hour being early, there was little time for such unsocial
compliments; whereas, now, that it is generally delayed until about
sun-set, that is to say, to perhaps five, or six, or even to seven
o’clock, the forenoon is more applicable to the reception of visitors;
who, if on any terms of intimacy, do not hesitate to join the family at
a little _avant-diner_ commonly called a _tiffing_, and known among us
by the name of _lunch_. This kind of refreshment (for it is not
considered a repast) usually takes place between one and two o’clock,
and consists of grilled fowls, mutton chops, cold meats, and sometimes
of _curry_ and rice. Being conducted without ceremony, and in a very
desultory style, the dropping in of friends never occasions the
slightest discontinuance, any more than the accidental arrival among an
English party here, of an intimate, while partaking of a slice of cake
and a glass of wine. The various formalities are, however, now
transferred from P. M. to A. M. and it is usual to see the town of
Calcutta thronged with _palanquins_ during the whole of what is called
the forenoon; but which commonly is made to extend to three o’clock;
about which time, especially during nine months in the year, most
persons are at home, divested of their usual dresses, and reclining, in
some cool apartment, on a bed, or a couch, for the purpose of repose,
and to prepare for that change of linen, and for those ablutions, not
forgetting the bath, which are both comfortable, and essential, in so
very sultry a climate.
Gentlemen who purpose visiting the ladies, commonly repair to their
houses between eight and nine o’clock in the evening; ordinarily under
the expectation of being invited to stay and sup: an invitation that is
rarely declined.
Among ladies who are intimately acquainted, morning visits are common,
but all who wish to preserve etiquette, or merely return the compliment
by way of keeping up a distant acquaintance, confine them to the
evening; when, attended by one or more gentlemen, they proceed, in their
_palanquins_, on a tour devoted entirely to this cold exchange of what
is called civility.
Among the several justly-exploded ceremonies, we may reckon that, which
existed until within the last twenty years, of ‘SITTING UP,’ as it was
called: we must, at the same time, do the ci-devant inhabitants of
Calcutta the justice to remark, that the practice was evidently founded
on good-will and hospitality; although it bore so strong a resemblance
to the exhibition of a cargo of slaves, as to occasion many a
caricature, and many a satirical expenditure of ink. This ‘SITTING UP,’
as it was termed, generally took place at the house of some lady of
rank, or fortune, who, for three successive nights, threw open her
mansion towards the evening, for the purpose of receiving all, both
ladies and gentlemen, who chose to pay their respects to such ladies as
might have recently arrived in the country. The fair damsels were thus
at once introduced to the whole settlement, and not unfrequently
obtained a variety of offers from men of the first consequence. Many
matches have, indeed, been concluded even before the third night of
exhibition. If we consider the fatigue attendant upon the return of
these numerous visits, (for the slightest omission would have been an
unpardonable offence,) and that the novelty of riding in a _boçhah_, (or
chair-_palanquin_,) would not be agreeable to all, we may form some idea
of what many a delicate female, melting with the heat, tight-laced, and
tormented with musquito-bites, must have undergone during the
performance of this ceremony. To the gentlemen of the settlement, it
might have been abundantly pleasing; they had nothing to do but to post
about in their _palanquins_ from one sitting up to another, and there
either to admire, or to quiz, the fair sufferers, according as their
taste, or caprice, might dictate. The throng has, in some _lovely_
instances, been so very great, that even a fourth night has been
required for the benefit of bachelors from the interior!
The great encrease, not only of inhabitants, but of houses, some of
which are situated at an inconvenient distance, has rendered the custom
of ‘sitting up’ nearly obsolete. The modern instances of its
continuance, are, indeed, so very few, and those few so modified, as
barely to leave room for saying that it is at all in use. In these days,
a lady is received on landing by her friends, who, generally, after a
few days of repose, and of preparation, invite their acquaintances, to
be introduced to their fair companion, who, in the course of a week,
usually returns their visits. This is merely a partial shew, compared
with what formerly took place, and is no more than would be practised in
England on a similar occasion: it is true, that, where superlative
attractions exist, many, who probably are not in the habit of visiting
the family, will often avail themselves of the opportunity to _chaperon_
some acquaintance, merely with the intention of gaining a peep at the
goddess.
The company rarely sit long at table after dinner, unless among those
convivial souls who deem the presence of a petticoat a perfect nuisance.
Such were formerly very numerous, but of late, the society of the sex
has been more duly appreciated, and we see the gentlemen quitting the
bottle to retire to the _chabootah_, (or terrace,) there to enjoy the
cool air of the evening, and to take a cup of tea, or to smoke their
_hookahs_; after which, those who have business to attend, proceed to
their offices, &c., while the larger portion separate to partake of a
family supper with some of their female acquaintances. Very little
ceremony is used on such occasions; the gentlemen leaving their hats in
their _palanquins_, and ordering their servants to proceed, as a matter
of course, to the houses whither their _palanquins_ are to be conveyed.
In many instances, these evening visits are paid in a very airy manner:
coats being often dispensed with; the gentlemen wearing only an upper
and an under waistcoat, both of white linen, and the former having
sleeves. Such would appear an extraordinary freedom, were it not
established by custom; though, it generally happens, that gentlemen
newly arrived from Europe, especially the officers of his Majesty’s
regiments, wear their coats, and prefer undergoing a kind of warm bath
of the most distressing description, both to themselves, and to their
neighbours; but, in the course of time, they fall in with the local
usages, and, though they may enter the room in that cumbrous habit,
rarely fail to divest themselves of it, so soon as the first ceremonies
are over, in favor of an upper waistcoat, which a servant has in
readiness.
Supper, though enumerated among the ordinary meals of a family residing
at the Presidency, seems rather to be the means of concentrating the
party, than partaken of with that keenness we often witness in our
colder climate. Few do more than take a glass or two of wine, generally
Claret, with, perhaps, a crust, and a morsel of cheese: the appetite at
this hour, say ten, being by no means keen. After supper, the _hookah_
is again produced, and, after sitting awhile in conversation, the lady
of the house retires: few remain long after that has taken place. On the
whole, it may be said, that at least four in five are in bed before
twelve; or, perhaps, before eleven o’clock. From this, I exempt all
concerned in card-parties, especially if the stakes run high: for such,
no measure, or calculation, exists; the whole night being occasionally
passed at tradrille, which is the favorite game, or at whist, &c. Such
exceptions fortunately are not very numerous; it would certainly be
difficult to find any city, wherein celibacy among the males is so
prevalent, as at Calcutta, that can boast of so few excesses of any
description. The European inhabitants of respectability certainly live
well; that is, they keep as good tables as the seasons may enable them
to furnish; and they drink none but the best of wines: Claret, Madeira,
and Port, are in general use.
Of the former, there are two kinds; one called ‘English Claret,’ which
is the best wine that France produces, manufactured after its arrival in
England, with an addition of Brandy, &c., to enable its standing the hot
climate of India, and with other liquids, to give it a richer body. Such
wine generally sells at Calcutta for about thirty rupees per dozen,
equal to six shillings and threepence per bottle.
The other kind of Claret, which is the purest that can be obtained from
the most valuable vineyards near Bourdeaux, the Coté-Roti, Chateau
Margeau, &c., can rarely be obtained, except in times of peace, when
sixteen rupees per dozen, equal to about three shillings and four-pence
per bottle, may be considered a fair price. This wine, however well
packed, and carefully treated, will not keep long: at the end of six or
seven months after arrival, it will be found rather sharp, and then
becomes extremely pernicious to the bowels. When fresh, it is remarkably
fine, and delicate, and being far lighter than the ‘English Claret,’ is
certainly best adapted to the climate. Occasionally, a few chests of
Claret are imported at Serampore, a Danish settlement, about sixteen
miles above Calcutta, but experience has proved, that, in regard to
wholesomeness, as well as to flavor, it is far inferior to either of the
former: the severe bowel-complaints its free use often occasions, are
attributed to the litharge with which it is said to be fined; hence,
what is called ‘Danish Claret’ is rarely found at any gentleman’s table.
About thirty years back, a large quantity of Madeira used to be imported
at Calcutta, by the Company, in pipes of extra-measurement, for the use
of their servants. Sometimes nearly a thousand pipes arrived during the
course of the season; being of prime quality, and laid in by the
Company’s agents at Fonchall, it always sold well at the annual
auctions: six hundred rupees was a common average. For some time past,
the Company have, generally speaking, declined this trade, which was of
extensive convenience to the residents at Bengal, and must be supposed
to have paid them amply for their outward tonnage, while the returning
tonnage was always at liberty to receive investments for the Europe
market. The cause of this relinquishment has been attributed to various
circumstances; but, I believe, is to be found in that immense supply
which, at the close of the war in 1782, glutted the markets for some
seasons. Until that date, the Company had nearly monopolized the trade,
there being no competitors of consequence, though the speculation was
open to all; but its excellence, which seemed to offer full seventy
pounds for every pipe, that cost perhaps only twenty-five, or thirty, on
the Island of Madeira, induced the French, Portugueze, and some English
speculators, to embark on vessels under Imperial colors, and to become
rivals in a trade which could not bear extension beyond certain narrow
limits. All could not be supplied at Fonchall; therefore Teneriffe, and
other inferior wines, were substituted; whereby the depreciation even of
the best genuine Madeira was enhanced, and it fell, in consequence, full
fifty per cent. Of late years, very little of the latter has found its
way to India; the produce of the island being almost wholly required for
the Europe market; but the merchants in that quarter have found out the
way to _doctor_ the inferior wines of the neighbouring isles, so as to
sell them at a good price, under the captivating titles of ‘London
Particular,’ ‘London Choice _Particular_ Particular,’ &c. &c.
The low price to which Madeira fell, (for, in 1781-2 it had been so high
as two thousand rupees per pipe,) made a great change in the affairs of
some adventurers, who had anticipated the golden harvest with which they
were to return to Europe. The general effects were highly beneficial, as
the greater portion of persons settled in Calcutta, &c., were enabled to
purchase large quantities; which, being kept in _godowns_, (warehouses
and cellars,) gradually improved in that hot climate, and, after a few
years, became highly valuable. Many gentlemen availed themselves of the
low state of the markets to supply themselves abundantly; some purchased
from forty to sixty pipes, and thus secured to themselves a supply of
capital wine, for many years consumption, at a certain price.