Birds seem to be very evenly distributed_The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Volume 1 With a study of the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth's surface

few genera of importance being locally restricted. In the eastern districts

alone, we find _Origma_, and _Orthonyx_ (Sylviidæ); _Sericulus_ and

_Ptilorhynchus_ (Paradiseidæ); _Leucosarcia_ (Columbidæ); and _Talegalla_

(Megapodiidæ). _Nectarinia_, _Pitta_, _Ptilorhis_, _Chlamydodera_, and

_Sphecotheres_, range from the north down the east coasts. _Nanodes_

(Psittacidæ), and _Lipoa_ (Megapodiidæ), are southern forms, the first

extending {441}to Tasmania; which island appears to possess no peculiar

genus of birds except _Eudyptes_, one of the penguins. West Australia has

no wholly peculiar genus except _Geopsittacus_, a curious form of ground

parroquet; the singular _Atrichia_, first found here, having been

discovered in the east. In North Australia, _Emblema_ (Ploceidæ) is the

only peculiar Australian genus, but several Austro-Malayan and Papuan

genera enter,--as, _Syma_ and _Tanysiptera_ (Alcedinidæ); _Machærihynchus_

(Muscicapidæ); _Calornis_ (Sturnidæ); _Manucodia_, _Ptilorhis_, and

_Æluroedus_ (Paradiseidæ); _Megapodius_; and _Casuarius_. The presence of a

species of bustard (_Eupodotis_) in Australia, is very curious, its nearest

allies being in the plains of India and Africa. Among waders the genus

_Tribonyx_, a thick-legged bird somewhat resembling the _Notornis_ of New

Zealand, though not closely allied to it, is the most remarkable. The

district where the typical Australian forms most abound is undoubtedly the

eastern side of the island. The north and south are both somewhat poorer,

the west much poorer, although it possesses a few very peculiar forms,

especially among Mammalia. Tasmania is the poorest of all, a considerable

number of genera being here wanting; but, except the two peculiar

carnivorous marsupials, it possesses nothing to mark it off zoologically

from the adjacent parts of the main land. It is probable that its insular

climate, more moist and less variable than that of Australia, may not be

suitable to some of the absent forms; while others may require more space

and more varied conditions, than are offered by a comparatively small

island.

The remaining classes of animals have been already discussed in our sketch

of the region as a whole (p. 396).

_Plate XII. Illustrating the Fauna of Australia._--In this plate we take

New South Wales as our locality, and represent chiefly, the more remarkable

Australian types of birds. The most conspicuous figure is the wonderful

lyre-bird (_Menura superba_), the elegant plumage of whose tail is

altogether unique in the whole class of birds. The unadorned bird is the

female. In the centre is the emu (_Dromæus novæ-hollandiæ_), the

representative in Australia, of the ostrich in Africa and America, but

{442}belonging to a different family, the Casurariidæ. To the right are a

pair of crested pigeons (_Ocyphaps lophotes_), one of the many singular

forms of the pigeon family to which the Australian region gives birth. In

every other part of the globe pigeons are smooth-headed birds, but here

they have developed three distinct forms of crest, as seen in this bird,

the crowned pigeon figured in Plate X., and the double-crested pigeon

(_Lopholæmus antarcticus_). The large bird on the tree is one of the

Australian frog-mouthed goat-suckers (_Podargus strigoides_), which are

called in the colony "More-pork," from their peculiar cry. They do not

capture their prey on the wing like true goat-suckers, but hunt about the

branches of trees at dusk, for large insects, and also for unfledged birds.

A large kangaroo (_Macropus giganteus_) is seen in the distance; and

passing through the air, a flying opossum (_Petaurus sciureus_), a

beautiful modification of a marsupial, so as to resemble in form and habits

the flying squirrels of the northern hemisphere.

_III. The Pacific Islands, or Polynesian Sub-region._

Although the area of this sub-region is so vast, and the number of islands

it contains almost innumerable, there is a considerable amount of

uniformity in its forms of animal life. From the Ladrone islands on the

west, to the Marquesas on the east, a distance of more than 5,000 miles,

the same characteristic genera of birds prevail; and this is the only class

of animals on which we can depend, mammalia being quite absent, and

reptiles very scarce. The Sandwich Islands, however, form an exception to

this uniformity; and, as far as we yet know, they are so peculiar that they

ought, perhaps, to form a separate sub-region. They are, however,

geographically a part of Polynesia; and a more careful investigation of

their natural history may show more points of agreement with the other

islands. It is therefore a matter of convenience, at present, to keep them

in the Polynesian sub-region, which may be divided into Polynesia proper

and the Sandwich Islands.

Plate XII.

[Illustration]

THE PLAINS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{443}Polynesia proper consists of a number of groups of islands of some

importance, and a host of smaller intermediate islets. For the purpose of

zoological comparison, we may class them in four main divisions. 1. The

Ladrone and Caroline Islands; 2. New Caledonia and the New Hebrides; 3. The

Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands; 4. The Society, and Marquesas Islands. The

typical Polynesian fauna is most developed in the third division; and it

will be well to describe this first, and then show how the other islands

diverge from it, and approximate other sub-regions.

_Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands._--The land-birds inhabiting these islands

belong to 41 genera, of which 17 are characteristic of the Australian

region, and 9 more peculiarly Polynesian. The characteristic Australian

genera are the following: _Petroica_ (Sylviidæ); _Lalage_ (Campephagidæ);

_Monarcha_, _Myiagra_, _Rhipidura_ (Muscicapidæ); _Pachycephala_

(Pachycephalidæ); _Rectes_ (Laniidæ); _Myzomela_, _Ptilotis_, _Anthochæra_

(Meliphagidæ); _Amadina_, _Eythrura_, (Ploceidæ); _Artamus_ (Artamidæ);

_Lorius_ (Trichoglossidæ); _Ptilopus_, _Phlogænas_ (Columbidæ);

_Megapodius_ (Megapodiidæ).

The peculiar Polynesian genera are:--_Tatare_, _Lamprolia_ (Sylviidæ);

_Aplonis_, _Sturnodes_ (Sturnidæ); _Todiramphus_ (Alcedinidæ);

_Pyrhulopsis_, _Cyanoramphus_, (Platycercidæ); _Coriphilus_

(Trichoglossidæ); _Didunculus_ (Didunculidæ).

The wide-spread genera are _Turdus_, _Zosterops_, _Hirundo_, _Halcyon_,

_Collocalia_, _Eudynamis_, _Cuculus_, _Ianthoenas_, _Carpophaga_, _Turtur_,

_Haliæetus_, _Astur_, _Circus_, _Strix_, _Asio_. The aquatic birds are

fifteen in number, all wide-spread species except one--a form of moor-hen

(Gallinulidæ), which has been constituted a new genus _Pareudiastes_.

_Society, and Marquesas Islands._--Here, the number of genera of land-birds

has considerably diminished, amounting only to 16 in all. The

characteristic Australian genera are 5;--_Monarcha_, _Anthochæra_,

_Trichoglossus_, _Ptilopus_, and _Phlogoenas_. The Polynesian genera are

4;--_Tatare_, _Todiramphus_, _Cyanoramphus_, _Coriphilus_, and one recently

described genus, _Serresius_, an extraordinary form of large fruit pigeon,

here classed under _Carpophaga_. These remote groups have thus all the

character of Oceanic islands, even as regards the rest of Polynesia, since

they {444}possess hardly anything, but what they might have received by

immigration over a wide extent of ocean.

_Ladrone, and Caroline Islands._--These extensive groups of small islands

are very imperfectly known, yet a considerable number of birds have been

obtained. They possess two peculiar Polynesian genera, _Tatare_ and

_Sturnodes_; one peculiar sub-genus, _Psammathia_ (here included under

_Acrocephalus_); and ten of the typical Australian genera found in

Polynesia,--_Lalage_, _Monarcha_, _Myiagra_, _Rhipidura_, _Myzomela_,

_Erythrura_, _Artamus_, _Phlogoenas_, _Ptilopus_, and _Megapodius_, as well

as the Papuan genus _Rectes_, and the Malayan _Calornis_;--so that they can

be certainly placed in the sub-region. Genera which do not occur in the

other Polynesian islands are, _Acrocephalus_, (s.g. _Psammathia_)

originally derived perhaps from the Philippines; and _Caprimulgus_, a

peculiar species, allied to one from Japan.

_New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides._--Although these islands seem best

placed with Polynesia, yet they form a transition to Australia proper, and

to the Papuan group. They possess 30 genera of land-birds, 18 of which are

typical of the Australian region; but while 13 are also Polynesian, there

are 5 which do not pass further east. These are _Acanthiza_, _Eopsaltria_,

_Gliciphila_, _Philemon_, and _Ianthoenas_. The peculiar Polynesian genus,

_Aplonis_, of which three species inhabit New Caledonia, link it to the

other portions of the sub-region. The following are the genera at present

known from New Caledonia:--_Turdus_, _Acanthiza_, _Campephaga_, _Lalage_,

_Myiagra_, _Rhipidura_, _Pachycephala_, _Eopsaltria_, _Corvus_,

_Physocorax_ (s.g. of _Corvus_, allied to the jackdaws), _Glicphila_,

_Anthochæra_, _Philemon_, _Zosterops_, _Erythrura_, _Aplonis_, _Artamus_,

_Cuculus_, _Halcyon_, _Collocalia_, _Cyanoramphus_, _Trichoglossus_,

_Ptilopus_, _Carpophaga_, _Macropygia_, _Ianthoenas_, _Chalcophaps_,

_Haliastur_, _Accipiter_. The curious _Rhinochetus jubatus_, forming the

type of a distinct family of birds (Rhinochetidæ), allied to the herons, is

only known from New Caledonia.

It thus appears, that not more than about 50 genera and 150 species of

land-birds, are known from the vast number of islands that are scattered

over the Central Pacific, and it is not probable {445}that the number will

be very largely increased. Some of the species, as the _Eudynamis

taitensis_ and _Tatare longirostris_, range over 40° of longitude, from the

Fiji Islands to the Marquesas. In other genera, as _Cyanoramphus_ and

_Ptilopus_, each important island or group of islands, has its peculiar

species. The connection of all these islands with each other, on the one

hand, and their close relation to the Australian region, on the other, are

equally apparent; but we have no sufficient materials for speculating with

any success, on the long series of changes that have brought about their

existing condition, as regards their peculiar forms of animal life.

_Sandwich Islands._--This somewhat extensive group of large islands, is

only known to contain 11 genera and 18 species of indigenous land-birds;

and even of this small number, two birds of prey are wide ranging species,

which may well have reached the islands during their present isolated

condition. These latter are, _Strix delicatula_, an owl spread over

Australia and the Pacific; and _Asio accipitrinus_, a species which has

reached the Galapagos from S. America, and thence perhaps the Sandwich

Islands. Of the remaining 8 genera, one is a crow (_Corvus hawaiensis_),

and another a fishing eagle (_Pandion solitarius_), of peculiar species;

leaving 7 genera, which are all (according to Mr. Sclater) peculiar. First

we have _Chasiempis_, a genus of Muscicapidæ, containing two species (which

may however belong to distinct genera); and as the entire family is unknown

on the American continent these birds must almost certainly be allied to

some of the numerous Muscicapine forms of the Australian region. Next we

have the purely Australian family Meliphagidæ, represented by two

genera,--_Moho_, an isolated form, and _Chætoptila_, a genus established by

Mr. Sclater for a bird before classed in _Entomyza_, an Australian group.

The four remaining genera are believed by Mr. Sclater to belong to one

group, the Drepanididæ, altogether confined to the Sandwich Islands. Two of

them, _Drepanis_ and _Hemignathus_, with three species each, are

undoubtedly allied; the other two, _Loxops_ and _Psittirostra_, have

usually been classed as finches. The former seem to approach the Dicæidæ;

and all resemble this group in their coloration,

{446}The aquatic birds and waders all belong to wide-spread genera, and

only one or two are peculiar species.

The Sandwich Islands thus possess a larger proportion of peculiar genera

and species of land-birds than any other group of islands, and they are

even more strikingly characterised by what seems to be a peculiar family.

The only other class of terrestrial animals at all adequately represented

on these islands, are the land shells; and here too we find a peculiar

family, sub-family, or genus (Achatinella or Achatinellidæ) consisting of a

number of genera, or sub-genera,--according to the divergent views of

modern conchologists,--and nearly 300 species. The Rev. J. T. Gulick, who

has made a special study of these shells on the spot, considers that there

are 10 genera, some of which are confined to single islands. The species

are so restricted that their average range is not more than five or six

square miles, while some are confined to a tract of only two square miles

in extent, and very few range over an entire island. Some species are

confined to the mountain ridges, others to the valleys; and each ridge or

valley possesses its peculiar species. Considerably more than half the

species occur in the island of Oahu, where there is a good deal of forest.

Very few shells belonging to other groups occur, and they are all small and

obscure; the Achatinellæ almost monopolising the entire archipelago.

_Remarks on the probable past history of the Sandwich Islands._--The

existence of these peculiar groups of birds and land-shells in so remote a

group of volcanic islands, clearly indicates that they are but the relics

of a more extensive land; and the reefs and islets that stretch for more

than 1,000 miles in a west-north-west direction, may be the remains of a

country once sufficiently extensive to develope these and many other, now

extinct, forms of life.[16]

Some light may perhaps be thrown on the past history of the {447}Sandwich

Islands, by the peculiar plants which are found on their mountains. The

peak of Teneriffe produces no Alpine plants of European type, and this has

been considered to prove that it has been always isolated; whereas the

occurrence of North Temperate forms on the mountains of Java, accords with

other evidence of this island having once formed part of the Asiatic

continent. Now on the higher summits of the Sandwich Islands, nearly 30

genera of Arctic and North Temperate flowering plants have been found. Many

of these occur also in the South Temperate zone, in Australia or New

Zealand; but there are others which seem plainly to point to a former

connection with some North Temperate land, probably California, as a number

of islets are scattered in the ocean between the two countries. The most

interesting genera are the following:--_Silene_, which is wholly North

Temperate, except that it occurs in S. Africa; _Vicia_, also North

Temperate, and in South Temperate America; _Fragaria_, with a similar

distribution; _Aster_, widely spread in America, otherwise North Temperate

only; _Vaccinium_, wholly confined to the northern hemisphere, in cold and

temperate climates. None of these are found in Australia or New Zealand;

and their presence in the Sandwich Islands seems clearly to indicate a

former approximation to North Temperate America, although the absence of

any American forms of vertebrata renders it certain that no actual land

connection ever took place.

Recent soundings have shown, that the Sandwich Islands rise from a sea

which is 3,000 fathoms or 18,000 feet deep; while there is a depth of at

least 2,000 fathoms all across to California on one side, and to Japan on

the other. Between the Fiji Islands, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands,

and Australia, the depth is about 1,300 fathoms, and between Sydney and New

Zealand 2,600 fathoms; showing, in every case, a general accordance between

the depth of sea and the approximation of the several faunas. In a few more

years, when it is to be hoped we shall know the contour of the sea-bottom

better than that of the continents, we shall be able to arrive at more

definite and trustworthy conclusions as to the probable changes {448}of

land and sea by which the phenomena of animal distribution in the Pacific

have been brought about.

_Reptiles of the Polynesian Sub-region._--The researches of Mr. Darwin on

Coral Islands, proved, that large areas in the Pacific Ocean have been

recently subsiding; but the peculiar forms of life which they present, no

less clearly indicate the former existence of some extensive lands. The

total absence of Mammalia, however, shows either that these lands never

formed part of the Australian or Papuan continents, or if they did, that

they have been since subjected to such an amount of subsidence as to

exterminate most of their higher terrestrial forms of life. It is a

remarkable circumstance, that although Mammalia (except bats) are wanting,

there are a considerable number of reptiles ranging over the whole

sub-region. Lizards are the most numerous, five families and fourteen

genera being represented, as follows:--

1. Cryptoblepharus (Gymnopthalmidæ ) Fiji Islands.

2. Ablepharus " All the islands.

3. Lygosoma (Scincidæ) Pelew Islands, New Caledonia.

4. Mabouya " Samoa Islands.

5. Euprepes " Pacific Islands.

6. _Dactyloperus_ (Geckotidæ) Sandwich Islands.

7. _Doryura_ (Geckotidæ) Pacific Islands.

8. Gehyra " Fiji Islands.

9. _Amydosaurus_ " Tahiti.

10. Heteronota " Fiji Islands.

11. _Correlophus_ " New Caledonia.

12. _Brachylophus_ (Iguanidæ) Fiji Islands.

13. Lophura (Agamidæ) Pelew Islands.

14. _Chloroscartes_ " Fiji Islands.

The first five are wide-spread genera, represented mostly by peculiar

species; but sometimes the species themselves have a wide range, as in the

case of _Ablepharus poecilopleurus_, which (according to Dr. Günther) is

found in Timor, Australia, New Caledonia, Savage Island (one of the Samoa

group), and the Sandwich Islands! _Gehyra_ and _Heteronota_ are Australian

genera; while _Lophura_ has reached the Pelew Islands from the Moluccas.

The remainder (printed in italics), are peculiar genera; _Brachylophus_

being especially interesting as an example of an {449}otherwise peculiar

American family, occurring so far across the Pacific.

Snakes are much less abundant, only four genera being represented, one of

them marine. They are, _Anoplodipsas_, a peculiar genus of Amblycephalidæ

from New Caledonia; _Enygrus_, a genus of Pythonidæ from the Fiji Islands;

_Ogmodon_, a peculiar genus of Elapidæ, also from the Fiji Islands, but

ranging to Papua and the Moluccas; and _Platurus_, a wide-spread genus of

sea-snakes (Hydrophidæ). In the more remote Sandwich and Society Islands

there appear to be no snakes. This accords with our conclusion that lizards

have some special means of dispersal over the ocean which detracts from

their value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities; which is further

proved by the marvellous range of a single species (referred to above) from

Australia to the Sandwich Islands.

A species of _Hyla_ is said to inhabit the New Hebrides, and several

species of _Platymantis_ (tree-frogs) are found in the Fiji Islands; but

otherwise the Amphibians appear to be unrepresented in the sub-region,

though they will most likely be found in so large an island as New

Caledonia.

From the foregoing sketch, it appears, that although the reptiles present

some special features, they agree on the whole with the birds, in showing,

that the islands of Polynesia all belong to the Australian region, and that

in the Fiji Islands is to be found the fullest development of their

peculiar fauna.

_IV. New Zealand Sub-region._

The islands of New Zealand are more completely oceanic than any other

extensive tract of land, being about 1,200 miles from Australia and nearly

the same distance from New Caledonia and the Friendly Isles. There are,

however, several islets scattered around, whose productions show that they

belong to the same sub-region;--the principal being, Norfolk Island, Lord

Howe's Island, and the Kermadec Isles, on the north; Chatham Island on the

east; the Auckland and Macquarie Isles on the south;--and if these were

once joined to {450}New Zealand, there would have been formed an

island-continent not much inferior in extent to Australia itself.

New Zealand is wholly situated in the warmer portion of the Temperate zone,

and enjoys an exceptionally mild and equable climate. It has abundant

moisture, and thus comes within the limits of the South-Temperate forest

zone; and this leads to its productions often resembling those of the

tropical, but moist and wooded, islands of the Pacific, rather than those

of the temperate, but arid and scantily wooded plains of Australia. The two

islands of New Zealand are about the same extent (approximately) as the

British Isles, but the difference in the general features of their natural

history is very great. There are, in the former, no mammalia, less than

half as many birds, very few reptiles and fresh-water fishes, and an

excessive and most unintelligible poverty of insects; yet, considering the

situation of the islands and their evidently long-continued isolation, the

wonder rather is that their fauna is so varied and interesting as it is

found to be. Our knowledge of this fauna, though no doubt far from

complete, is sufficiently ample; and it will be well to give a pretty full

account of it, in order to see what conclusions may be drawn as to its

origin.

_Mammalia._--The only mammals positively known as indigenous to New Zealand

are two bats, both peculiar to it,--_Scotophilus tuberculatus_ and

_Mystacina tuberculata_. The former is allied to Australian forms; the

latter is more interesting, as being a peculiar genus of the family

Noctilionidæ, which does not exist in Australia; and in having decided

resemblances to the Phyllostomidæ of South America, so that it may almost

be considered to be a connecting link between the two families. A forest

rat is said to have once abounded on the islands, and to have been used for

food by the natives; but there is much doubt as to what it really was, and

whether it was not an introduced species. The seals are wide-spread

antarctic forms which have no geographical significance.

_Birds._--About 145 species of birds are natives of New Zealand, of which

88 are waders or aquatics, leaving 57 land-birds {451}belonging to 34

genera. Of this latter number, 16, or nearly half, are peculiar; and there

are also 5 peculiar genera of waders and aquatic birds, making 21 in all.

Of the remaining genera of land-birds, four are cosmopolite or of very wide

range, while the remainder are characteristic of the Australian region. The

following is a list of the Australian genera found in New Zealand:

_Sphenæacus_, _Gerygone_, _Orthonyx_ (Sylviidæ); _Graucalus_

(Campephagidæ); _Rhipidura_ (Muscicapidæ); _Anthochæra_ (Meliphagidæ);

_Zosterops_ (Dicæidæ); _Cyanoramphus_ (Platycercidæ); _Carpophaga_

(Columbidæ); _Hieracidea_ (Falconidæ); _Tribonyx_ (Rallidæ). Besides these

there are several genera of wide range, as follows:--_Anthus_

(Motacillidæ); _Hirundo_ (Hirundinidæ); _Chrysococcyx_, _Eudynamis_

(Cuculidæ); _Halcyon_ (Alcedinidæ); _Coturnix_ (Tetraonidæ); _Circus_

(Falconidæ); _Athene_ (Strigidæ).

Most of the above genera are represented by peculiar New Zealand species,

but in several cases the species are identical with those of Australia, as

in the following: _Anthochæra carunculata_, _Zosterops lateralis_, _Hirundo

nigricans_, and _Chrysococcyx lucidus_; also one--_Eudynamis

taitensis_--which is Polynesian.

We now come to the genera peculiar to New Zealand, which are of especial

interest:

LIST OF GENERA OF BIRDS PECULIAR TO NEW ZEALAND.

No. of

Family and Genus. Species. Remarks.

SYLVIIDÆ.

1. Myiomoira 3 Allied to Petroica, an Australian genus

2. Miro 2 " " " "

TIMALIIDÆ (?)

3. Turnagra 2 Of doubtful affinities.

SITTIDÆ.

4. Xenicus 3 Of doubtful affinities.

5. Acanthisitta 1 Of doubtful affinities.

PARIDÆ.

6. Certhiparus 2 Of doubtful affinities.

MELIPHAGIDÆ.

7. Prosthemadera 1 Peculiar genera of honeysuckers, a

8. Pogonornis 1 family which is confined to the

9. Anthornis 3 Australian Region.

STURNIDÆ. {452}

10. Creadion 2 These three genera are probably

11. Heterolocha 1 allied, and perhaps form a distinct

12. Callæas 2 family.

NESTORIDÆ.

13. Nestor 3 A peculiar family of Parrots.

STRINGOPIDÆ.

14. Stringops 1 A peculiar family of Parrots.

STRIGIDÆ.

15. (Sceloglaux) 1 s.g. of Athene.

RALLIDÆ.

16. Ocydromus 6 Allied to _Eulabeornis_, an Australian

genus.

17. Notornis 1 Allied to _Porphyrio_, a genus of wide

range.

CHARADRIIDÆ.

18. Thinornis 1

19. Anarhynchus 1

ANATIDÆ.

20. Hymenolæmus 1 Allied to _Malacorhynchus_, an Australian

genus.

APTERYGIDÆ.

21. Apteryx 4 Forming a peculiar family.

We have thus a wonderful amount of speciality; yet the affinities of the

fauna, whenever they can be traced, are with Australia or Polynesia. Nine

genera of New Zealand birds are characteristically Australian, and the

eight genera of wide range are Australian also. Of the peculiar genera, 7

or 8 are undoubtedly allied to Australian groups. There are also four

Australian and one Polynesian _species_. Even the peculiar _family_,

Nestoridæ is allied to the Australian Trichoglossidæ. We have therefore

every gradation of similarity to the Australian fauna, from identical

species, through identical genera, and allied genera, to distinct but

allied families; clearly indicating very long continued yet rare

immigations from Australia or Polynesia; immigrations which are continued

down to our day. For resident ornithologists believe, that the _Zosterops

lateralis_ has found its way to New Zealand within the last few years, and

that the two cuckoos now migrate annually, the one from Australia, the

other from some {453}part of Polynesia, distances of more than 1,000 miles!

These facts seem, however, to have been accepted on insufficient evidence

and to be in themselves extremely improbable. It is observed that the

cuckoos appear annually in certain districts and again disappear; but their

course does not seem to have been traced, still less have they ever been

actually seen arriving or departing across the ocean. In a country which

has still such wide tracts of unsettled land, it is very possible that the

birds in question may only move from one part of the islands to another.

_Islets of the New Zealand Sub-region._

We will here notice the smaller islands belonging to the sub-region, as it

is chiefly their birds that possess any interest.

_Norfolk Island._--The land-birds recorded from this island amount to 15

species, of which 8 are Australian, viz.: _Climacteris scandens_,

_Symmorphus leucopygius_, _Zosterops tenuirostris_ and _Z. albogularis_,

_Halcyon sanctus_, _Platycercus pennanti_, _Carpophaga spadicea_,

_Phapspicata_ and _P. chalcoptera_. Of the peculiar species three belong to

Australian genera; _Petroica_, _Gerygone_, and _Rhipidura_; one to a

cosmopolitan genus, _Turdus_. So far the affinity seems to be all

Australian, and there remain only three birds which ally this island to New

Zealand,--_Nestor productus_, _Cyanoramphus rayneri_, and _Notornis alba_.

The former inhabited the small Phillip Island (close to Norfolk Island) but

is now extinct. Being a typical New Zealand genus, quite incapable of

flying across the sea, its presence necessitates some former connexion

between the two islands, and it is therefore perhaps of more weight than

all the Australian genera and species, which are birds capable of long

flights. The _Cyanoramphus_ is allied to a New Zealand broad-tailed

parroquet. The _Notornis alba_ is extinct, but two specimens exist in

museums, and it is even a stronger case than the _Nestor_, as showing a

former approximation or union of this island with New Zealand. A beautiful

figure of this bird is given in the _Ibis_ for 1873.

_Lord Howe's Island._--This small island, situated half-way between

Australia and Norfolk Island, is interesting, as containing a peculiar

species of the New Zealand genus _Ocydromus_, or {454}wood-hen (_O.

sylvestris_). There is also a peculiar thrush, _Turdus vinitinctus_. Its

other birds are wholly of Australian types, and most of them probably

Australian species. The following have been observed, and no doubt

constitute nearly its whole indigenous bird fauna. _Acanthiza_ sp.,

_Rhipidura_ sp., _Pachycephala gutturalis_, _Zosterops strennuus_ and _Z.

tephropleurus_, _Strepera_ sp., _Halcyon_ sp., and _Chalcophaga

chrysochlora_. The two species of _Zosterops_ are peculiar. The _Ocydromus_

is important enough to ally this island to New Zealand rather than to

Australia; and if the white bird seen there is, as supposed, the _Notornis

alba_ which is extinct in Norfolk Island, the connection will be rendered

still more clear.

_Chatham Islands._--These small islands, 450 miles east of New Zealand,

possess about 40 species of birds, of which 13 are land-birds. All but one

belong to New Zealand genera, and all but five are New Zealand species. The

following are the genera of the land-birds: _Sphenæacus_, _Gerygone_,

_Myiomoira_, _Rhipidura_, _Zosterops_, _Anthus_, _Prosthemadera_,

_Anthornis_, _Chrysococcyx_, _Cyanoramphus_, _Carpophaga_, _Circus_. The

peculiar species are _Anthornis melanocephala_, _Myiomoira diffenbachi_ and

_M. traversi_, _Rhipidura flabellifera_, and a peculiar rail incapable of

flight, named by Captain Hutton _Cabalus modestus_. It is stated that the

_Zosterops_ differs from that of New Zealand, and is also a migrant; and it

is therefore believed to come every year from Australia, passing over New

Zealand, a distance of nearly 1,700 miles! Further investigation will

perhaps discover some other explanation of the facts. It is also stated,

that the pigeon and one of the small birds (? _Gerygone_ or _Zosterops_)

have arrived at the islands within the last eight years. The natives

further declare, that both the _Stringops_ and _Apteryx_ once inhabited the

islands, but were exterminated about the year 1835.

_The Auckland Islands._--These are situated nearly 300 miles south of New

Zealand, and possess six land-birds, of which three are peculiar,--_Anthus

aucklandicus_, _Cyanoramphus aucklandicus_, and _C. malherbii_, the others

being New Zealand species of _Myiomoira_, _Prosthemadera_, and _Anthornis_.

It is remarkable that two peculiar parrots of the same genus should inhabit

these small islands; but such localities seem favourable to the

Platycercidæ, for another peculiar species is found in the remote Macquarie

Islands, more than 400 miles farther south. A peculiar species and genus of

ducks, _Nesonetta aucklandica_, is also found here, and as far as yet

known, nowhere else. A species of the northern genus _Mergus_ is also found

on these islands, and has been recently obtained by Baron von Hügel.

Plate XIII.

[Illustration]

SCENE IN NEW ZEALAND, WITH SOME OF ITS REMARKABLE BIRDS.

{455}_Plate XIII. Illustrating the peculiar Ornithology of New

Zealand._--Our artist has here depicted a group of the most remarkable and

characteristic of the New Zealand birds. In the middle foreground is the

Owl-parrot or Kakapoe (_Stringops habroptilus_), a nocturnal burrowing

parrot, that feeds on fern-shoots, roots, berries, and occasionally

lizards; that climbs but does not fly; and that has an owl-like mottled

plumage and facial disc. The wings however are not rudimentary, but fully

developed; and it seems to be only the muscles that have become useless for

want of exercise. This would imply, that these birds have not long been

inhabitants of New Zealand only, but were developed in other countries

(perhaps Australia) where their wings were of use to them.

Beyond the Kakapoe are a pair of the large rails, _Notornis mantelli_;

heavy birds with short wings quite useless for flight, and with massive

feet and bill of a red colour. On the right is a pair of Kiwis (_Apteryx

australis_), one of the queerest and most unbird-like of living birds. It

has very small and rudimentary wings, entirely concealed by the hair-like

plumage, and no tail. It is nocturnal, feeding chiefly on worms, which it

extracts from soft earth by means of its long bill. The genus _Apteryx_

forms a distinct family of birds, of which four species are now known,

besides some which are extinct. They are allied to the Cassowary and to the

gigantic extinct _Dinornis_. On the wing are a pair of Crook-billed Plovers

(_Anarhynchus frontalis_), remarkable for being the only birds known which

have the bill bent sideways. This was at first thought to be a

malformation; but it is now proved to be a constant character of the

species, as it exists even in the young chicks; yet the purpose served by

such an anomalous structure is not yet discovered. {456}No country on the

globe can offer such an extraordinary set of birds as are here depicted.

_Reptiles._--These consist almost wholly of lizards, there being no

land-snakes and only one frog. Twelve species of lizards are known,

belonging to three genera, one of which is peculiar, as are all the

species. _Hinulia_, with two species, and _Mocoa_, with four species (one

of which extends to the Chatham Islands), belong to the Scincidæ; both are

very wide-spread genera and occur in Australia. The peculiar genus

_Naultinus_, with six species, belongs to the Geckotidæ, a family spread

over the whole world.

The most extraordinary and interesting reptile of New Zealand is, however,

the _Hatteria punctata_, a lizard-like animal living in holes, and found in

small islands on the north-east coast, and more rarely on the main land. It

is somewhat intermediate in structure between lizards and crocodiles, and

also has bird-like characters in the form of its ribs. It constitutes, not

only a distinct family, Rhyncocephalidæ, but a separate order of reptiles,

Rhyncocephalina. It is quite isolated from all other members of the class;

and is probably a slightly modified representative of an ancient and

generalised form, which has been superseded in larger areas by the more

specialized lizards and saurians.

The only representatives of the Ophidia are two sea-snakes of Australian

and Polynesian species, and of no geographical interest.

_Amphibia._--The solitary frog indigenous to New Zealand, belongs to a

peculiar genus, _Liopelma_, and to the family Bomburatoridæ, otherwise

confined to Europe and temperate South America.

_Fresh-water Fishes._--There are, according to Captain Hutton, 15 species

of fresh-water fish in New Zealand, belonging to 7 genera; six species, and

one genus (_Retropinna_), being peculiar. _Retropinna richardsoni_ belongs

to the Salmonidæ, and is the only example of that family occurring in the

Southern hemisphere, where it is confined to New Zealand and the Chatham

Islands. The wide distribution of _Galaxias attenuatus_--from the

{457}Chatham Islands to South America--has already been noticed; while

another species, _G. fasciatus_, is found in the Chatham and Auckland Isles

as well as New Zealand. A second genus peculiar to New Zealand,

_Neochanna_, allied to _Galaxias_, has recently been described.

_Prototroctes oxyrhynchus_ is allied to an Australian species, but belongs

to a family (Haplochitonidæ) which is otherwise South American. An eel,

_Anguilla latirostris_, is found in Europe, China, and the West Indies, as

well as in New Zealand! while the genus _Agonostoma_ ranges to Australia,

Celebes, Mauritius, and Central America.

_Insects._--The great poverty of this class is well shown by the fact, that

only eleven species of butterflies are known to inhabit New Zealand. Of

these, six are peculiar, and one, _Argyrophenga_ (Satyridæ), is a peculiar

genus allied to the Northern genus _Erebia_. The rest are either of wide

range, as _Pyrameis cardui_ and _Diadema bolina_; or Australian, as

_Hamdyaas zoilus_; while one, _Danais erippus_, is American, but has also

occurred in Australia, and is no doubt a recent introduction into both

countries. Only one _Sphinx_ is recorded, and no other species of the

Sphingina except the British currant-moth, _Ægeria tipuliformis_, doubtless

imported. Coleoptera are better represented, nearly 300 species having been

described, all or nearly all being peculiar. These belong to about 150

genera, of which more than 50 are peculiar. No less than 14 peculiar genera

belong to the Carabidæ, mostly consisting of one or two species, but

_Demetrida_ has 3, and _Metaglymma_ 8 species. Other important genera are

_Dicrochile_, _Homalosoma_, _Mecodema_, and _Scopodes_, all in common with

Australia. _Mecodema_ and _Metaglymma_ are the largest genera. Even the

Auckland Islands have two small genera of Carabidæ found nowhere else.

Cicindelidæ are represented in New Zealand by 6 species of _Cicindela_, and

1 of _Dystipsidera_, a genus peculiar to the Australian region.

The Lucanidæ are represented by two peculiar genera, _Dendroblax_ and

_Oxyomus_; two Australian genera, _Lissotes_ and _Ceratognathus_; and by

the almost cosmopolite _Dorcus_.

The Scarabeidæ consist of ten species only, belonging to four {458}genera,

two of which are peculiar (_Odontria_ and _Stethaspis_); and two Australian

(_Pericoptus_ and _Calonota_). There are no Cetoniidæ.

There is only one Buprestid, belonging to the Australian genus _Cisseis_.

The Elateridæ, (about a dozen species,) belong mostly to Australian genera,

but two, _Metablax_ and _Ochosternus_, are peculiar.

There are 30 species of Curculionidæ, belonging to 22 genera. Of the

genera, 12 are peculiar; 1 is common to New Zealand and New Caledonia; 5

belong to the Australian region, and the rest are widely distributed.

Longicorns are, next to Carabidæ, the most numerous family, there being,

according to Mr. Bates (_Ann. Nat. Hist._, 1874), about 35 genera, of which

26 are peculiar or highly characteristic, and 7 of the others Australian.

The largest and most characteristic genera are _Æmona_ and _Xyloteles_,

both being peculiar to New Zealand; few of the remainder having more than

one or two species. _Demonax_ extends to the Moluccas and S. E. Asia. A

dozen of the genera have no near relations with those of any other country.

Phytophaga are remarkably scarce, only two species of _Colaspis_ being

recorded; and there is only a single species of _Coccinella_.

The other orders of Insects appear to be equally deficient. Hymenoptera are

very poorly represented, only a score of species being yet known; but two

of the genera are peculiar, as are all the species. The Neuroptera and

Heteroptera are also very scarce, and several of the species are

wide-spread forms of the Australian region. The few species of Homoptera

are all peculiar. The Myriapoda afford some interesting facts. There are

nine or ten species, all peculiar. One genus, _Lithobius_, ranges over the

northern hemisphere as far south as Singapore, and probably through the

Malay Archipelago, but is not found in Australia. _Henicops_ occurs

elsewhere only in Tasmania and Chili. _Cryptops_, only in the north

temperate zone; while two others, _Cermatia_ and _Cormocephalus_, both

occur in Australia.

{459}_Land-Shells._--Of these, 114 species are known, 97 being peculiar.

Three species of _Helix_ are also found in Australia, and five more in

various tropical islands of the Pacific. _Nanina_, _Lymnæa_, and

_Assiminea_, are found in Polynesia or Malaya, but not in Australia.

_Amphibola_ is an Australian genus, as is _Janella_. _Testacella_ and

_Limax_ belong to the Palæarctic region.

From the Chatham Islands, 82 species of shells are known, all being New

Zealand species, except nine, which are peculiar.

_The Ancient Fauna of New Zealand._--One of the most remarkable features of

the New Zealand fauna, is the existence, till quite recent times, of an

extensive group of wingless birds,--called Moas by the natives--many of

them of gigantic size, and which evidently occupied the place which, in

other countries, is filled by the mammalia. The most recent account of

these singular remains, is that by Dr. Haast, who, from a study of the

extensive series of specimens in the Canterbury museum, believes, that they

belong to two families, distinguished by important differences of

structure, and constitute four genera,--_Dinornis_ and _Miornis_, forming

the family Dinornithidæ; _Palapteryx_ and _Euryapteryx_, forming the family

Palapterygidæ. These were mostly larger birds than the living _Apteryx_,

and some of them much larger even than the African ostrich, and were more

allied to the Casuariidæ and Struthionidæ than to the Apterygidæ. No less

than eleven species of these birds have been discovered; all are of recent

geological date, and there are indications that some of them may have been

in existence less than a century ago, and were really exterminated by man.

Remains have been found (of apparently the same recent date) of species of

_Apteryx_, _Stringops_, _Ocydromus_, and many other living forms, as well

as of _Harpagornis_, a large bird of prey, and _Cnemiornis_, a gigantic

goose. Bodies of the _Hatteria punctata_ have also been found along with

those of the Moa, showing that this remarkable reptile was once more

abundant on the main islands than it is now.

_The Origin of the New Zealand Fauna._--Having now given {460}an outline

sketch of the main features of the New Zealand fauna and of its relations

with other regions, we may consider what conclusions are fairly deducible

from the facts. As the outlying Norfolk, Chatham, and Lord Howe's Islands,

are all inhabited (or have recently been so) by birds of New Zealand type

or even identical species, almost incapable of flight, we may infer that

these islands show us the former minimum extent of the land-area in which

the peculiar forms which characterise the sub-region were developed. If we

include the Auckland and Macquarie Islands to the south, we shall have a

territory of not much less extent than Australia, and separated from it by

perhaps several hundred miles of ocean. Some such ancient land must have

existed to allow of the development and specialization of so many peculiar

forms of birds, and it probably remained with but slight modifications for

a considerable geological period. During all this time it would interchange

many of its forms of life with Australia, and there would arise that amount

of identity of genera between the two countries which we find to exist. Its

extension southwards, perhaps considerably beyond the Macquaries, would

bring it within the range of floating ice during colder epochs, and within

easy reach of the antarctic continent during the warm periods; and thus

would arise that interchange of genera and species with South America,

which forms one of the characteristic features of the natural history of

New Zealand.

Captain F. W. Hutton (to whose interesting paper on the Geographical

relations of the New Zealand Fauna we are indebted for some of our facts)

insists upon the necessity of former land-connections in various

directions, and especially of an early southern continental period, when

New Zealand, Australia, Southern Africa, and South America, were united.

Thus he would account for the existence of Struthious birds in all these

countries, and for the various other groups of birds, reptiles, fishes, or

insects which have no obvious means of traversing the ocean,--and this

union must have occurred before mammalia existed in any of these countries.

But such a supposition is quite unnecessary, if we consider that all

wingless land-birds and some water-birds (as the Gare-fowl {461}and Steamer

Duck) are probably cases of abortion of useless organs, and that the common

ancestors of the various forms of Struthiones may have been capable of a

moderate degree of flight; or they may have originated in the northern

hemisphere, as already explained in Chap. XI. p. 287. The existence of two,

if not three, distinct families of these birds in New Zealand, proves that

the original type was here isolated at a very early date, and being wholly

free from the competition of mammalia, became more differentiated than

elsewhere. The _Hatteria_ is probably coeval with these early forms, and is

the only relic of a whole order of reptiles, which once perhaps ranged far

over the globe.

Still less does any other form of animal inhabiting New Zealand, require a

land connection with distant countries to account for its presence. With

the example before us of the Bermudas and Azores, to which a great variety

of birds fly annually over vast distances, and even of the recent arrival

of new birds in New Zealand and Chatham Island, we may be sure that the

ancestors of every New Zealand bird could easily have reached its shores

during the countless ages which elapsed while the _Dinornis_ and _Apteryx_

were developing. The wonderful range of some of the existing species of

lizards and fresh-water fish, as already given, proves that they too

possess means of dispersal which have sufficed to spread them, within a

comparatively recent period, over countries separated by thousands of miles

of ocean; and the fact that a group like the snakes, so widely distributed

and for which the climate of New Zealand is so well adapted, does not exist

there, is an additional proof that land connection had nothing to do with

the introduction of the existing fauna. We have already (p. 398), discussed

in some detail the various modes in which the dispersal of animals in the

southern hemisphere has been effected; and in accordance with the

principles there established, we conclude, that the New Zealand fauna,

living and extinct, demonstrates the existence of an extensive tract of

land in the vicinity of Australia, Polynesia, and the Antarctic continent,

without having been once actually connected with either of these countries,

since the period when mammalia had peopled {462}all the great continents.

That event certainly dates back to Secondary, if not to Palæozoic, times,

because so dominant a group must soon have spread over the whole continuous

land-area of the globe. We have no reason for believing that birds were an

earlier development; and certainly cannot, with any probability, place the

origin of the Struthiones before that of Mammals.

_Causes of the Poverty of Insect-life in New Zealand: its Influence on the

Character of the Flora._--The extreme paucity of insects in New Zealand, to

which we have already alluded, seems to call for some attempt at

explanation. No other country in the world, in which the conditions are

equally favourable for insect-life, and which has either been connected

with, or is in proximity to, any of the large masses of land, presents a

similar phenomenon. The only approach to it is in the Galapagos, and in

some of the islands of the Pacific; and in each of these cases the absence

of mammals leads us to infer, that no connection with a continent has ever

taken place. Yet the fauna of New Zealand evidently dates back to a remote

geological epoch, and it seems strange that an abundance of indigenous

insects have not been developed, especially when we consider the vast

antiquity that most of the orders and families, and many of the genera, of

insects possess (see p. 166), and that they must always have reached the

country in greater numbers and variety than any of the higher animals. The

undoubted fact that such an indigenous insect-fauna has not arisen, would

therefore lead us to conclude, that insects find the conditions requisite

for their development only in the great continental masses of land, in

strict adaptation to, and dependance on, a varied fauna and flora of

ever-increasing richness and complexity. A small number of widely-separated

forms, introduced into a country where the fauna and flora are alike scanty

and unrelated to them, seem to have little tendency to vary and branch out

into that vast network of insect-life which enriches all the great

continents and their once connected islands.

It is a striking confirmation on a large scale, of Mr. Darwin's beautiful

theory--that the gay colours of flowers have mostly, or {463}perhaps,

wholly been produced, in order to attract insects which aid in their

fertilization--that in New Zealand, where insects are so strikingly

deficient in variety, the flora should be almost as strikingly deficient in

gaily-coloured blossoms. Of course there are some exceptions, but as a

whole, green, inconspicuous, and imperfect flowers prevail, to an extent

not to be equalled in any other part of the globe; and affording a

marvellous contrast to the general brilliancy of Australian flowers,

combined with the abundance and variety of its insect-life. We must

remember, too, that the few gay or conspicuous flowering-plants possessed

by New Zealand, are almost all of Australian, South American, or European

_genera_; the peculiar New Zealand or Antarctic genera being almost wholly

without conspicuous flowers. In the tropical Galapagos the same thing

occurs. Mr. Darwin notices the wretched weedy appearance of the vegetation;

and states that it was some time before he discovered that most of the

plants were in flower at the time of his visit! And the insect-life was

correspondingly deficient, consisting mainly of a few terrestrial beetles.

The poverty of insect-life in New Zealand must, therefore, be a very

ancient feature of the country; and it furnishes an additional argument

against the theory of land-connection with, or even any near approach to,

either Australia, South Africa, or South America. For in that case numbers

of winged insects would certainly have entered, and the flowers would then,

as in every other part of the world, have been rendered attractive to them

by the development of coloured petals; and this character once acquired

would long maintain itself, even if the insects had, from some unknown

cause, subsequently disappeared.

After the preceding paragraphs were written, it occurred to me, that if

this reasoning were correct, New Zealand plants ought to be also deficient

in scented flowers; because it is a part of the same theory, that the

odours of flowers have, like their colours, been developed to attract the

insects required to aid in their fertilization. I therefore at once applied

to my friend Dr. Hooker, as the highest authority on New Zealand botany;

simply asking whether there was any such observed deficiency. His reply

{464}was:--"New Zealand plants are remarkably scentless, both in regard to

the rarity of scented flowers, of leaves with immersed glands containing

essential oils, and of glandular hairs." There are a few exceptional cases,

but these seem even more rare than might be expected, so that the

confirmation of theory is very complete. The circumstance that aromatic

leaves are also very scarce, suggests the idea that these, too, serve as an

attraction to insects. Aromatic plants abound most in arid countries, and

on Alpine heights; both localities where winged insects are comparatively

scarce, and where it may be necessary to attract them in every possible

way. Dr. Hooker also informs, me that since his _Introduction to the New

Zealand Flora_ was written, many plants with handsome flowers have been

discovered, especially among the _Ranunculi_, shrubby Veronicas, and

herbaceous Compositæ. The two former, however, are genera of wide range,

which may have originated in New Zealand by the introduction of plants with

handsome flowers, which the few indigenous insects would be attracted by,

and thus prevent the loss of their gay corollas; so that these discoveries

will not much affect the general character of the flora, and its very

curious bearing on the past history of the islands through the relations of

flowers and insects.

In judging of the relation here supposed to exist, it must be remembered,

that if the New Zealand insects have been introduced from the surrounding

countries by chance immigrations at distant intervals, then, as we go back

into the past the insect fauna will become poorer and poorer, and still

more inadequate than at present to lead to the development of attractive

flowers and odours. This quite harmonizes with the fact of the ancient

indigenous flora being so remarkably scentless and inconspicuous, while a

few of the more recently introduced genera of plants have retained their

floral attractions.

_Concluding Remarks on the Early History of the Australian Region._

We have already discussed in some detail, the various relations of the

Australian sub-regions to the surrounding Regions, and the geographical

changes that appear to have taken place. A very {465}few observations will

therefore suffice, on the supposed early history of the Australian region

as a whole.

It was probably far back in the Secondary period, that some portion of the

Australian region was in actual connection with the northern continent, and

became stocked with ancestral forms of Marsupials; but from that time till

now there seems to have been no further land connection, and the Australian

lands have thenceforward gone on developing the Marsupial and Monotremate

types, into the various living and extinct races we now find there. During

some portion of the Tertiary epoch Australia probably comprised much of its

existing area, together with Papua and the Solomon Islands, and perhaps

extended as far east as the Fiji Islands; while it might also have had a

considerable extension to the south and west. Some light has recently been

thrown on this subject by Professor McCoy's researches on the Palæontology

of Victoria. He finds abundant marine fossils of Eocene and Miocene age,

many of which are strikingly similar to those of Europe at the same period.

Among these are Cetaceans of the genus _Squalodon_; European species of

Plagiostomous fishes; mollusca and corals closely resembling those of

Europe and North America of the same age,--such as numerous Volutes closely

allied to those of the Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight, and the genus

_Dentalium_ in great abundance, almost or quite identical with European

tertiary species. Along with these, are found some living species, but

always such as now live farther north in tropical seas. The Cretaceous and

Mesozoic marine fossils are equally close to those of Europe.

The whole of these remains demonstrate that, as in the northern so in the

southern hemisphere, a much warmer climate prevailed in the Eocene and

Miocene periods than at the present time. This is a most important result,

and one which strongly supports Mr. Belt's view, before referred to, that

the warmer climates in past geological epochs, and especially that of the

Miocene as compared with our own, was caused by a diminution of the

obliquity of the ecliptic, leading to a much greater uniformity of the

seasons for a considerable distance from the equator, and greatly reducing

the polar area within which the sun would ever {466}disappear during an

entire rotation of the earth. During such a period, tropical forms of

marine animals would have been able to spread north and south, into what

are now cool latitudes; and identical genera, and even species, might then

have ranged along the southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent, from

Britain to the Bay of Bengal, and southward along the Malayan coasts to

Australia,

Numerous Miocene plant-beds have also been found in Victoria, containing

abundance of Dicotyledonous leaves, which are said generally to resemble

those of the Asiatic flora, and of the Miocene plant-beds of the Rhine. It

is to be hoped these beds will be more closely examined for remains of

insects, land-shells, and vertebrates, and that the plants will be

carefully preserved and critically studied; for here probably lies hidden

the key, that will solve much of the mystery that attaches to the past

history of the Australian fauna.

{467}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes

of animals in the Australian region, the following sources of information

have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and

catalogues used in compiling the 4th Part of this work.

_Mammalia._--Gould, Mammals of Australia; Waterhouse on Marsupials; Dr. J.

E. Gray's List of Mammalia of New Guinea; Müller, Temminck and Schlegel on

Mammals of the Moluccas; papers by Dr. Gray; and personal observations by

the Author.

_Birds._--Gould's Birds of Australia; Buller's Birds of New Zealand; G. R.

Gray's Lists of Birds of Moluccas, &c.; Hartlaub and Finsch on Birds of

Pacific Islands; Sclater on Birds of Sandwich Islands; papers by Haast,

Hutton, Meyer, Salvin, Schlegel, Sclater, Travers, Lord Walden and the

Author.

_Reptiles._--Krefft, Catalogue of Snakes; Gunther, List of Lizards in

_Voyage of Erebus and Terror_ (1875); and numerous papers.

{468}TABLE I.

_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show families which are peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (...) show families which only just enter the region,

and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------

| Sub-regions |

| 1=Austro-Malaya. |

Order and Family | 2=Australia. | Range beyond the Region.

| 3=Polynesia. |

| 4=New Zealand. |

---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. |

---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

| | | | |

| | | | |

9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian

11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere

12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

33. Otariidæ | | -- | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones

35. Phocidæ | | -- | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones

| | | | |

36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic

| | | | |

| | | | |

| | | | |

55. Muridæ | -- | -- | | |All other regions

| | | | |

77. _Dasyuridæ_ | -- | -- | | |

78. _Myrmecobiidæ_ | | -- | | |

79. _Peramelidæ_ | -- | -- | | |

80. _Macropodidæ_ | -- | -- | | |

81. _Phalangistidæ_ | -- | -- | | |

82. _Phascolomyidæ_ | | -- | | |

| | | | |

83._Ornithorhynchidæ_| | -- | | |

84. _Echidnidæ_ | | -- | | |

| | | | |

1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite

2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Oriental family

5. Cinclidæ | -- | | | |

8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | | |

9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | | -- |

10. Paridæ | | -- | | -- |

14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian

15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian

16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian

17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Old World

18. _Pachycephalidæ_| -- | -- | -- | |Almost peculiar to region

19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | |The Old World

20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite

21. _Paradiseidæ_ | -- | -- | | |

22. _Meliphagidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- |

23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian

24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian

25. _Drepanididæ_ | | | -- | |

30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Ethiopian

35. Sturnidæ | -- | | -- | -- |The Old World

36. Artamidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental

37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | | |The Old World and N. America

38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | | -- |The Old World

47. Pittidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | | | |

58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian

63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian

67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

71. Podargidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental

73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite

74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

76. _Cacatuidæ_ | -- | -- | | |Philippine Islands

77. _Platycercidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- |

79. _Trichoglossidæ_| -- | -- | -- | |

82. _Nestoridæ_ | -- | | | -- |

83. _Stringopidæ_ | | | | -- |

| | | | |

84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

84a. _Didunculidæ_ | | | -- | |

| | | | |

87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Old World and N. America

89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | | |The Old World

90. _Megapodiidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | |

| | | | |

96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

103. Parridæ | -- | -- | | |Tropical

104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere

105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

112. _Rhinochetidæ_ | | | -- | |

113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite

115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | | |Widely distributed

| | | | |

118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

122. Spheniscidæ | | -- | | -- |S. temperate regions

124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

127. _Casuariidæ_ | -- | -- | | |

128. _Apterygidæ_ | | | | -- |

| | | | |

1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Nearctic

5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | | |All warm countries

7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite

8. Homalopsidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, and all other regions

11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian,

13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian,

17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, California

20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, Japan,

23. Hydrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Madagascar, Panama

| | | | |

30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Africa

41. Gymnopthalmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Neotropical, Ethiopian,

42. _Pygopodidæ_ | | -- | | |

43. _Aprasiadæ_ | | -- | | |

44. _Lialidæ_ | | -- | | |

45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite

49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite

51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | |The Eastern Hemisphere

| | | | |

53._Rhyncocephalidæ_ | | | | -- |

| | | | |

55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | | |Tropical regions

| | | | |

58. Chelydidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical

60. Cheloniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Marine

| | | | |

10. _Xenorhinidæ_ | -- | | | |

14. Alytidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Oriental

15. Pelodryadæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical

16. Hylidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Ethiopian

17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All the regions

18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite

19. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Nearctic

| | | | |

38. Mugillidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical

| | | | |

53. _Gadopsidæ_ | | -- | | |

| | | | |

59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions

67. Galaxidæ | | -- | | -- |Temperate S. America

| | | | |

| | | | |

1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions, and to Canada

2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

4. Morphidæ | -- | | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical

6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | | |All tropical regions

8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

18. Castniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical

19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian

20. Uraniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions

23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

TABLE II.

_GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN

REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but

are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

_MAMMALIA._

-------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------

Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond

Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region.

-------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------

| | |

PRIMATES. | | |

CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Macacus | 1 |Lombok to Timor) |Oriental genus

1. Cynopithecus | 1 |Celebes and Batchian |Philippines?

| | |

LEMURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Tarsius | 1 |Celebes) |Indo-Malayan genus

| | |

CHIROPTERA. | | |

PTEROPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

2. Pteropus | 15 |The whole reg. except |Tropics of E. Hemisp.

| | New Zeal. |

3. Xantharpyia | 1 |Moluccas and Timor |Oriental,

| | | S. Palæarctic

4. Cynopterus | 1 |Morty Island |Oriental

5. Macroglossus | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Indo-Malaya

| | Timor |

6. Harpyia | 1 |Celebes and Moluccas |Philippines

7. _Hypoderma_ | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, and |

| | Timor |

8. _Notopteris_ | 1 |Fiji Islands |

| | |

RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | |

| | |

9. Rhinolophus | 7 |Moluccas, Timor, |Warmer pts. of

| | Australia | E. Hemis.

10. Hipposideros | 5 |Moluccas and Aru |Oriental

| | Islands |

11. Phyllorhina | 2 |Moluccas and Timor |Indo-Malaya

12. Asellia | 1 |Amboyna |Indo-Malaya

13. Megaderma | 1 |Ternate |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | |

VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

14. Scotophilus | 8 |Moluccas, Timor, |Oriental

| | Australia |

15. Vespertilio | 2 |Australia |Cosmopolite

16. Miniopteris | 3 |Moluccas, Timor, and |Indo-Malaya, S. Africa

| | Australia |

17. Taphozous | 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Orien., Ethiop.,

| | N. Australia | Neotrop.

18. Plecotus | 1 |Timor |N. India,

| | | S. Palæarctic

19. Nyctophilus | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |India

| | |

NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

20. Molossus | 1 |Australia |Neotrop., Ethiop.,

| | | S. Pal.

21. _Mystacina_ | 1 |New Zealand |

| | |

INSECTIVORA. | | |

SORICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

22. Sorex | 2 |Moluccas and Timor |The E. Hemis. &

| | | N. Amer.

| | |

CARNIVORA. | | |

VIVERRIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Viverra | 1 |Celebes and Moluccas) |Oriental genus

(Paradoxurus | 1 |Timor, Ke Islands, ? |Oriental genus

| | introduced) |

| | |

OTARIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

23. Arctocephalus | 1 |S. Australia, |S. Temperate shores

| | New Zealand |

24. Zalophus | 1 |Australia |North Pacific

| | |

PHOCIDÆ. | | |

| | |

25. Stenorhynchus | 1 |New Zealand |Antarctic shores

| | |

SIRENIA. | | |

MANATIDÆ. | | |

| | |

26. Halicore | 1 |N. Australia |Oriental Ethiopian

| | |

UNGULATA. | | |

SUIDÆ. | | |

| | |

27. Sus | 4 |Celebes to New Guinea |Palæarctic, Oriental

28. _Babirusa_ | 1 |Celebes, Bouru |

| | |

CERVIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Cervus | 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Oriental genus

| | Timor) |

| | |

BOVIDÆ. | | |

| | |

29. _Anoa_ | 1 |Celebes |

| | |

RODENTIA. | | |

SCIURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Sciurus | 5 |Celebes) |All the other regions

| | |

MURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

30. Mus | 13 |Australia, Celebes, |The Western Hemisphere

| | Papua |

31. _Pseudomys_ | 1 |Australia |

32. _Hapalotis_ | 13 |Australia |

33. _Hydromys_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |

34. _Acanthomys_ | 1 |N. Australia |

35. _Echiothrix_ | 1 |Australia |

| | |

MARSUPIALIA. | | |

DASYURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

36. _Phascogale_ | 3 |New Guinea and |

| | Australia |

37. _Antechinomys_ | 1 |S. Australia (interior)|

38. _Antechinus_ | 12 |Aru Ids. Australia and |

| | Tasmania |

39. _Chætocercus_ | 1 |S. Australia |

40. _Dactylopsila_ | 1 |Aru Islands and |

| | N. Australia |

41. _Podabrus_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |

42. _Myoictis_ | 1 |Aru Islands |

43. _Sarcophilus_ | 1 |Tasmania |

44. _Dasyurus_ | 4 |Australia |

45. _Thylacinus_ | 1 |Tasmania |

| | |

MYRMECOBIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

45. _Myrmecobius_ | 1 |S. and W. Australia |

| | |

PERAMELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

47. _Perameles_ | 8 |N. Guinea, Aru Ids., |

| |Australia, and Tasmania|

48. _Peragalea_ | 1 |W. Australia |

49. _Chæropus_ | 1 |S. E. and W. Australia |

| | |

MACROPODIDÆ. | | |

| | |

50. _Macropus_ | 4 |Australia and Tasmania |

51. _Osphranter_ | 5 |All Australia |

52. _Halmaturus_ | 18 |Australia and Tasmania |

53. _Petrogale_ | 7 |All Australia |

54. _Dendrolagus_ | 2 |New Guinea |

55. _Dorcopsis_ | 2 |Aru, Mysol, and |

| | N. Guinea |

56. _Onychogalea_ | 3 |Central Australia |

57. _Lagorchestes_ | 5 |N., W., and S. |

| | Australia |

58. _Bettongia_ | 6 |W., S., and E. |

| | Australia and Tasmania|

59. _Hypsiprymnus_ | 4 |W. and E. Australia & |

| | Tasmania |

| | |

PHALANIGISTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

60. _Phascolarctos_ | 1 |E. Australia |

61. _Phalangista_ | 5 |E., S., and W. |

| | Australia and Tasmania|

62. _Cuscus_ | 8 |Celebes to N. Guinea, |

| | Timor & N. Australia |

63. _Petaurista_ | 1 |E. Australia |

64. _Belideus_ | 5 |S., E., & N. Austral., |

| |N. Guinea, and Moluccas|

65. _Acrobata_ | 1 |S. and E. Australia |

66. _Dromicia_ | 5 |W. & E. Australia & |

| | Tasmania |

67. _Tarsipes_ | 1 |W. Australia |

| | |

PHASCOLOMYIDÆ. | | |

| | |

63. _Phascolomys_ | 1 |S. E. Australia and |

| | Tasmania |

| | |

MONOTREMATA. | | |

ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ. | | |

| | |

69._Ornithorhynchus_| 1 |S. and E. Australia & |

| | Tasmania |

| | |

ECHIDNIDÆ. | | |

| | |

70. _Echidna_ | 2 |S. & E. Australia, & |

| | Tasmania |

_BIRDS._

| | |

PASSERES. | | |

TURDIDÆ. | | |

| | |

1. Turdus | 6 |Timor, Austral., New |Cosmopolite

| | Caledonia, Norfolk |

| | Island, Lord Howe's |

| | and Samoan Islands |

2. Oreocincla | 1 |S. E. Australia and |Palæarctic, Oriental

| | Tasmania |

3. Geocichla | 4 |Celebes, Lombok, Timor,|Oriental

| | Austral. |

(Monticola | 1 |Gilolo, Celebes) |Palæarctic and

| | | Oriental

(Zoothera | 1 |Lombok) |Oriental genus

| | |

SYLVIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

4. Cisticola | 7 |Celebes, Bouru, Timor, |Palæarctic, Oriental

| | Australia |

5. Sphenæacus | 4 |Australia, N. Zealand, |Ethiopian

| | Chatham Islands |

6. Megalurus | 1 |Timor |Oriental

7. _Poodytes_ | 2 |Australia |

8. _Amytis_ | 3 |Australia |

9. _Sphenura_ | 4 |Australia |

10. _Stipiturus_ | 1 |Australia, Tasmania |

11. _Malurus_ | 16 |Australia, Tasmania, & |

| | N. Guinea |

12. _Hylacola_ | 3 |Australia |

13. _Calamanthus_ | 2 |Australia and Tasmania |

14. Acrocephalus | 7 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | Australia, Caroline | Ethiop.

| | Islands |

15. _Tatare_ | 2 |Samoan to Marquesas |

| | Islands |

16. Hypolais | 1 |Moluccas |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | | Ethiop.

17. _Sericornis_ | 7 |Australia and Tasmania |

18. _Acanthiza_ | 14 |Austral., Tasmania, |

| | N. Caledonia |

19. _Gerygone_ | 24 |The whole region, excl.|Philippines

| | Moluccas |

20. _Drymodes_ | 2 |Australia |

21. Oreicola | 4 |Lombok to Timor |Burmah ?

(Pratincola | 1 |Celebes to Timor) |Oriental, Palæarctic

22. _Epthianura_ | 3 |Australia |

23. _Petroica_ | 18 |Papua to Samoan Ids., |

| | Australia |

24. _Myiomoira_ | 3 |N. Zealand |

25. _Lamprolia_ | 1 |Fiji Islands |

26. _Miro_ | 3 |New Zealand |

27._Cinclorhamphus_| 2 |Australia |

28. _Origma_ | 1 |Australia |

29. _Orthonyx_ | 5 |N. Guinea, Austral., |

| | New Zeald. |

| | |

TIMALIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

30. Pomatorhinus | 5 |N. Guinea and Australia|Oriental

31. _Cinclosoma_ | 4 |Australia and Tasmania |

32. _Turnagra_ | 3 |New Zealand |

33. _Psophodes_ | 2 |S. E. and W. Australia |

34. Alcippe | 3 |New Guinea |Oriental

(Trichastoma | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus

35. Drymocataphus | 1 |Timor |Oriental

36. _Struthidea_ | 1 |N. and E. Australia |

| | |

CINCLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

37. Eupetes | 2 |New Guinea |Malayan

| | |

CERTHIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

38. _Climacteris_ | 8 |Australia and N. Guinea|

| | |

SITTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

39. _Sittella_ | 5 |Australia and N. Guinea|

40. _Acanthisitta_ | 1 |New Zealand |

41. _Xenicus_ | 3 |New Zealand |

| | |

PARIDÆ. | | |

| | |

42. _Certhiparus_ | 2 |New Zealand |

43. _Sphenostoma_ | 2 |E. and S. Australia |

| | |

PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

44. Criniger | 5 |Moluccas, and small |Oriental

| | islands E. of Celebes|

| | |

ORIOLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

45. _Sphecotheres_ | 3 |Timor and Australia |

46. Oriolus | 3 |Celebes, Sulla Ids., |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | Lombok and Flores |

47. _Mimeta_ | 10 |Moluccas, N. Guinea, |

| | Timor, & Australia |

| | |

CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Pericrocotus | 1 |Lombok) |Oriental genus

48. Graucalus | 20 |Celebes to New Hebrides|Oriental

| | and N. Zealand |

49. _Artamides_ | 1 |Celebes |

50. _Pteropodocys_ | 1 |Australia |

51. Campephaga | 12 |Celebes to Timor & |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | New Guinea |

52. Lalage | 15 |Celebes to Australia & |Malayan

| | Samoan Ids. |

53. _Symmorphus_ | 1 |E. Australia and |

| | Norfolk Id. |

| | |

DICRURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

54. Dicrurus | 11 |Celebes to N. Ireland &|Oriental, Ethiopian

| | Austral. |

55. _Chætorhynchus_| 1 |New Guinea |

| | |

MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

56. _Peltops_ | 1 |Papuan Islands |

57. _Monarcha_ | 30 |The whole region (excl.|

| |Celebes and N. Zealand)|

58. _Leucophantes_ | |N. Guinea |

(Butalis | 1 |Moluccas and Celebes) |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | | Ethiop.

59. _Micræca_ | 6 |Timor, N. Guinea, |

| | Australia |

60. Cyornis | 2 |Celebes and Timor |Oriental

61. Siphia | 1 |Timor |Oriental

62. _Seisura_ | 5 |Moluccas to N. Ireland,|

| | Austral. |

63. _Myiagra_ | 15 |Moluccas to Samoan Ids.|

| | Austral. |

(Hypothymis | 2 |Celebes) |Oriental

64._Machærirhynchus_ 4 |Papuan Ids. and |

| | N. Australia |

65. Rhipidura | 32 |The region to Samoan |Oriental

| | Ids. and N. Zealand |

(Myialestes | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus

(Tchitrea | 1 |Flores) |Orien. & Ethiop.

| | | genus

66. _Todopsis_ | 5 |Papuan Islands |

67. _Chasiempis_ | 2 |Sandwich Islands |

| | |

PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. | | |

| | |

68. _Oreoeca_ | 1 |Temperate Australia |

69. _Falcunculus_ | 2 |Temperate Australia |

70. _Pachycephala_ | 45 |Moluccas to Tonga Ids. |

| | and Tasmania |

71. Hylocharis | 2 |Celebes and Timor |Oriental

72. _Eopsaltria_ | 10 |Australia to New |

| | Hebrides |

| | |

LANIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

73. _Colluricincla_| 4 |Australia and Tasmania |

74. _Rectes_ | 18 |Papuan to Fiji Ids., |

| | N. Austral. |

(Lanius | 1 |Lombok) |Northern Hemisphere

| | |

CORVIDÆ. | | |

| | |

75. _Strepera_ | 4 |Australia and Tasmania |

76. _Barita_ | 3 |Australia and Tasmania |

77. _Cracticus_ | 9 |Papuan Ids. to Tasmania|

78. _Grallina_ | 1 |Australia |

79. _Streptocitta_ | 2 |Celebes |

80. _Charitornis_ | 1 |Sulla Islands (Celebes |

| | group) |

81. Corvus | 8 |The whole region, excl.|Almost Cosmopolite

| | N. Zeal. |

82. _Gymnocorvus_ | 2 |Papuan Islands |

83. _Corcorax_ | 1 |Australia |

84. _Lycocorax_ | 3 |Moluccas |

| | |

PARADISEIDÆ. | | |

| | |

85. _Paradisea_ | 4 |Papuan Islands |

86. _Manucodia_ | 3 |Papuan Ids. and |

| | N. Australia |

87. _Astrapia_ | 1 |New Guinea |

88. _Parotia_ | 1 |New Guinea |

89. _Lophorina_ | 1 |New Guinea |

90. _Diphyllodes_ | 3 |Papuan Islands |

91. _Xanthomelus_ | 1 |New Guinea |

92. _Cicinnurus_ | 1 |Papuan Islands |

93. _Paradigalla_ | 1 |New Guinea |

94. _Semioptera_ | 1 |Gilolo and Batchian |

95. _Epimachus_ | 1 |New Guinea |

96. _Drepanornis_ | 1 |New Guinea |

97. _Seleucides_ | 1 |New Guinea |

98. _Ptilorhis_ | 4 |New Guinea and |

| | N. Australia |

99. _Sericulus_ | 1 |E. Australia |

100. _Ptilorhynchus_| 1 |E. Australia |

101. _Chlamydodera_ | 4 |N. and E. Australia |

102. _Æluredus_ | 3 |Papuan Islands and |

| | E. Australia |

103. _Amblyornis_ | 1 |New Guinea |

| | |

MELIPHAGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

104. _Myzomela_ | 20 |The region; excl. |

| | N. Zealand |

105. _Entomophila_ | 4 |Papuan Islands and |

| | Australia |

106. _Gliciphila_ | 10 |Papuan Ids. Timor, |

| |Australia, N. Caledonia|

107._Acanthorhynchus_ 2 |Australia and Tasmania |

108. _Meliphaga_ | 1 |East and S. Australia |

109. _Ptilotis_ | 43 |Lombok and Gilolo to |(Baly)

| | Tasmania and |

| | Samoan Ids. |

110. _Meliornis_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |

111. _Prosthemadera_| 1 |New Zealand |

112. _Anthornis_ | 4 |New Zealand and |

| | Chatham Ids. |

113. _Anthochæra_ | 10 |New Guinea to Tasmania |

| | and Samoan Ids., |

| | N. Zealand |

114. _Pogonornis_ | 1 |New Zealand |

115. _Philemon_ | 18 |Lombok to N. Guinea, |

| | N. Caledonia, |

| |Australia |

116. _Enicmiza_ | 2 |Australia |

117. _Manorhina_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |

118. _Melithreptus_ | 8 |N. Guinea, Australia, |

| | Tasmania |

119. _Euthyrhynchus_| 3 |N. Guinea |

120._Melirrhophetes_| 2 |N. Guinea |

121. _Melidectes_ | 1 |N. Guinea |

122. _Melipotes_ | 1 |N. Guinea |

123. _Moho_ | 3 |Sandwich Islands |

124. _Chætoptila_ | 1 |Sandwich Islands |

| | |

NECTARINIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

125. _Cosmetira_ | 1 |Papuan Islands |

(Æthopyga | 1 |N. Celebes) |Oriental genus

126. Chalcostetha | 5 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Malaya

| | Papuan Ids. |

127. Arachnecthra | 5 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental

| | N. Australia |

(Nectarophila | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus

Anthreptes | 1 |Celebes and Sulla |Malayan genus

| | Islands |

128. Arachnothera | 1 |Papuan Islands, Lombok |Oriental

| | |

DICÆIDÆ. | | |

| | |

129. Zosterops | 28 |The region to Fiji Ids.|Oriental, Ethiopian

| | & N. Zeal. |

130. Dicæum | 12 |Celebes to Solomon Ids.|Oriental

| | & Austral. |

131. Pachyglossa ? | 1 |N. Celebes |Himalayas

132. Piprisoma | 1 |Timor |India, Ceylon

133. _Pardalotus_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania,|

| | Timor |

134. Prionochilus | |Papuan Islands |Malaya

| | |

DREPANIDIDÆ. | | |

| | |

135. _Drepanis_ | 3 |Sandwich Islands |

136. _Hemignathus_ | 3 |Sandwich Islands |

137. _Loxops_ | 1 |Sandwich Islands |

138. _Psittirostra_ | 1 |Sandwich Islands |

| | |

HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | |

| | |

139. Hirundo | 7 |The whole region |Cosmopolite

140. Atticora | 1 |Australia |Neotropical

| | |

PLOCEIDÆ. | | |

| | |

141. Estrilda | 4 |Flores, Timor, |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | Australia |

142. _Emblema_ | 1 |N. W. Australia |

143. Munia | 6 |Celebes to N. Guinea |Oriental

| | and N. Australia |

144. _Donacola_ | 3 |Australia |

145. _Poephila_ | 6 |Australia |

146. Amadina | 9 |Flores to Tasmania and |Ethiopian

| | Samoan Islands |

147. Erythrura | 7 |Moluccas to Caroline |Java, Sumatra

| | and Fiji Islands, |

| | Timor, N. Caledonia |

| | |

STURNIDÆ. | | |

| | |

148. Eulabes | 4 |Sumbawa, Flores, Papuan|Oriental

| | and Solomon Islands |

149. _Basilornis_ | 2 |Celebes and Ceram |

(Acridotheres | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus

150. _Creadion_ | 2 |N. Zealand |

151. _Heterolocha_ | 1 |N. Zealand |

152. _Callæas_ | 2 |N. Zealand |

153. _Aplonis_ | 8 |N. Caledonia to Tonga |

| | Islands |

154. Calornis | 13 |Celebes to Solomon |Malaya

| | Islands and |

| | N. Australia |

155. _Enodes_ | 1 |Celebes |

156. _Scissirostrum_| 1 |Celebes |

| | |

ARTAMIDÆ. | | |

| | |

157. Artamus | 15 |Celebes to Fiji Ids. |Oriental

| | and Tasmania |

| | |

ALAUDIDÆ. | | |

| | |

158. Mirafra | 2 |Flores and Australia |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | |

MOTACILLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

159. Budytes | 11 |Moluccas, Timor, |Palc., Ethiopian, x

| | Australia | Australia

160. Corydalla | 5 |Lombok and Moluccas to |Palæarctic, Oriental

| | N. Zealand |

| | |

PITTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

161. Pitta | 12 |Celebes and Lombok to |Oriental

| |N. Guinea and Australia|

162. Hydrornis | 1 |Gilolo, Batchian |Himalayas to Java

163. _Melampitta_ | 1 |N. Guinea |

| | |

MENURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

164. _Menura_ | 2 |E. Australia |

| | |

ATRICHIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

165. _Atrichia_ | 2 |W. Australia and |

| | Queensland |

| | |

PICARIÆ. | | |

PICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

166. Yungipicus | 2 |Celebes, Lombok, and |Oriental

| | Flores |

(Mulleripicus | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus

| | |

CUCULIDÆ. | | |

| | |

167. _Rhamphococcyx_| 1 |Celebes |

168. Centropus | 13 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | Australia |

169. Cuculus | 5 |Austro-Malaya and |Palc., Orien.,

| | Australia | Ethiopian

170. _Caliechthrus_ | 1 |Papuan Islands |

171. Cacomantis | 10 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental

| | Australia |

172. Chrysococcyx | 5 |Austro-Malaya to Fiji |Oriental, Ethiopian

| | Islands and N. Zealand|

(Hierococcyx | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus

173. Eudynamis | 6 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental

| | Sandwich Islands |

174. _Scythrops_ | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, and |

| | Australia |

| | |

CORACIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Coracias | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental and Ethiopian

175. Eurystomus | 4 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental and Ethiopian

| | Australia |

| | |

MEROPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

176. _Meropogon_ | 1 |Celebes |

177. Merops | 2 |Austro-Malaya and |Palc., Orien.,

| | Australia | Ethiopian

| | |

ALCEDINIDÆ. | | |

| | |

178. Alcedo | 4 |Celebes to New Ireland |Palc., Orien.,

| | | Ethiopian

179. _Alcyone_ | 6 |Batchian to Tasmania |Philippines

180. Pelargopsis | 2 |Celebes, Flores |Oriental

181. Ceyx | 7 |Celebes to New Guinea |Oriental

182. _Ceycopsis_ | 1 |Celebes |

183. _Syma_ | 2 |Papuan Islands and |

| | N. Australia |

184. Halcyon | 19 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental, Ethiopian

| | Sandwich Islands |

185. _Todirhamphus_ | 3 |Central Pacific and |

| | Sandwich Ids. |

186. _Dacelo_ | 6 |Papuan Islands and |

| | Australia |

187. _Monachalcyon_ | 1 |Celebes |

188. _Caridonax_ | 1 |Lombok and Flores |

189. _Tanysiptera_ | 14 |Batchian to N. Guinea |

| | and N. Australia |

190. _Cittura_ | 2 |Celebes and Sanguir |

| | Islands |

191. _Melidora_ | 1 |New Guinea |

| | |

BUCEROTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

192. Hydrocissa? | 1 |Celebes |Oriental

193. Calao | 1 |Moluccas to Solomon |Malayan

| | Islands |

194. Cranorrhinus? | 1 |Celebes |Malayan

| | |

PODARGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

195. _Podargus_ | 10 |Papuan Islands to |

| | Tasmania |

196. Batrachostomus | 2 |Moluccas |Oriental

197. _Ægotheles_ | 5 |Papuan Islands to |

| | Tasmania |

| | |

CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

198. Caprimulgus | 4 |Lombok to Australia, |Palc., Ethiopian,

| | N. Guinea to Pelew | Orien.

| | Islands |

199. _Eurostopodus_ | 2 |Aru Islands and |Oriental genus

| | Australia |

(Lyncornis | 1 |Celebes) |

| | |

CYPSELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

200. Dendrochelidon | 2 |Celebes to N. Guinea |Oriental

201. Collocalia | 4 |Celebes to Pacific |Oriental

| | Islands |

202. Cypselus | 1 |Australia |Palc., Orien.,

| | | Ethiopian

203. Chætura | 2 |Celebes, Australia |Ethio., Orien.,

| | | American

| | |

PSITTACI. | | |

CACATUIDÆ. | | |

| | |

204. _Cacatua_ | 17 |Celebes and Lombok, to |Philippines

| | Solomon Islands and |

| | Tasmania |

205. _Calopsitta_ | 1 |Australia |

206._Calyptorhynchus_ 8 |Australia and Tasmania |

207. _Microglossus_ | 2 |Papuan Islands and |

| | N. Austral. |

208. _Licmetis_ | 3 |Austr., Solmn. Ids., & |

| | N. Guin. ? |

209. _Nasiterna_ | 3 |Papuan and Solomon |

| | Islands |

| | |

PLATYCERCIDÆ. | | |

| | |

210. _Platycercus_ | 14 |Austral., Tasmania, |

| | Norfolk Id. |

211. _Psephotus_ | 6 |Australia |

212. _Polytelis_ | 3 |Australia |

213. _Nymphicus_ | 1 |Australia and |

| | N. Caledonia |

214. _Aprosmictus_ | 6 |Moluccas, Timor, Papuan|

| | Islands, Australia |

215. _Pyrrhulopsis_ | 3 |Tonga to Fiji Islands |

216. _Cyanoramphus_ | 14 |N. Zealand, Norfolk |

| | Island, N. Caledonia,|

| | Society Islands |

217. _Melopsittacus_| 1 |Australia |

218. _Euphema_ | 7 |Australia |

219. _Pezoporus_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania |

220. _Geopsittacus_ | 1 |W. Australia |

| | |

PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | |

| | |

221. _Prioniturus_ | 2 |Celebes |Philippines

222. _Geoffroyus_ | 5 |Borneo to Timor & |

| | Solomon Ids. |

223. _Tanygnathus_ | 4 |Celebes to New Guinea |Philippines

224. _Eclectus_ | 8 |Moluccas and Papuan |

| | Islands |

225. _Cyclopsitta_ | 7 |Papuan Ids. and N. E. |Philippines

| | Austral. |

226. Loriculus | 7 |Celebes to Mysol, |Oriental

| | Flores |

227. _Trichoglossus_| 29 |The whole region, excl.|

| | Sandwich Islands, and|

| | N. Zealand |

228. _Nanodes_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania |

229. _Charmosyna_ | 1 |New Guinea |

230. _Eos_ | 9 |Sanguir Ids. and |

| | Moluccas to |

| | Solomon Ids. |

231. _Lorius_ | 23 |Bouru and Gilolo to |

| | Solomon Ids. |

232. _Coriphilus_ | 4 |Samoan to Marquesas |

| | Islands |

| | |

NESTORIDÆ. | | |

| | |

233. _Nestor_ | 5 |New Zealand and |

| | Norfolk Ids. |

234. _Dasyptilus_ | 1 |New Guinea |

| | |

STRINGOPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

235. _Stringops_ | 1 |N. Zealand, Chatham |

| | Islands? |

| | |

COLUMBÆ. | | |

COLUMBIDÆ. | | |

| | |

236. Treron | 5 |Celebes, Bouru, and |Oriental, Ethiopian

| |Ceram, Flores and Timor|

237. Ptilopus | 50 |The whole region; excl.|Indo-Malaya

| | N. Zealand |

238. Carpophaga | 40 |The whole region |Oriental

239. Ianthænas | 6 |Gilolo, Timor, Papuan |Japan, Philippines,

| | Ids. to Samoan Islands| Andaman Islands

240. _Leucomeloena_ | 1 |Australia |

241. _Lopholæmus_ | 1 |Australia |

242. Geopelia | 5 |Lombok to Tasmania |Malaya, China

243. Macropygia | 6 |Austro-Malaya, |Indo-Malaya

| | Australia |

244. _Turacoena_ | 3 |Celebes, Timor, Solomon|

| | Ids. |

245._Reinwardtoenas_| 1 |Celebes to New Guinea |

246. Turtur | 2 |Austro-Malaya |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | | Ethiop.

247. _Ocyphaps_ | 1 |Australia |

248. _Petrophassa_ | 1 |N. W. Australia |

249. Chalcophaps | 4 |Austro-Malaya, |Oriental

| | Australia |

250. _Trugon_ | 1 |N. Guinea |

251. _Henicophaps_ | 1 |Papuan Islands |

252. _Phaps_ | 3 |Australia and Tasmania |

253. _Leucosarcia_ | 1 |Australia |

254. _Geophaps_ | 2 |Australia |

255. _Lophophaps_ | 3 |Australia |

256. _Caloenas_ | 1 |Austro-Malaya |Indo-Malaya

257. _Otidiphaps_ | 1 |N. Guinea |

258. Phlogoenas | 7 |Celebes, N. Guinea to |Philippine Islands

| | Madagascar |

259. _Goura_ | 3 |Papuan Islands |

| | |

DIDUNCULIDÆ. | | |

| | |

260. _Didunculus_ | 1 |Samoan Islands |

| | |

GALLINÆ. | | |

| | |

TETRAONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

261. _Coturnix_ | 9 |Celebes, Timor, |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | Australia, N. Zealand| Ethiop.

| | |

PHASIANIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Gallus | 2 |Celebes to Timor) |Oriental genus

| | |

TURNICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

262. Turnix | 9 |Celebes & Moluccas to |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | Tasmania | Ethiop.

| | |

MEGAPODIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

263. _Talegallus_ | 3 |Papuan Islands and |

| | Australia |

264. _Megacephalon_ | 1 |Celebes |

265. _Lipoa_ | 1 |S. Australia |

266. _Megapodius_ | 12 |Celebes to Austral. & |Philippines,

| | Samoan Ids. | Nicobar Ids.

| | |

ACCIPITRES. | | |

FALCONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

267. Circus | 2 |Celebes, S. and E. |Almost Cosmopolite

| | Austral |

265. Astur | 20 |The region, to Fiji |Almost Cosmopolite

| | Islands |

269. Accipiter | 6 |The whole region, to |Almost Cosmopolite

| | Fiji Islands |

270. _Urospiza_ | 1 |Australia |

271. _Uroaëtus_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania |

272. Nisaëtus | 1 |Australia |S. Palæarc.,

| | | Ethiopian, Oriental

273. Neopus | 1 |Celebes and Ternate |Oriental

274. Spizaëtus | 2 |Celebes and N. Guinea |Neotrop., Ethiop.,

| | | Orien.

275. Circaëtus | 1 |Timor and Flores |Palæarc., Ethiop.,

| | | Orien.

(Spilornis | 2 |Celebes and Sulla |Oriental genus

| | Islands) |

276. Butastur | 1 |Celebes to New Guinea |Oriental, N. E. Africa

277. Haliæetus | 1 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl.

| | | Neotrop. region

278. Haliastur | 2 |Australia and |Oriental

| | N. Caledonia |

279. Milvus | 1 |Celebes to Australia |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | | Ethiop.

280. _Lophoictinia_ | 1 |Australia |

281. _Gypoictinia_ | 1 |Australia |

282. Elanus | 3 |Celebes and Australia |Oriental, Ethiopian

283. _Henicopernis_ | 1 |Papuan Islands |

(Pernis | 1 |Celebes) |Palæarctic, Oriental,

| | | and Ethiopian

284. Baza | 4 |Moluccas and Australia |Oriental

285. _Harpa_ | 1 |N. Zealand and |

| | Auckland Ids. |

286. Falco | 6 |Austro-Malaya and |Almost Cosmopolite

| | Australia |

287. _Hieracidea_ | 2 |Australia and Tasmania |

288. Cerchneis | 2 |Austro-Malaya and |Almost Cosmopolite

| | Australia |

| | |

PANDIONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

289. Pandion | 1 |The whole region |Cosmopolite

290. Polioaëtus | 1 |Celebes and Sandwich |Oriental

| | Islands |

| | |

STRIGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

291. Athene | 21 |The whole reg., excl. |Palæarc., Orien.,

| | Pacific Ids. | Ethiop.

292. Scops | 6 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Almost Cosmopolite

| | N. Zealand |

(Asio | 1 |Sandwich Islands) |Almost Cosmopolite,

| | | excl. Australian

| | | region

293. Strix | 7 |The whole region |Cosmopolite

_Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._

GRALLÆ. | | |

RALLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Ocydromus_ | 5 |New Zealand |

_Cabalus_ | 1 |Chatham Islands |

_Notornis_ | 2 |New Zealand, Norfolk |

| |and Lord Howe's Islands|

_Tribonyx_ | 4 |Australia and |

| | N. Zealand |

_Habroptila_ | 1 |Moluccas |

Rallina | 6 |Austro-Malaya |Oriental

_Pareudiastes_ | 1 |Samoan Islands |

| | |

SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Cladorhynchus_ | 1 |Australia |

| | |

CHARADRIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Esacus | 1 |Austro-Malaya, |Oriental

| | Australia |

_Erythrogonys_ | 1 |Australia |

_Thinornis_ | 2 |New Zealand |

_Anarhynchus_ | 1 |New Zealand |

_Pedionomus_ | 1 |Australia |

| | |

RHINOCHETIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Rhinochetus_ | 1 |New Caledonia |

| | |

ANATIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Nesonetta_ | 1 |Auckland Islands |

_Malacorhynchus_| 1 |Australia |

_Hymenolæmus_ | 1 |New Zealand |

_Biziura_ | 1 |Australia |

_Anseranas_ | 1 |Australia |

_Cereopsis_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania |

| | |

PROCELLARIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Prion | 6 |New Zealand |Antarctic Seas

| | |

SPHENISCIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Eudyptes | 4 |Australia and |Antarctic shores

| | N. Zealand |

| | |

STRUTHIONES. | | |

CASUARIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

294. _Dromæus_ | 2 |Australia |

295. _Casuarius_ | 9 |Ceram to New Britain, |

| | N. Austrl. |

| | |

APTERYGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

296. _Apteryx_ | 4 |New Zealand |

| | |

DINORNITHIDÆ. | |(Extinct) |

| | |

297. _Dinornis_ | 5 |N. Zealand |

298. _Mionornis_ | 2 |N. Zealand |

| | |

PALAPTERYGIDÆ. | |(Extinct) |

| | |

299. _Palapteryx_ | 2 |N. Zealand |

300. _Euryapteryx_ | 2 |N. Zealand |

{489}INDEX TO VOL. I.

NOTE.--In this Index the names in Italics all refer to fossil genera or

families mentioned in Part II. The systematic names of genera and families

occurring in almost every page of Part III. are not given, as they would

unnecessarily swell the Index; but they can be readily referred to by the

Class or Order, or by the Geographical Division (Region or Sub-region)

under which they occur. They will, however, all be found in the General

Index, with a reference to the page (in Vol. II., Part IV.) where a

systematic account of their distribution is given.

Aardvark of East Africa, figure of, 261

_Accipitres_, European Eocene, 163

Accipitres, classification of, 97

range of Palæarctic genera of, 248

range of Ethiopian genera of, 312

range of Oriental genera of, 385

range of Australian genera of, 484

_Acerotherium_, European Miocene, 119

N. American Tertiary, 136

_Achænodon_, N. American Tertiary, 138

_Acotherium_, European Eocene, 126

_Adapis_, European Eocene, 125

_Ælurogale_, European Eocene, 125

_Æpyornis_, of Madagascar, 164

_Æshna_, from the Lias, 167

_Agnopterus_, European Eocene, 163

_Agriochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, 138

_Agrion_, from the Lias, 167

_Alcephalus_, Indian Miocene, 122

Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, 289

_Aletornis_, N. American Eocene, 163

Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, 111

Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, 61

objections to his system of circumpolar zones, 67

objections to his zoo-geographical nomenclature, 68

Altai mountains, fossils in caves, 111

_Amblyrhiza_, Pliocene of Antilles, 148

America, recent separation of North and South, 40

extinct mammalia of, 129

North, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 129

_Amomys_, N. American Tertiary, 134

_Amphechinus_, European Miocene, 117

Amphibia, means of dispersal of, 28

classification of, 100

peculiar to Palæarctic region, 186

of Central Europe, 196

of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205

of Siberian sub-region, 220

Amphibia, of the Manchurian sub-region, 226

table of Palæarctic families of, 237

of the Ethiopian region, 255

of West Africa, 264

South African, 268

of Madagascar, 280

table of Ethiopian families of, 298

of the Oriental region, 317

of the Indian sub-region, 326

of Ceylon, 327

of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331

of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340

table of Oriental families of, 369

of the Australian region, 397

resemblances of Australian and South-American, 400

of New Guinea, 416

of New Zealand, 457

_Amphibos_, Indian Miocene, 122

_Amphicyon_, European Miocene, 118

Indian Miocene, 121

N. American Tertiary, 134

_Amphimericidæ_, European Miocene, 119

_Amphimoschus_, European Miocene, 120

_Amphisorex_, European Miocene, 118

_Amphitragulus_, European Miocene, 120

_Anastoma_, European Tertiary, 169

_Anchilophus_, European Eocene, 125

_Anchippodus_, N. American Eocene, 139

_Anchippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135

_Anchitheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, 135

_Anchitherium_, European Miocene, 119

European Eocene, 125

N. American Tertiary, 135

Ancient fauna of New Zealand, 459

_Ancylotherium_, Miocene of Greece, 116

European Miocene, 121

Andaman Islands, zoology of, 333

probable past history of, 334

_Andreas_, European Miocene, 165

Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, 85

Animals, development of, affecting distribution, 7

dispersal and migration of, 10

rapid multiplication of, 10 {490}

_Anisacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 137

Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428

_Anoplotheriidæ_, European Miocene, 119

_Anoplotherium_, European Miocene, 119

European Eocene, 126

S. American Eocene, 148

Anseres, arrangement of, 98

peculiar Palæarctic genera, 250

peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 313

peculiar Australian genera of, 485

Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, 122

birthplace and migrations of, 155

Palæarctic, 182

_Antelotherium_, Indian Miocene, 122

_Anthracotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, 137

_Anthracotherium_, European Miocene, 110

_Antiacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 133

Antilles, Pliocene Mammalia of, 148

_Antilope_, Post-Pliocene, 112

in Brazilian caves, 144

Antiquity of the genera of insects, 166

of the genera of land and freshwater shells, 168

_Aphanapteryx_ of Mauritius, 164

_Aphelotherium_, European Eocene, 125

_Aquila_, European Miocene, 161

_Archæopteryx_, Bavarian Oolite, 163

Arctic zone not a separate region, 68

_Arctocyon_, European Eocene, 125

_Arctodus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

_Arctomys_, European Pliocene, 113

_Arctotherium_ in Brazilian caves, 144

S. American Pliocene, 146

Argus pheasant, figure of, 339

peculiarity, in display of plumage, and confirmation of Mr. Darwin's

views, 340

_Artiodactyla_, European Eocene, 126

N. American Tertiary, 137

S. American Pliocene, 146

_Arvicola_, European Pliocene, 113

in Brazilian caves, 145

S. American Pliocene, 147

S. American Eocene, 148

_Auchena_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130

Auckland Islands, birds of, 455

Australia, physical features of, 387

Australia and S. America, supposed land connection between, 398

Australian region, description of, 387

zoological characteristics of, 390

mammalia of, 390

birds of, 391

reptiles of, 396

amphibia of, 397

fresh-water fish of, 397

summary of vertebrata of, 397

supposed land-connection of with S. America, 398

insects of, 403

lepidoptera of, 404

coleoptera of, 405

land shells of, 407

sub-regions of, 408

early history of, 465

Australian sub-region, mammalia of, 438

illustration of mammalia of, 439

birds of, 440

illustration of fauna of, 441

Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features of, 388

zoology of, 409

Aye-aye, figure of, 278

Azores, visited by European birds, 17

birds of, 207

butterflies of, 207

beetles of, 207, 209

peculiarly modified birds of, 207

stragglers to, 208

how stocked with animal life, 208

Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428

Badger, figure of, 195

_Balæna_, European Pliocene, 112

_Balænodon_, European Pliocene, 112

Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, 230

Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a problem in distribution,

356

Barriers, as affecting distribution, 6

permanence of, as affecting distribution, 7

to the dispersal of birds, 17

Bates, Mr., on Carabidæ of Japan, 228

on Longicorns of Japan, 230

_Bathmodon_, N. American Tertiary, 136

_Bathrodon_, N. American Tertiary, 133

_Batrachia_, Tertiary, 165

Bats, powers of flight of, 15

classification of, 87

of New Zealand, 450

Bears, probable cause of absence of, from tropical Africa, 291

Beaver, N. American Tertiary, 140

Beetles, families selected for study, 103

from the Lias, 167

of Azores, 207

of Japan, 228

_Belemnoziphius_, European Pliocene, 112

Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake during the glacial epoch,

218

on change of climate caused by diminution of obliquity of ecliptic, 466

Birds, means of dispersal of, 15

dispersal of by winds, 16

American, found in Europe, 16

reaching the Azores, 17

barriers to dispersal of, 17

limited by forests, 17

classification of, 93

Miocene of Greece, 116

extinct, 160

fossil of Palæarctic region, 161

European of Miocene period, 161

Eocene of Europe, 162

relations of, 162

extinct of North America, 163

recently extinct in New Zealand, 164

Cretaceous of N. America, 164

remains of in Brazilian caves, 164

recently extinct in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, 164

cosmopolitan groups of, 176

numerous genera, Palæarctic, 183

of the European sub-region, 193

northern range of in Europe, 193

of the zone of pine forests, 194

of Iceland, 198

of the Mediterranean sub-region, 203

of Malta, 206 (_note_)

of Azores, 207

of the Cape Verd Islands, 215

of Siberian sub-region, 219

Oriental found in Siberia, 219

extreme northern Asiatic, 219

of northern Asiatic forests, 220

of the Manchurian sub-region, 223

Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 224

Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 224 {491}

characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, 226

table of Palæarctic families of, 235

of West Africa, 243

list of Palæarctic genera of, 243

of the Ethiopian region, 253

of the East African sub-region, 260

S. African, 267

genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, 275

common to Madagascar and Oriental or Ethiopian regions, 276

species common to Madagascar and Africa or Asia, 277

table of Ethiopian families of, 295

table of Ethiopian genera of, 306

of the Oriental region, 316

of the Indian sub-region, 323

Oriental genera of in Central India, 324

Palæarctic and Ethiopian genera in Central India, 325

of Ceylon, 327

of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 330

of Indo-Malayan sub-region, 337

illustration of peculiar Malayan, 339

of the Philippine Islands, 346

table of Oriental families of, 366

table of Oriental genera of, 375

of Australian region, 391

specially organized Australian families of, 392

of the Papuan Islands, 410

peculiarities of, 413

brilliant colours of, 413

remarkable forms of, 414

of the Moluccas, 418

peculiarities of, 421

of Timor group, 423

of Celebes, 428

of Australia, 440

of New Zealand, 451

peculiar to New Zealand, 452

of Norfolk Island, 453

of Lord Howe's Island, 453

of the Chatham Islands, 454

of the Auckland Islands, 455

table of families of Australian, 471

table of genera of Australian, 478

Black ape of Celebes, 427

Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the "Indian" region, 60

on relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, 321

_Blapsidium_, Oolitic insect, 167

Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, 60

on the relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, 321

Borneo, probable recent changes in, 357

_Bos_, Post-Pliocene, 112

Indian Miocene, 122

Bourbon, zoology of, 280

reptiles of, 281

_Bovidæ_, European Miocene, 120

_Brachymys_, European Miocene, 120

The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Volume 1 With a study of the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth's surface · 第 13 / 14 章

Birds seem to be very evenly distributed over all Australia; comparatively