HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS
How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe
NOW that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the demand has
arisen for some arrangement by which it may be used with sails. Of
course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost any sort of craft,
but unless there is a keel or a centreboard the boat will make lee-way,
_i. e._, it will have no hold on the water, and when you try to tack,
the boat will blow sideways, which may be fraught with serious results.
The only time that the author ever got in a serious scrape with his
canoe, was when he carelessly sailed out in a storm, leaving the key
to his fan centreboard at the boat-house. Being unable to let down the
centreboard, he was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became
too fatigued to move quickly was capsized.
[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Lee-board. Fig. 140_a_.--Bolt and
thumb-screw.]
Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience
of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs of lee-boards have
been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking, a double centreboard.
The paddle-like form of the blades of the boards given in Fig. 140 give
them a good hold on the water when they are below the surface, and they
can also be allowed to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of
use. Or they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you see by
the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce rod; the blades
themselves may be made of some hard wood, like cherry, and bevelled at
the edges like a canoe-paddle. They should be a scant foot in width and
a few inches over two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch
material. The spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in
diameter, the ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end
of each lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board,
down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron
pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar from
turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins or bars fit
in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 140).
At the top end of each of these metal bolts is a thumb-screw which runs
down over the thread of the bolt. The bottom or lower end is bent at
right angles that it may be fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and
tightened by twisting the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of
arrangement is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and
so adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is
steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can only be
found by experiment. When it is too far toward the bow, the boat will
show a desire to come up against the wind, thus making work for the
steersman to keep the wind in the sails. If the lee-board is fastened
too far toward the stern the canoe will show a decided determination to
swing around with its stern to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for
a well-trained craft to indulge in.
I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked as low
as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars or
more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build their own canoes,
and even to make their own lee-boards, although it would be cheaper to
buy the latter.
How to Rig and Sail Small Boats
To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under all
ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port, gives the
same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater degree) that
the handling of the whip and reins over a lively trotter does to a
drive.
Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple of
chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind courtesy
of the editor of _The American Canoeist_, I am able to do much better
by giving my readers a talk on this subject by one whose theoretical
knowledge and practical experience renders him pre-eminently fit to
give reliable advice and counsel. The following is what Mr. Charles
Ledyard Norton, editor of the above-mentioned journal, says:
Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who knows how
to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be shot than one
who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good swimmer is less
likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such, however, is the truth
beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is now and then shot, or an
expert swimmer drowned, the fault is not apt to be his own, and if
the one who is really to blame had received proper training, it is not
likely that the accident would have occurred at all. The same argument
holds good with regard to the management of boats, and the author is
confident that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives
them or not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging
and sailing.
In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats. First,
from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from books,
which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows how, which
is best of all. I will try to make this article as much like the other
fellow and as little bookish as possible.
Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be of small
use to those who live within reach of the sea or some big lake and have
always been used to boats; but there are thousands and thousands of
boys and men who never saw the sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and
who have not the least idea how to make the wind take them where they
want to go. I once knew some young men from the interior who went down
to the sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing
to do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The result
was that they performed a remarkable set of manoeuvres within sight
of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to sea and had to be
sent after and brought back, when they were well laughed at for their
performances, and had reason to consider themselves lucky for having
gotten off so cheaply.
The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national game of
"one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew moderately and
steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a boat as it is to
drive a steady old family horse of good and regular habits. The fact,
however, is that winds and currents are variable in their moods, and as
capable of unexpected freaks as the most fiery of unbroken colts; but
when properly watched and humored they are tractable and fascinating
playmates and servants.
Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit of pine
board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a quarter of the
length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a square piece of stiff
paper or card for a sail, and you are ready for action. Put this in the
water, with the sail set squarely across (A, Fig. 141), and she will
run off before the wind--which is supposed to be blowing as indicated
by the arrow--at a good rate of speed. If she does not steer herself,
put a small weight near the stern, or square end; or, if you like,
arrange a thin bit of wood for a rudder.
[Illustration: Fig. 141.
Lesson in sailing for beginners.]
Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical instincts
discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail, greatly astonished
his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric regatta. But that
was all he could do. He was as helpless as a balloonist is in midair.
He could go, but he could not get back, and we may be sure that
ages passed away before the possibility of sailing to windward was
discovered.
Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first, about as
far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn the two sails at
an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat (B or C, Fig. 141) and
set her adrift. She will make considerable progress across the course
of the wind, although she will at the same time drift with it. If she
wholly refuses to go in the right direction, place a light weight on
her bow, so that she will be a little "down by the head," or move the
aftermost mast and sail a little nearer to the stern.
[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Tacking.]
The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually
make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she moves
sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a larger, deeper
boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle, the effect will
be different. So long as the wind presses against the after side of
the sail, the boat will move through the water in the direction of the
least resistance, which is forward. A square sail having the mast in
the middle was easiest to begin with for purposes of explanation; but
now we will change to a "fore-and-aft" rig--that is, one with the mast
at the forward edge or "luff" of the sail, as in Fig. 142. Suppose the
sail to be set at the angle shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow
points. The boat cannot readily move sidewise, because of the broadside
resistance; she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on
the aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward.
When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or handle
of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to turn her head
toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the other side of the
boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes the aftermost,
and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at right angles to her former
course. Thus, through a series of zigzags, the wind is made to work
against itself. This operation is called "tacking," or "working to
windward," and the act of turning, as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is
called "going about."
It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being able
to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible angle to or
from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach one all the niceties
of the art, but a little aptitude and address will do to start with,
keeping near shore and carrying little sail.
Simplest Rig Possible
I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed
boat without any rudder. (See Fig. 143.) She cannot be made to work
like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots of fun can be had out of her.
Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure an old
sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square, and experiment
with that before spending your money on new material. If it is a sheet,
and somewhat weakly in its texture, turn all the edges in and sew them,
so that it shall not give way at the hems. At each corner sew on a few
inches of strong twine, forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also,
eyelets or small loops along the edge which is intended for the luff of
the sail, so that it can be laced to the mast.
You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a "sprit,"
the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail, and
the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it. Let
these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo--as light as possible,
especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do for the mast,
and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to an inch at the
top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one of the thwarts (seats)
near the bow and make a socket or step on the bottom of the boat, just
under the aforesaid hole--or if anything a trifle farther forward--to
receive the foot of the mast. This will hold the mast upright, or with
a slight "rake" aft.
[Illustration: Fig. 143.--A simple rig.]
Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will swing
clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the loop at D
a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the "sheet," and
gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit, C, E, is trimmed
so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip down. The lower
end is simply notched to receive a short line called a "snotter," as
shown in the detailed drawing at the right of the cut (Fig. 143). It
will be readily understood that, when the sprit is pushed upward in the
direction of C, the sail will stand spread out. The line is placed in
the notch at E and pulled up until the sail sets properly, when it is
made fast to a cleat or to a cross-piece at F. This device is in common
use and has its advantages, but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit
to rest in is more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an
oar for steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we
may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not always
preferable outfits.
Leg-of-Mutton Rig
One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small boat is known
as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (Fig. 144). The sail is triangular,
and the sprit, instead of reaching to its upper corner, stands nearly
at right angles to the mast. It is held in position at the mast by the
devices already described. This rig has the advantage of keeping the
whole sail flatter than any other, for the end of the sprit cannot
"kick up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds all the wind it
receives.
[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
Fig. 145 shows a device, published for the first time in the _St.
Nicholas Magazine_ for September, 1880, which enables the sailor to
step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower his sail without leaving
his seat--a matter of great importance when the boat is light and
tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful of small craft, the
modern canoe, where the navigator sits habitually amidships. The lower
mast (A, B, Fig. 145) stands about two and a half feet above the deck.
It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule and pin, and just above
the deck with two half-cleats or other similar devices (A). The topmast
(C, D) is fitted at F with a stout ring, and has double halyards (E)
rove through or around its foot. The lower mast being in position (see
lower part of Fig. 145), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings
the boat's head to the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely
furled in one hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by
raising this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one
on each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to
the deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut
enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring over the
pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part of Fig. 145).
The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast. A collar of
leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast just below the
ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards are hauled taut and keep
the mast from working to and fro.
[Illustration: Fig. 145.--A new device.]
The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be raised without
standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards can be let go and
the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below with the greatest ease and
expedition, leaving only the short lower mast standing. A leg-of-mutton
sail with a common boom along the foot is shown in the cut as the most
easily illustrated application of the device, but there is no reason
why it may not be applied to a sail of different shape, with a sprit
instead of a boom, and a square instead of a pointed head.
[Illustration: Fig. 146.--The latteen rig.]
The Latteen Rig
is recommended only for boats which are "stiff"--not tottlish, that
is. The fact that a considerable portion of the sail projects forward
of the mast renders it awkward in case of a sudden shift of wind. Its
most convenient form is shown in Fig. 146. The arrangement for shipping
and unshipping the yard is precisely like that shown in Fig. 145--a
short lower mast with a pin at the top and a ring fitted to the yard.
It has a boom at the foot which is joined to the yard at C by means of
a hook or a simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two
spars to shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has,
where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in
detail at the bottom of the cut (Fig. 146), the circle representing a
cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as screws
or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings the boat
to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him. This disengages
it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when the yard (C, D) falls
of its own weight into his hands and can be at once lifted clear of the
lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is possible to arrange a collar
on the lower mast so that the boom, when once in position, cannot slip
upward and suffer the sail to bag.
The Cat-Rig
so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in Fig. 148. The
spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the boom, it
fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted and lowered
by means of halyards rove through a block near the mast-head. The
mast is set in the bows--"Chock up in the eyes of her," as a sailor
would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will not work in this position,
because the greater part of its area is too far forward of amidships.
No rig is handier or safer than this in working to windward; but off
the wind--running before, or nearly before it, that is--the weight
of mast and sail, and the pressure of the wind at one side and far
forward, make the boat very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent
boatmen often avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as
it were, tacking to leeward.
This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always to be
avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the boat
running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change your course
toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The safest way is to
turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm "down" (toward
the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn her entirely around,
and stand off on the new tack. This, however, is not always possible.
Hauling in the sheet until the sail fills on the other side is
"jibing"; but when this happens it goes over with a rush that sometimes
carries mast and sheet or upsets the boat; hence the operation should
be first undertaken in a light wind. It is necessary to know how to do
it, for sometimes a sail insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it
is best to be prepared for such emergencies.
How to Make a Sail
For the sails of small boats there is no better material than
unbleached twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half or
even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage be at
the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it necessary to
cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely to stretch in
the making, so that the sail will assume a different shape from what
was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem carefully before sewing, and
"hold in" a little to prevent fulling. It is a good plan to tack the
material on the floor before cutting, and mark the outline of the sail
with pencil. Stout tape stitched along the bias edges will make a sure
thing of it, and the material can be cut, making due allowance for the
hem. Better take feminine advice on this process. The hems should be
half an inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm
to reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good piece
of work.
For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided cotton
cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this is not easily
procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be doubled and twisted
as often as necessary. The smallest manila rope is rather stiff and
unmanageable for such light sails as ours.
In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is to be
avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to rust. Use
brass or copper instead.
Hints to Beginners
Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small boats under
the management of beginners should not be afloat in a "reefing breeze."
Reefing is the operation of reducing the spread of sail when the wind
becomes too fresh. If you will look at Fig. 146 you will see rows of
short marks on the sail above the boom. These are "reef-points"--bits
of line about a foot long passing through holes in the sail and knotted
so that they will not slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and
that portion of it between the boom and the reef-points is gathered
together, and the points are tied around both it and the boom. When the
lower row of points is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are
a double reef.
Make your first practical experiment _with a small sail and with the
wind blowing toward the shore_. Row out a little way, and then sail in
any direction in which you can make the boat go, straight back to shore
if you can, with the sail out nearly at right angles with the boat.
Then try running along shore with the sheet hauled in a little and
the sail on the side nearest the shore. You will soon learn what your
craft can do, and will probably find that she will make very little, if
any, headway to windward. This is partly because she slides sidewise
over the water. To prevent it you may use a "lee-board"--namely, a
broad board hung over the side of the boat (G, Fig. 143). This must be
held by stout lines, as the strain upon it is very heavy. It should be
placed a little forward of the middle of the boat.
[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Making port.]
It must be on the side away from the wind--the lee side--and must
be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are permanent
contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board answers very well as
a makeshift, and is even used habitually by some canoeists and other
boatmen.
In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships, because
sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water; steering may
be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines" attached to
a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the tiller. In this last
case the lines must be rove through rings or pulleys at the sides of
the boat opposite the end of the tiller. When the handle of the oar (H,
Fig. 143)--or the tiller (F, Fig. 146) if a rudder is used--is pushed
to the right, the boat will turn to the left, and _vice versa_. The
science of steering consists in knowing when to push and how much to
push--very simple, you see, in the statement, but not always so easy in
practice.
The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the boat
that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the boat, if
left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a weather-cock
and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the sail is so far forward
that she will not do this, the fault may be remedied by stepping the
mast further aft or by rigging a small sail near the stern. This is
called a "dandy" or "steering sail," and is especially convenient in a
boat whose size or arrangement necessitates sitting amidships. It may
be rigged like the mainsail, and when its sheet is once made fast will
ordinarily take care of itself in tacking.
Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you, the
position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When in doubt
what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and haul in the slack
of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind. If she is moving
astern, or will not mind her helm--and of course she will not if she is
not moving--pull her head around to the wind with an oar and experiment
cautiously until you find which way you can make her go.
In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's head as near
the wind as possible when she ceases to move, this whether you lower
your sail or not.
Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, Fig. 147, land at F or
G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the direction of
B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the latter, the boom
will swing away from the wharf and permit you to lie alongside. If the
wind is from D, reverse these positions. If the wind comes from the
direction of C, land either at F or G, with the bow pointing off shore.
If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to feel your
way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have nautical instincts
you will soon make your boat do what you wish her to do as far as she
is able. _But first learn to swim before you try to sail a boat._
Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few pages,
and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe ones to
follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young sailor in
many a corner of the world.