CHAPTER XXIV.

_Weights, Measures and Coins._

The principal Weight in use among the Romans, was the pound, called _As_

or _Libra_, which was equal to 12 oz. avoirdupoise, or 16 oz. 18 pwts.

and 13-3/4 grains, troy weight. It was divided into twelve ounces, the

names of which were as follow: _Uncia_, 1 oz.--_Sextans_, 2

oz.--_Triens_, 3 oz.--_Quadrans_, 4 oz.--_Quincunx_, 5 oz.--_Semis_, 1/2

lb.--_Septunx_, 7 oz--_Bes_, 8 oz.--_Dodrans_, 9 oz.--_Dextans_, 10

oz.--_Deunx_, 11 oz.

The As and its divisions were applied to anything divided into twelve

parts, as well as to a pound weight. The twelth part of an acre was

called Uncia and half a foot, Semis, &c.

The Measures for Things Dry.--_Modius_, a peck--_Semimodius_, a

gallon--_Sextanus_, a pint--_Hemina_, one-half pint, and 3 smaller

measures, for which we have not equivalent names in English. One Modius

contained 2 _Semimodii_--each Semimodius contained 8 _Sextarii_--each

Sextarius, 2 _Heminae_--each Hemina, 4 _Acetabula_--each Acetabulum,

1-1/2 _Cyathi_--each Cyathus--4 _Ligulae_.

The Liquid Measures of Capacity were the _Culeus_, which was equal to

144-1/2 gallons--it contained 20 _Amphorae_ or _Quadrantales_--each

Amphora, 2 _Urnae_--each Urna, 4 _Congii_--each Congius, 6

_Sextarii_--and each Sextarius, 2 _Quartarii_ or naggins--each

Quartarius, 2 _Heminae_--each Hemina, 3 _Acetabula_ or glasses--each

Acetabulum, 1-1/2 _Cyathi_--and each Cyathus, 4 _Ligulae_.

The Measures of Length in use among the Romans were, _Millarium_ or

_Mille_, a mile--each mile contained 8 _Stadia_, or furlongs--each

Stadium, 125 _Passus_--each Pace, 5 feet.

The _Pes_, or foot, was variously divided. It contained 4 _Palmi_ or

handbreadths, each of which was therefore 3 inches long--and it

contained 16 _Digiti_, or finger breadths, each of which was therefore

three-quarters of an inch long--and it contained 12 _Unciae_, or inches:

any number of which was used to signify the same number of ounces.

_Cubitus_, a cubit, was 1-1/2 feet long--_Pollex_, a thumb's breadth, 1

inch--_Palmipes_, a foot and hand's breadth, i.e. 15 inches

long--_Pertica_, a perch, 10 feet long--the lesser _Actus_ was a space

of ground 120 feet long by four broad--the greater Actus was 120 feet

square--two square Actus made a _Jugerum_, or acre, which contained

therefore 28,000 square feet.

The first money in use among the Romans was nothing more than unsightly

lumps of brass, which were valued according to their weight. Servius

Tullius stamped these, and reduced them to a fixed standard. After his

reign, the Romans improved the old, and added some new coins. Those in

most frequent use, were the _As_, _Sestertius_, _Victoriatus_,

_Denarius_, _Aureus_.

The As was a brass coin, stamped on one side with the beak of a ship,

and on the other with the double head of Janus. It originally weighed

one pound; but was afterwards reduced to half an ounce, without

suffering, however, any diminution of value. It was worth one cent and

forty-three hundredths.

Sestertius was a silver coin, stamped on one side with Castor and

Pollux, and on the opposite with the city. This was so current a coin,

that the word _Nummus_, money, is often used absolutely to express it.

It was worth three cents and fifty-seven hundredths.

Denarius was a silver coin, valued at ten asses; that is, fourteen cents

and thirty-five hundredths of our money. It was stamped with the figure

of a carriage drawn by four beasts, and on the other side, with a head

covered with a helmet, to represent Rome.

Victoriatus was a silver coin, half the value of a Denarius. It was

stamped with the figure of Victory, from whence its name was derived.

Being worth five Asses, it was called _Quinarius_.

_Libella_, _Sembella_, _Teruncius_, were also silver coins, but of less

value than the above. Libella was of the same worth as the As--Sembella

was half a Libella, equal to seventy-one hundredths of a cent--and the

Teruncius was half of a Sembella.

Aureus Denarius was a gold coin, about the size of a silver Denarius,

and probably stamped in a similar manner. At first, forty Aurei were

made out of a pound of gold; but under the Emperors it was not so

intrinsically valuable, being mixed with alloy.

The value of the Aureus, which was also called _Solidus_, varied at

different times. According to Tacitus, it was valued and exchanged for

25 Denarii, which amounted to three dollars, fifty-eight cents and

seventy-five hundredths.

The abbreviations used by the Romans to express these various kinds of

money, were, for the As, L.--for the Sesterce, L. L. S. or H. S.--for

the Quinary, V. or {lambda}.--for the Denarius, X. or :!:

Sesterces were the kind of money in which the Romans usually made their

computations.--1,000 Sesterces made up a sum called _Sestertium_, the

value of which in our money, was thirty-five dollars and seventy cents.

The art of reckoning by Sesterces was regulated by these rules:

First--If a numeral adjective were joined to Sestertii, and agreed with

it in case, it signified just so many Sesterces; as _decem Sestertii_,

10 Sesterces--thirty-five cents and seven tenths.

Second--If a numeral adjective, of a different case, were joined to the

genitive plural of Sestertius, it signified so many thousand Sesterces;

as _decem Sestertium_, 10,000 Sesterces--$357.

Third--If a numeral adverb were placed by itself, or joined to

Sestertium, it signified so many hundred thousand Sesterces; as

_Decies_, or _decies Sestertium_, 1,000,000 _Sesterces_--$35,700.

Fourth--When the sums are expressed by letters, if the letters have a

line over them, they signify also so many hundred thousand Sesterces:

thus, H. S. {=[M.C.]}--denotes the sum of 1,100 times 100,000 Sesterces,

i.e. 110,000,000--nearly $4,000,000.

MYTHOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

Celestial Gods.

JUPITER, the supreme god of the Pagans, though set forth by historians

as the wisest of princes, is described by his worshippers as infamous

for his vices. There were many who assumed the name of Jupiter; the most

considerable, however, and to whom the actions of the others are

ascribed, was the Jupiter of Crete, son to Saturn and Rhea, who is

differently said to have had his origin in Crete, at Thebes in Boeotia,

and among the Messenians.

His first warlike exploit, and, indeed, the most memorable of his

actions, was his expedition against the Titans, to deliver his parents,

who had been imprisoned by these princes, because Saturn, instead of

observing an oath he had sworn, to destroy his male children, permitted

his son Jupiter, by a stratagem of Rhea, to be educated. Jupiter, for

this purpose, raised a gallant army of Cretans, and engaged the

Cecr{)o}pes as auxiliaries in this expedition; but these, after taking

his money, having refused their services, he changed into apes. The

valor of Jupiter so animated the Cretans, that by their aid he overcame

the Titans, released his parents, and, the better to secure the reign of

his father, made all the gods swear fealty to him upon an altar, which

has since gained a place among the stars.

This exploit of Jupiter, however, created jealousy in Saturn, who,

having learnt from an oracle, that he should be dethroned by one of his

sons, secretly meditated the destruction of Jupiter as the most

formidable of them. The design of Saturn being discovered by one of his

council, Jupiter became the aggressor, deposed his father, threw him

into Tartarus, ascended the throne, and was acknowledged as supreme by

the rest of the gods.

The reign of Jupiter being less favorable to his subjects than that of

Saturn, gave occasion to the name of the silver age, by which is meant

an age inferior in happiness to that which preceded, though superior to

those which followed.

The distinguishing character of his person is majesty, and every thing

about him carries dignity and authority with it; his look is meant to

strike sometimes with terror, and sometimes with gratitude, but always

with respect. The Capitoline Jupiter, or the Jupiter Optimus Maximus,

(him now spoken of,) was the great guardian of the Romans, and was

represented, in his chief temple, on the Capitoline hill, as sitting on

a curule chair, with the lightning in his right hand, and a sceptre in

his left.

The poets describe him as standing amidst his rapid horses, or his

horses that make the thunder; for as the ancients had a strange idea of

the brazen vault of heaven, they seem to have attributed the noise in a

thunder storm to the rattling of Jupiter's chariot and horses on that

great arch of brass all over their heads, as they supposed that he

himself flung the flames out of his hand, which dart at the same time

out of the clouds, beneath this arch.

APOLLO was son of Jupiter and Latona, and brother of Diana, and of all

the divinities in the pagan world, the chief cherisher and protecter of

the polite arts, and the most conspicuous character in heathen theology;

nor unjustly, from the glorious attributes ascribed to him, for he was

the god of light, medicine, eloquence, music, poetry and prophecy.

[Illustration:

THE GODS DESCENDING TO BATTLE

IN AID OF TROY, LATONA, PHOEBUS CAME,

MARS FIERY HELM'D, THE LAUGHTER LOVING DAME,

XANTHUS, WHOSE STREAMS IN GOLDEN CURRENTS FLOW,

AND THE CHASTE HUNTRESS OF THE SILVER BOW.

Pope's Homer's Iliad. B. 20. L. 51.

Pl. 3. ]

Amongst the most remarkable adventures of this god, was his quarrel with

Jupiter, on account of the death of his son AEsculapius, killed by that

deity on the complaint of Pluto, that he decreased the number of the

dead by his cures. Apollo, to revenge this injury, killed the Cyclops

who forged the thunder-bolts. For this he was banished heaven, and

endured great sufferings on earth, being forced to hire himself as a

shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly. During his pastoral servitude, he

is said to have invented the lyre to sooth his troubles. He was so

skilled in the bow, that his arrows were always fatal. Python and the

Cyclops experienced their force.

He became enamored of Daphne, daughter of the river Peneus of Thessaly.

The god pursued her, but she flying to preserve her chastity, was

changed into a laurel, whose leaves Apollo immediately consecrated to

bind his temples, and become the reward of poetry.

His temple at Delphi became so frequented, that it was called the oracle

of the earth; all nations and princes vieing in their munificence to it.

The Romans erected to him many temples.

The animals sacred to him were the wolf, from his acuteness of sight,

and because he spared his flocks when the god was a shepherd; the crow

and the raven, because these birds were supposed to have, by instinct,

the faculty of prediction; the swan, from its divining its own death;

the hawk, from its boldness in flight; and the cock, because he

announces the rising of the sun.

As to the signification of this fabulous divinity, all are agreed that,

by Apollo, the sun is understood in general, though several poetical

fictions have relation only to the sun, and not to Apollo. The great

attributes of this deity were divination, healing, music, and archery,

all which manifestly refer to the sun. Light dispelling darkness, is a

strong emblem of truth dissipating ignorance;--the warmth of the sun

conduces greatly to health; and there can be no juster symbol of the

planetary harmony, than Apollo's lyre, the seven strings of which are

said to represent the seven planets. As his darts are reported to have

destroyed the monster Python, so his rays dry up the noxious moisture

which is pernicious to vegetation and fertility.

Apollo was very differently represented in different countries and

times, according to the character he assumed. In general he is described

as a beardless youth, with long flowing hair floating as it were in the

wind, comely and graceful, crowned with laurel, his garments and sandals

shining with gold. In one hand he holds a bow and arrows, in the other a

lyre; sometimes a shield and the graces. At other times he is invested

in a long robe, and carries a lyre and a cup of nectar, the symbol of

his divinity.

He has a threefold authority: in heaven, he is the Sun; and by the lyre

intimates, that he is the source of harmony: upon earth he is called

_Liber Pater_, and carries a shield to show he is the protector of

mankind, and their preserver in health and safety. In the infernal

regions he is styled _Apollo_, and his arrows show his authority;

whosoever is stricken with them being immediately sent thither. As the

Sun, Apollo was represented in a chariot, drawn by the four horses,

_Eoeus_, _AEthon_, _Phlegon_, and _Pyroeeis_.

Considered in his poetical character, he is called indifferently either

_Vates_ or _Lyristes_; music and poetry, in the earliest ages of the

world, having made but one and the same profession.

MERCURY was the offspring of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Atlas.

Cyllene, in Arcadia, is said to have been the scene of his birth and

education, and a magnificent temple was erected to him there.

That adroitness which formed the most distinguishing trait in his

character, began very early to render him conspicuous. Born in the

morning, he fabricated a lyre, and played on it by noon; and, before

night, filched from Apollo his cattle. The god of light demanded instant

restitution, and was lavish of menaces, the better to insure it. But his

threats were of no avail, for it was soon found that the same thief had

disarmed him of his quiver and bow. Being taken up into his arms by

Vulcan, he robbed him of his tools, and whilst Venus caressed him for

his superiority to Cupid in wrestling, he slipped off her cestus

unperceived. From Jupiter he purloined his sceptre, and would have made

as free with his thunder-bolt, had it not proved too hot for his

fingers.

From being usually employed on Jupiter's errands, he was styled the

messenger of the gods. The Greeks and Romans considered him as presiding

over roads and cross-ways, in which they often erected busts of him. He

was esteemed the god of orators and eloquence, the author of letters and

oratory. The _caduceus_, or rod, which he constantly carried, was

supposed to be possessed of an inherent charm that could subdue the

power of enmity: an effect which he discovered by throwing it to

separate two serpents found by him fighting on Mount Cytheron: each

quitted his adversary, and twined himself on the rod, which Mercury,

from that time, bore as the symbol of concord. His musical skill was

great, for to him is ascribed the discovery of the three tones, treble,

bass, and tenor.

It was part of his function to attend on the dying, detach their souls

from their bodies, and conduct them to the infernal regions. In

conjunction with Hercules, he patronized wrestling and the gymnastic

exercises; to show that address upon these occasions should always be

united with force. The invention of the art of thieving was attributed

to him, and the ancients used to paint him on their doors, that he, as

god of thieves, might prevent the intrusion of others. For this reason

he was much adored by shepherds, who imagined he could either preserve

their own flocks from thieves, or else help to compensate their losses,

by dexterously stealing from their neighbors.

At Rome on the fifteenth of May, the month so named from his mother, a

festival was celebrated to his honor, by merchants, traders, &c. in

which they sacrificed a sow, sprinkled themselves, and the goods they

intended for sale, with water from his fountain, and prayed that he

would both blot out all the frauds and perjuries they had already

committed, and enable them to impose again on their buyers.

Mercury is usually described as a beardless young man, of a fair

complexion, with yellow hair, quick eyes, and a cheerful countenance,

having wings annexed to his hat and sandals, which were distinguished by

the names of _pet{)a}sus_ and _talaria_: the _caduceus_, in his hand, is

winged likewise, and bound round with two serpents: his face is

sometimes exhibited half black, on account of his intercourse with the

infernal deities: he has often a purse in his hand, and a goat or cock,

or both, by his side.

The epithets applied to Mercury by the ancients were {Enagonios}, the

presider over combats; {Strophaios}, the guardian of doors; {Empolaios},

the merchant; {Eriounios}, beneficial to mortals; {Dolios}, subtle;

{Hegemonios}, guide, or conductor.

As to his origin, it must be looked for amongst the Phoenicians. The bag

of money which he held signified the gain of merchandise; the wings

annexed to his head and his feet were emblematic of their extensive

commerce and navigation; the caduceus, with which he was said to conduct

the spirit of the deceased to Hades, pointing out the immortality of the

soul, a state of rewards and punishments after death, and a

resuscitation of the body: it is described as producing three leaves

together, whence it was called by Homer, the _golden three-leaved wand_.

BACCHUS was the son of Jupiter, by Sem{)e}le, daughter of Cadmus, king

of Thebes, in which city he is said to have been born. He was the god of

good-cheer, wine, and hilarity; and of him, as such, the poets have not

been sparing in their praises: on all occasions of mirth and jollity,

they constantly invoked his presence, and as constantly thanked him for

the blessings he bestowed. To him they ascribed the forgetfulness of

cares, and the delights of social converse.

He is described as a youth of a plump figure, and naked, with a ruddy

face, and an effeminate air; he is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, and

bears in his hand a thyrsus, or javelin with an iron head, encircled

with ivy and vine leaves: his chariot is sometimes drawn by lions, at

others by tigers, leopards, or panthers; and surrounded by a band of

Satyrs, Bacchae, and Nymphs, in frantic postures; whilst old Sil{=}enus,

his preceptor, follows on an ass, which crouches with the weight of his

burden.

The women who accompained him as his priestesses, were called

Maen{)a}des, from their madness; Thy{)a}des, from their impetuosity;

Bacchae, from their intemperate depravity; and Mimall{=o}nes, or

Mimallon{)i}des, from their mimicking their leaders.

The victims agreeable to him were the goat and the swine; because these

animals are destructive to the vine. Among the Egyptians they sacrificed

a swine to him before their doors; and the dragon, and the pye on

account of its chattering: the trees and plants used in his garlands

were the fir, the oak, ivy, the fig, and vine; as also the daffodil, or

narcissus. Bacchus had many temples erected to him by the Greeks and the

Romans.

Whoever attentively reads Horace's inimitable ode to this god, will see

that Bacchus meant no more than the improvement of the world by tillage,

and the culture of the vine.

[Illustration:

JUNO & MINERVA GOING TO ASSIST THE GREEKS.

SATURNIA LENDS THE LASH, THE COURSERS FLY.

Pope's Homer's Illiad, B. 8. L. 47.

Pl. 4.]

MARS was the son of Jupiter and Juno, or of Jupiter and Erys. He was

held in high veneration among the Romans, both on account of his being

the father of Romulus, their founder, and because of their own genius,

which always inclined them to war. Numa, though otherwise a pacific

prince, having, during a great pestilence, implored the favor of the

gods, received a small brass buckler, called _anc{=i}le_ from heaven,

which the nymph Egeria advised him to keep with the utmost care, as the

fate of the people and empire depended upon it. To secure so valuable a

pledge, Numa caused eleven others of the same form to be made, and

intrusted the preservation of these to an order of priests, which he

constituted for the purpose, called _Salii_, or priests of Mars, in

whose temple the twelve ancilia were deposited.

The fiercest and most ravenous creatures were consecrated to Mars: the

horse, for his vigor; the wolf, for his rapacity and quickness of sight;

the dog, for his vigilance; and he delighted in the pye, the cock, and

the vulture. He was the reputed enemy of Minerva, the goddess of wisdom

and arts, because in time of war they are trampled on, without respect,

as well as learning and justice.

Ancient monuments represent this deity as of unusual stature, armed with

a helmet, shield, and spear, sometimes naked, sometimes in a military

habit; sometimes with a beard, and sometimes without. He is often

described riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, completely

armed, and extending his spear with one hand, while, with the other, he

grasps a sword imbued with blood. Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war,

(whether she be his sister, wife or daughter, is uncertain,) is

represented as driving his chariot, and inciting the horses with a

bloody whip. Sometimes Discord is exhibited as preceding his chariot,

while Clamor, Fear, Terror, with Fame, full of eyes, ears, and tongues,

appear in his train.

CHAPTER II.

_Celestial Goddesses._

JUNO, daughter of Saturn and Rhea, was sister and wife of Jupiter.

Though the poets agree that she came into the world at the same birth

with her husband, yet they differ as to the place. Some fix her nativity

at Argos, others at Samos, near the river Imbrasus. The latter opinion

is, however, the more generally received. Samos, was highly honored, and

received the name of Parthenia, from the consideration that so eminent a

_virgin_ as Juno was educated and dwelt there till her marriage.

As queen of heaven, Juno was conspicuous for her state. Her usual

attendants were Terror, Boldness--Castor and Pollux, accompanied by

fourteen nymphs; but her most inseparable adherent was Iris, who was

always ready to be employed in her most important affairs: she acted as

messenger to Juno, like Mercury to Jupiter. When Juno appeared as the

majesty of heaven, with her sceptre and diadem beset with lilies and

roses, her chariot was drawn by peacocks, birds sacred to her; for which

reason, in her temple at Euboea, the emperor Adrian made her a most

magnificent offering of a golden crown, a purple mantle, with an

embroidery of silver, describing the marriage of Hercules and Hebe, and

a large peacock, whose body was of gold, and his train of most valuable

jewels. There never was a wife more jealous than Juno; and few who have

had so much reason: on which account we find from Homer that the most

absolute exertions of Jupiter were barely sufficient to preserve his

authority.

There was none except Apollo whose worship was more solemn or extensive.

The history of the prodigies she had wrought, and of the vengeance she

had taken upon persons who had vied with, or slighted her, had so

inspired the people with awe, that, when supposed to be angry, no means

were omitted to mitigate her anger; and had Paris adjudged to her the

prize of Beauty, the fate of Troy might have been suspended. In

resentment of this judgment, and to wreak her vengeance on Paris, the

house of Priam, and the Trojan race, she appears in the Iliad to be

fully employed. Minerva is commissioned by her to hinder the Greeks from

retreating; she quarrels with Jupiter; she goes to battle; cajoles

Jupiter with the cestus of Venus; carries the orders of Jupiter to

Apollo and Iris; consults the gods on the conflict between AEneas and

Achilles; sends Vulcan to oppose Xanthus; overcomes Diana, &c.

She is generally pictured like a matron, with a grave and majestic air,

sometimes with a sceptre in her hand, and a veil on her head: she is

represented also with a spear in her hand, and sometimes with a

_pat{)e}ra_, as if she were about to sacrifice: on some medals she has a

peacock at her feet, and sometimes holds the Palladium. Homer represents

her in a chariot adorned with gems, having wheels of ebony, nails of

silver, and horses with reins of gold, though more commonly her chariot

is drawn by peacocks, her favourite birds. The most obvious and striking

character of Juno, and that which we are apt to imbibe the most early of

any, from the writings of Homer and Virgil, is that of an imperious and

haughty wife. In both of these poets we find her much oftener scolding

at Jupiter than caressing him, and in the tenth AEneid in particular,

even in the council of the gods, we have a remarkable instance of this.

If, in searching out the meaning of this fable, we regard the account of

Varro, we shall find, that by Juno was signified the earth; by Jupiter,

the heavens; but if we believe the Stoics, by Juno is meant the air and

its properties, and by Jupiter the ether: hence Homer supposes she was

nourished by Oce{)a}nus and Tethys: that is, by the sea; and agreeable

to this mythology, the poet makes her shout aloud in the army of the

Greeks, the air being the cause of the sound.

MINERVA, or Pallas, was one of the most distinguished of the heathen

deities, as being the goddess of wisdom and science. She is supposed to

have sprung, fully grown and completely armed, from the head of Jupiter.

One of the most remarkable of her adventures, was her contest with

Neptune. When Cecrops founded Athens, it was agreed that whoever of

these two deities could produce the most beneficial gift to mankind,

should have the honor of giving their name to the city. Neptune, with a

stroke of his trident, formed a horse, but Minerva causing an olive-tree

to spring from the ground, obtained from the god the prize. She was the

goddess of war, wisdom, and arts, such as spinning, weaving, music, and

especially of the pipe. In a word, she was patroness of all those

sciences which render men useful to society and themselves, and entitle

them to the esteem of posterity.

She is described by the poets, and represented by the sculptors and

painters in a standing attitude, completely armed, with a composed but

smiling countenance, bearing a golden breast-plate, a spear in her right

hand, and the aegis in her left, having on it the head of Medusa,

entwined with snakes. Her helmet was usually encompassed with olives, to

denote that peace is the end of war, or rather because that tree was

sacred to her: at her feet is generally placed the owl or the cock, the

former being the emblem of wisdom, and the latter of war.

Minerva represents wisdom, that is, skilful knowledge joined with

discreet practice, and comprehends the understanding of the noblest

arts, the best accomplishments of the mind, together with all the

virtues, but more especially that of chastity. She is said to be born of

Jupiter's brain, because the ingenuity of man did not invent the useful

arts and sciences, which, on the contrary, were derived from the

fountain of all wisdom. She was born armed, because the human soul,

fortified with wisdom and virtue, is invincible; in danger, intrepid;

under crosses, unbroken; in calamities, impregnable.

The owl, a bird seeing in the dark, was sacred to Minerva; this is

symbolical of a wise man, who, scattering and dispelling the clouds of

error, is clear-sighted where others are blind.

VENUS was one of the most celebrated deities of the ancients. She was

the goddess of beauty, the mother of love, and the queen of laughter.

She is said to have sprung from the froth of the sea, near the island

Cyprus, after the mutilated part of the body of Ur{)a}nus had been

thrown there by Saturn. Hence she obtained the name of Aphrodite, from

{Aphros}, _froth_. As soon as Venus was born, she is said to have been

laid in a beautiful couch or shell, embellished with pearls, and by the

assistance of Zephyrus wafted first to Cyth{=e}rae, an island in the

AEgaean, and thence to Cyprus; where she arrived in the month of April.

Here, immediately on her landing, flowers sprung beneath her feet, the

Horae or Seasons awaited her arrival, and having braided her hair with

fillets of gold, she was thence wafted to heaven. As she was born

laughing, an emanation of pleasure beamed from her countenance, and her

charms were so attractive, in the assembly of the gods, that most of

them desired to obtain her in marriage. Vulcan, however, the most

deformed of the celestials, became the successful competitor.

One of the most remarkable adventures of this goddess was her contest

with Juno and Minerva for the superiority of beauty. At the marriage of

Peleus and Thetis, the goddess Discordia, resenting her not being

invited, threw a golden apple among the company, with this inscription,

_Let the fairest take it_. The competitors for this prize were Juno,

Venus, and Minerva. Jupiter referred them to Paris, who then led a

shepherd's life on Mount Ida. Before him the goddesses appeared. Juno

offered him empire or power, Minerva wisdom, and Venus promised him the

possession of the most beautiful woman in the world. Fatally for himself

and family, the shepherd, more susceptible of love than of ambition or

virtue, decided the contest in favor of Venus.

The sacrifices usually offered to Venus, were white goats and swine,

with libations of wine, milk and honey. The victims were crowned with

flowers, or wreaths of myrtle, the rose and myrtle being sacred to

Venus. The birds sacred to her were the swan, the dove, and the sparrow.

It were endless to enumerate the variety of attitudes in which Venus is

represented on antique gems and medals; sometimes she is clothed in

purple, glittering with diamonds, her head crowned with myrtle

intermixed with roses, and drawn in her car of ivory by swans, doves, or

sparrows: at other times she is represented standing with the Graces

attending her, and in all positions Cupid is her companion. In general

she has one of the prettiest, as Minerva has sometimes one of the

handsomest faces that can be conceived. Her look, as she is represented

by the ancient artists and poets, has all the enchanting airs and graces

that they could give it.

LATONA. This goddess was daughter of Caeus the Titan and Phoebe, or,

according to Homer, of Saturn. As she grew up extremely beautiful,

Jupiter fell in love with her; but Juno, discovering their intercourse,

not only expelled her from heaven, but commanded the serpent Python to

follow and destroy both her and her children. The earth also was caused

by the jealous goddess to swear that she would afford her no place in

which to bring forth. It happened, however, at this period, that the

island Delos, which had been broken from Sicily, lay under water, and

not having taken the oath, was commanded by Neptune to rise in the AEgean

sea, and afford her an asylum. Latona, being changed by Jupiter into a

quail, fled thither, and from this circumstance occasioned it to be

called Ortygia, from the name in Greek of that bird. She here gave birth

to Apollo and Diana. Ni{)o}be, daughter of Tant{)a}lus, and wife of

Amph{=i}on, king of Thebes, experienced the resentment of Latona, whose

children Apollo and Diana, at her instigation, destroyed. Her beauty

became fatal to Tityus, the giant, who was put to death also by the same

divinities. After having been long persecuted by Juno, she became a

powerful deity, beheld her children exalted to divine honors, and

received adoration where they were adored.

In explanation of the fable, it may be observed, that as Jupiter is

taken for the maker of all things, so Latona is physically understood to

be the _matter_ out of which all things were made, which, according to

Plato, is called {Leto} or Latona, from {lethein} to lie _hid_ or

_concealed_, because all things originally lay hid in darkness till the

production of _light_, or birth of Apollo.

AURORA, goddess of the morning, was the youngest daughter of Hyperion

and Theia, or, according to some, of Titan and Terra. Orpheus calls her

the harbinger of Titan, for she is the personification of that light

which precedes the appearance of the sun. The poets describe this

goddess as rising out of the ocean in a saffron robe, seated in a

flame-colored car, drawn by two or four horses, expanding with her rosy

fingers the gates of light, and scattering the pearly dew. Virgil

represents her horses as of flame color, and varies their number from

two to four, according as she rises slower or faster.

She is said to have been daughter of Titan and the earth, because the

light of the morning seems to rise out of the earth, and to proceed from

the sun, which immediately follows it. She is styled mother of the four

winds, because, after a calm in the night, the winds rise in the

morning, as attendant upon the sun, by whose heat and light they are

begotten. There is no other goddess of whom we have so many beautiful

descriptions in the poets.

CHAPTER III.

_Terrestrial Gods._

SATURN was the son of Coelus and Titaea or Terra, and married his sister

Vesta. She, with her other sisters, persuaded their mother to join them

in a plot, to exclude Titan, their elder brother, from his birthright,

and raise Saturn to his father's throne. Their design so far succeeded,

that Titan was obliged to resign his claim, though on condition, that

Saturn brought up no male children, and thus the succession might revert

to the Titans again. Saturn, it is said, observed this covenant so

faithfully, that he devoured, as soon as they were born, his legitimate

sons. His punctuality, however, in this respect, was at last frustrated

by the artifice of Vesta, who, being delivered of twins, Jupiter and

Juno, presented the latter to her husband, and concealing the former,

sent him to be nursed on Mount Ida in Crete, committing the care of him

to the Cur{=e}tes and Corybantes.

The reign of Saturn was so mild and happy, that the poets have given it

the name of the golden age. The people, who before wandered about like

beasts, were then reduced to civil society; laws were enacted, and the

art of tilling and sowing the ground introduced; whence Varro tells us,

that Saturn had his name _a satu_, from _sowing_.

He was usually represented as an old man, bare-headed and bald, with all

the marks of infirmity in his eyes, countenance, and figure. In his

right hand they sometimes placed a sickle or scythe; at others, a key,

and a circumflexed serpent biting its tail, in his left. He sometimes

was pictured with six wings, and feet of wool, to show how insensibly

and swiftly time passes. The scythe denoted his cutting down and

subverting all things, and the serpent the revolution of the year, _quod

in sese volvitur annus_.

JANUS was a pagan deity, particularly of the ancient Romans. He was

esteemed the wisest sovereign of his time, and because he was supposed

to know what was past, and what was to come, they feigned that he had

two faces, whence the Latins gave him the epithets of Biceps, Bifrons,

and Biformis.

He is introduced by Ovid as describing his origin, office and form: he

was the ancient Chaos, or confused mass of matter before the formation

of the world, the reduction of which into order and regularity, gave him

his divinity. Thus deified, he had the power of _opening_ and _shutting_

every thing in the universe: he was arbiter of peace and war, and keeper

of the door of heaven. He was the god who presided over the beginning of

all undertakings; the first libations of wine and wheat were offered to

him, and the preface of all prayers directed to him. The first month of

the year took its denomination from Janus.

It is certain that Janus early obtained divine honors among the Romans.

Numa ordained that his temple should be shut in time of peace, and

opened in time of war, from which ceremony Janus was called Clusius and

Patulcius.

The peculiar offerings to Janus were cakes of new meal and salt, with

new wine and frankincense. In the feasts instituted by Numa, the

sacrifice was a ram, and the solemnities were performed by men, in the

manner of exercises and combats. Then all artificers and tradesmen began

their works, and the Roman consuls for the new year solemnly entered on

their office: all quarrels were laid aside, mutual presents were made,

and the day concluded with joy and festivity. Janus was seated in the

centre of twelve altars, in allusion to the twelve months of the year,

and had on his hands fingers to the amount of the days in the year.

Sometimes his image had four faces, either in regard to the four seasons

of the year, or to the four quarters of the world: he held in one hand a

key, and in the other a sceptre; the former may denote his opening, as

it were, and shutting the world, by the admission and exclusion of

light; and the latter his dominion over it.

VULCAN was the offspring of Jupiter and Juno. He was so remarkably

deformed that Jupiter threw him down from heaven to the isle of Lemnos.

In this fall he broke his leg, as he also would have broken his neck,

had he not been caught by the Lemnians. It is added that he was a day in

falling from heaven to earth. Some report that Juno herself, disgusted

at his deformity, hurled down Vulcan into the sea, where he was nursed

by Thetis and her nymphs, whilst others contend that he fell upon land,

and was brought up by apes. It is probable that Juno had some hand in

his disgrace, since Vulcan, afterwards, in resentment of the injury,

presented his mother with a golden chair, which was so contrived by

springs unseen, that being seated in it she was unable to rise, till the

inventor was prevailed upon to grant her deliverance.

The first abode of Vulcan on earth was in the isle of Lemnos. There he

set up his forges, and taught men the malleability and polishing of

metals. Thence he removed to the Liparean islands, near Sicily, where,

with the assistance of the Cyclops, he made Jupiter fresh thunder-bolts

as the old ones decayed. He also wrought an helmet for Pluto, which

rendered him invisible; a trident for Neptune, which shook both land and

sea; and a dog of brass for Jupiter, which he animated so as to perform

the functions of nature. At the request of Thetis he fabricated the

divine armor of Achilles, whose shield is so beautifully described by

Homer; as also the invincible armor of AEneas, at the entreaty of Venus.

However disagreeable the person of Vulcan might be, he was susceptible

notwithstanding of love. His first passion was for Minerva, having

Jupiter's consent to address her; but his courtship, in this instance,

failed of success, not only on account of his person, but also because

the goddess had vowed perpetual virginity. He afterwards became the

husband of Venus.

[Illustration:

AURORA.

HERE THE GAY MORN RESIDES IN RADIANT BOWERS,

HERE KEEPS HER REVELS WITH THE DANCING HOURS.

Pope's Homer's Odyssey. B. 12. L. 2.

Pl. 5.]

He was reckoned among the gods presiding over marriage, from the torches

lighted by him to grace that solemnity. It was the custom in several

nations, after gaining a victory, to pile the arms of the enemy in a

heap on the field of battle, and make a sacrifice of them to Vulcan. As

to his worship, Vulcan had an altar in common with Prometheus, who first

invented fire, as did Vulcan the use of it, in making arms and utensils.

His principal temple was in a consecrated grove at the foot of mount

AEtna, in which was a fire continually burning. This temple was guarded

by dogs, which had the discernment to distinguish his votaries by

tearing the vicious, and fawning upon the virtuous.

He was highly honored at Rome. Romulus built him a temple without the

walls of the city, the augurs being of opinion that the god of fire

ought not to be admitted within. But the highest mark of respect paid

him by the Romans was, that those assemblies were kept in his temple

where the most important concerns of the republic were debated, the

Romans thinking they could invoke nothing more sacred to confirm their

treaties and decisions, than the avenging fire of which that god was the

symbol.

This deity, as the god of fire, was represented differently in different

nations: the Egyptians depicted him proceeding from an egg, placed in

the mouth of Jupiter, to denote the radical or natural heat diffused

through all created beings. In ancient gems and medals he is figured as

a lame, deformed and squalid man, with a beard, and hair neglected; half

naked; his habit reaching down to his knee only, and having a round

peaked cap on his head, a hammer in his right hand, and a smith's tongs

in his left, working at the anvil, and usually attended by the Cyclops,

or by some of the gods or goddesses for whom he is employed.

The poets described him as blackened and hardened from the forge, with a

face red and fiery whilst at his work, and tired and heated after it. He

is almost always the subject either of pity or ridicule. In short, the

great celestial deities seem to have admitted Vulcan among them as great

men used to keep buffoons at their tables, to make them laugh, and to be

the butt of the whole company.

If we wish to come at the probable meaning of this fable, we must have

recourse to Egyptian antiquities. The Horus of the Egyptians was the

most mutable figure on earth, for he assumed shapes suitable to all

seasons, and to all ranks. To direct the husbandman he wore a rural

dress; by a change of attributes he became the instructer of smiths and

other artificers, whose instruments he appeared adorned with. This Horus

of the smiths had a short or lame leg, to signify that agriculture or

husbandry will halt without the assistance of the handicraft or mechanic

arts. In this apparatus he was called _Mulciber_, (from _Mulci_, to

direct and manage, and _ber_ or _beer_, a cave or mine, comes Mulciber,

the king of the mines or forges;) he was called also Hephaistos, (from

_Aph_, _father_, and _Esto_, _fire_, comes Ephaisto, or Hephaiston, the

father of fire; and from _Wall_, to work, and Canan, to _hasten_, comes

_Wolcon_, Vulcan, or _work furnished_;) all which names the Greeks and

Romans adopted with the figure, and, as usual, converted from a _symbol_

to a _god_.

AEOLUS, god of the winds, is said to have been the son of Jupiter by

Acasta or Sigesia, daughter of Hippotas. His residence was, according to

most authors, at Rhegium in Italy; but wherever it was, he is

represented as holding the winds, enchained in a vast cave, to prevent

their committing any more such devastations as they had before

occasioned; for, to their violence was imputed not only the disjunction

of Sicily from Italy, but also the separation of Europe from Africa, by

which a passage was opened for the ocean to form the Mediterranean sea.

According to some, the AEolian, or Lip{)a}ri islands were uninhabited

till Lip{)a}rus, son of Auson, settled a colony there, and gave one of

them his name. AE{)o}lus married his daughter Cy{)a}ne, peopled the rest

and succeeded him on the throne. He was a generous and good prince, who

hospitably entertained Ulysses, and as a proof of his kindness, bestowed

on him several skins, in which he had enclosed the winds. The companions

of Ulysses, unable to restrain their curiosity, having opened the skins,

the winds in consequence were set free, and occasioned the wildest

uproar; insomuch that Ulysses lost all his vessels, and was himself

alone saved by a plank. It may not be improper to remark, that over the

rougher winds the poets have placed AE{)o}lus; over the milder, Juno; and

the rain, thunder and lightning they have committed to Jupiter himself.

MOMUS, son of Somnus and Nox, was the god of pleasantry and wit, or

rather the jester of the celestial assembly; for, like other monarchs,

it was but reasonable that Jupiter too should have his fool. We have an

instance of Momus's fantastic humor in the contest between Neptune,

Minerva, and Vulcan, for skill. The first had made a bull, the second a

house, and the third a man. Momus found fault with them all. He disliked

the bull because his horns were not placed before his eyes, that he

might give a surer blow: he condemned Minerva's house because it was

immovable, and could not therefore be taken away if placed in a bad

neighborhood; and in regard to Vulcan's man, he said he ought to have

made a window in his breast, by which his heart might be seen, and his

secrets discovered.

CHAPTER IV.

_Terrestrial Goddesses._

CYBELE, _or_ VESTA _the elder_. It is highly necessary, in tracing the

genealogy of the heathen deities, to distinguish between this goddess

and Vesta the _younger_, her daughter, because the poets have been

faulty in confounding them, and ascribing the attributes and actions of

the one to the other. The elder Vesta, or Cyb{)e}le, was daughter of

Coelus and Terra, and wife of her brother Saturn, to whom she bore a

numerous offspring. She had a variety of names besides that of

Cyb{)e}le, under which she is most generally known, and which she

obtained from Mount Cyb{)e}lus, in Phrygia, where sacrifices to her were

first instituted. Her sacrifices and festivals, like those of Bacchus,

were celebrated with a confused noise of timbrels, pipes, and cymbals;

the sacrificants howling as if mad, and profaning both the temple of the

goddess, and the ears of their hearers with the most obscene language

and abominable gestures.

Under the character of Vesta, she is generally represented upon ancient

coins in a sitting posture, with a lighted torch in one hand, and a

sphere or drum in the other. As Cyb{)e}le, she makes a more magnificent

appearance, being seated in a lofty chariot drawn by lions, crowned with

towers, and bearing in her hand a key. Being goddess, not of cities

only, but of all things which the earth sustains, she was crowned with

turrets, whilst the key implies not only her custody of cities, but also

that in winter the earth locks those treasures up, which she brings

forth and dispenses in summer: she rides in a chariot, because

(fancifully) the earth hangs suspended in the air, balanced and poised

by its own weight; and that the chariot is supported by wheels, because

the earth is a voluble body and turns round. Her being drawn by lions,

may imply that nothing is too fierce and intractable for a motherly

piety and tenderness to tame and subdue. Her garments are painted with

divers colors, but chiefly green, and figured with the images of several

creatures, because such a dress is suitable to the variegated and more

prevalent appearance of the earth.

VESTA was the daughter of Vesta the elder, by Saturn, and sister of

Ceres, Juno, Pluto, Neptune and Jupiter. She was so fond of a single

life, that when her brother Jupiter ascended the throne, and offered to

grant whatever she asked, her only desires were the preservation of her

virginity, and the first oblation in all sacrifices. Numa Pompilius, the

great founder of religion among the Romans, is said first to have

restored the ancient rites and worship of this goddess, to whom he

erected a circular temple, which in succeeding ages was not only much

embellished, but also, as the earth was supposed to retain a constant

fire within, a perpetual fire was kept up in the temple of Vesta, the

care of which was intrusted to a select number of young females

appointed from the first families in Rome, and called _Vestal virgins_.

[Illustration:

APOLLO AND THE MUSES.

Pl. 6.]

As this Vesta was the goddess of fire, the Romans had no images of her

in her temple; the reason for which, assigned by Ovid, is that fire has

no representative, as no bodies are produced from it: yet as Vesta was

the guardian of houses or hearths, her image was usually placed in the

porch or entry, and daily sacrifices were offered up to her. It is

certain nothing could be a stronger or more lively symbol of the supreme

being than fire; accordingly we find this emblem in early use throughout

the east. The Romans looked upon Vesta as one of the tutelar deities of

their empire; and they so far made the safety and fate of Rome depend on

the preservation of the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta, that they

thought the extinction of it foreboded the most terrible misfortune.

CERES was daughter of Saturn and Ops, or Vesta. Sicily, Attica, Crete,

and Egypt, claim the honor of her birth, each country producing the

ground of its claims, though general suffrage favors the first. In her

youth, being extremely beautiful, Jupiter fell in love with her, and by

him she had Pereph{)a}ta, called afterwards Proserpine. For some time

she took up her residence in Corc{=y}ra, so called in later times, from

a daughter of As{=o}pus, there buried, but anciently _Drep{)a}num_, from

the sickle used by the goddess in reaping, which had been presented her

by Vulcan. Thence she removed to Sicily, where the violence of Pluto

deprived her of Proserpine. Disconsolate at her loss, she importuned

Jupiter for redress; but obtaining little satisfaction, she lighted

torches at the volcano of Mount AEtna, and mounting her car, drawn by

winged dragons, set out in search of her beloved daughter. This

transaction the Sicilians annually commemorated by running about in the

night with lighted torches and loud exclamations.

It is disputed, by several nations, who first informed Ceres where her

daughter was, and thence acquired the reward, which was the art of

sowing corn. Some ascribe the intelligence to Triptol{)e}mus, and his

brother Eubul{)e}us; but the generality of writers agree in conferring

the honor on the nymph Areth{=u}sa, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and

companion of Diana, who, flying from the pursuit of the river

Alph{=e}us, saw Proserpine in the infernal regions.

It must be owned that Ceres was not undeserving the highest titles

bestowed upon her, being considered as the deity who had blessed men

with the art of cultivating the earth, having not only taught them to

plough and sow, but also to reap, harvest, and thresh out their grain;

to make flour and bread, and fix limits or boundaries to ascertain their

possessions. The garlands used in her sacrifices were of myrtle, or

rape-weed; but flowers were prohibited, Proserpine being carried off as

she gathered them. The poppy alone was sacred to her, not only because

it grows amongst corn, but because, in her distress, Jupiter gave it her

to eat, that she might sleep and forget her troubles. Cicero mentions an

ancient temple dedicated to her at Catania, in Sicily in which the

offices were performed by matrons and virgins only, no man being

admitted.

If to explain the fable of Ceres, we have recourse to Egypt; it will be

found, that the goddess of Sicily and Eleusis, or of Rome and Greece, is

no other than the Egyptian Isis, brought by the Phoenicians into those

countries. The very name of _mystery_, from _mistor_, a _veil_ or

_covering_, given to the Eleusinian rites, performed in honor of Ceres,

shows them to have been of Egyptian origin. The Isis, or the

emblematical figure exhibited at the feast appointed for the

commemoration of the state of mankind after the flood, bore the name of

Ceres, from Cerets, _dissolution_ or _overthrow_. She was represented in

mourning, and with torches, to denote the grief she felt for the loss of

her favorite daughter _Perseph{)o}ne_ (which word, translated, signifies

corn lost) and the pains she was at to recover her. The poppies with

which this Isis was crowned, signified the joy men received at their

first abundant crop, the word which signifies a _double crop_, being

also a name for the _poppy_. Perseph{)o}ne or Proserpine found again,

was a lively symbol of the recovery of corn, and its cultivation, almost

lost in the deluge. Thus, emblems of the most important events which

ever happened in the world, simple in themselves, became when

transplanted to Greece and Rome, sources of fable and idolatry.

Ceres was usually represented of a tall majestic stature, fair

complexion, languishing eyes, and yellow or flaxen hair; her head

crowned with a garland of poppies, or ears of corn; holding in her right

hand a bunch of the same materials with her garland, and in her left a

lighted torch. When in a car or chariot, she is drawn by lions, or

winged dragons.

MUSAE, the _Muses_. This celebrated sisterhood is said to have been the

daughters of Jupiter and Mn{=e}m{)o}syne. They were believed to have

been born on Mount Pi{)e}rus, and educated by Euph{=e}me. In general

they were considered as the tutelar goddesses of sacred festivals and

banquets, and the patronesses of polite and useful arts. They supported

virtue in distress, and preserved worthy actions from oblivion. Homer

calls them superintendants and correctors of manners. In respect to the

sciences, these sisters had each their separate province; though poetry

seemed more immediately under their united protection.

These divinities, formerly called Mosae, were so named from a Greek word

signifying _to inquire_; because, by inquiring of them, the sciences

might be learnt. Others say they had their name from their resemblance,

because there is a similitude, an infinity, and relation, betwixt all

the sciences, in which they agree together, and are united with each

other; for which reason they are often painted with their hands joined,

dancing in a circle round Apollo their leader.

They were represented crowned with flowers, or wreaths of palm, each

holding some instrument, or emblem of the science or art over which she

presided. They were depicted as in the bloom of youth; and the bird

sacred to them was the swan, probably because that bird was consecrated

to their sovereign Apollo. There was a fountain of the Muses near Rome,

in the meadow where Numa used to meet the goddess Egeria; the care of

which and of the worship paid to the Muses, was intrusted to the Vestal

virgins.

Their names were as follows: Clio, who presided over _history_. Her name

is derived from {kleios}, _glory_, or from {kleio}, to _celebrate_. She

is generally represented under the form of a young woman crowned with

laurel, holding in her right hand a trumpet, and in her left a book:

others describe her with a lute in one hand, and in the other a

_plectrum_, or quill.

Euterpe is distinguished by _tibiae_ or pipes whence she was called also

Tib{=i}c{=i}na. Some say logic was invented by her. It was very common

with the musicians of old to play on two pipes at once, agreeably to the

remarks before Terence's plays, and as we often actually find them

represented in the remains of the artists. It was over this species of

music that Euterpe presided, as we learn from the first ode of Horace.

Th{)a}l{=i}a presided over comedy, and whatever was gay, amiable, and

pleasant. She holds a mask in her right hand, and on medals she is

represented leaning against a pillar. She was the Muse of comedy, of

which they had a great mixture on the Roman stage in the earliest ages

of their poetry, and long after. She is distinguished from the other

Muses in general by a mask, and from Melpom{)e}ne, the tragic Muse, by

her shepherd's crook, not to speak of her look, which is meaner than

that of Melpom{)e}ne, or her dress, which is shorter, and consequently

less noble, than that of any other of the Muses.

Melpom{)e}ne was so styled from the dignity and excellence of her song.

She presided over epic and lyric poetry. To her the invention of all

mournful verses, and, particularly, of tragedy, was ascribed; for which

reason Horace invokes her when he laments the death of Quintilius Varus.

She is usually represented of a sedate countenance, and richly habited,

with sceptres and crowns in one hand, and in the other a dagger. She has

her mask on her head, which is sometimes placed so far backward that it

has been mistaken for a second face. Her mask shows that she presided

over the stage; and she is distinguished from Th{)a}l{=i}a, or the comic

Muse, by having more of dignity in her look, stature, and dress.

Melpom{)e}ne was supposed to preside over all melancholy subjects, as

well as tragedy; as one would imagine at least from Horace's invoking

her in one of his odes, and his desiring her to crown him with laurel in

another.

Terps{)i}ch{)o}re; that is, _the sprightly_. Some attribute her name to

the pleasure she took in dancing; others represent her as the

protectress of music, particularly the flute; and add, that the chorus

of the ancient drama was her province, to which also logic has been

annexed. She is further said to be distinguished by the flutes which she

holds, as well on medals as on other monuments.

Er{)a}to, presided over elegiac or amorous poetry, and dancing, whence

she was sometimes called Saltatrix. She is represented as young, and

crowned with myrtle and roses, having a lyre in her right hand, and a

bow in her left, with a little winged Cupid placed by her, armed with

his bow and arrows.

Polyhymnia. Her name, which is of Greek origin, and signifies _much

singing_, seems to have been given her for the number of her songs,

rather than her faithfulness of memory. To Polyhymnia belonged that

harmony of voice and gesture which gives a perfection to oratory and

poetry. She presided over rhetoric, and is represented with a crown of

pearls and a white robe, in the act of extending her right hand, as if

haranguing, and holding in her left a scroll, on which the word

_Suadere_ is written; sometimes, instead of the scroll, she appears

holding a _caduceus_ or sceptre.

Urania, or Coelestis. She is the Muse who extended her care to all

divine or celestial subjects, such as the hymns in praise of the gods,

the motions of the heavenly bodies, and whatever regarded philosophy or

astronomy. She is represented in an azure robe, crowned with stars and

supporting a large globe with both hands: on medals this globe stands

upon a tripod.

Calli{)o}pe, who presides over eloquence and heroic poetry; so called

from the ecstatic harmony of her voice. The poets, who are supposed to

receive their inspirations from the Muses, chiefly invoked Calli{)o}pe,

as she presided over the hymns made in honor of the gods. She is spoken

of by Ovid, as the chief of all the Muses. Under the same idea, Horace

calls her _Regina_, and attributes to her the skill of playing on what

instrument she pleases.

ASTRAEA, or ASTREA, goddess of justice, was daughter of Astraeus, one of

the Titans; or according to Ovid, of Jupiter and Themis. She descended

from heaven in the golden age, and inspired mankind with principles of

justice and equity, but the world growing corrupt, she re-ascended

thither, where she became the constellation in the Zodiac called Virgo.

This goddess is represented with a serene countenance, her eyes bound or

blinded, having a sword in one hand, and in the other a pair of

balances, equally poised, or rods with a bundle of axes, and sitting on

a square stone. Among the Egyptians, she is described with her left hand

stretched forth and open, but without a head. According to the poets,

she was conversant on earth during the golden and silver ages, but in

those of brass and iron, was forced by the wickedness of mankind to

abandon the earth and retire to heaven. Virgil hints that she first

quitted courts and cities, and betook herself to rural retreats before

she entirely withdrew.

NEMESIS, daughter of Jupiter and Necessity, or, according to some, of

Oce{)a}nus and Nox, had the care of revenging the crimes which human

justice left unpunished. The word Nem{)e}sis is of Greek origin, nor was

there any Latin word that expressed it, therefore the Latin poets

usually styled this goddess Rhamnusia, from a famous statue of

Nem{)e}sis at Rhamnus in Attica. She is likewise called Adrastea,

because Adrastus, king of Argos, first raised an altar to her.

Nem{)e}sis is plainly divine vengeance, or the eternal justice of God,

which severely punishes the wicked actions of men. She is sometimes

represented with wings, to denote the celerity with which she follows

men to observe their actions.

CHAPTER V.

_Gods of the Woods._

_Pan_, the god of shepherds and hunters, leader of the nymphs, president

of the mountains, patron of a country life, and guardian of flocks and

herds, was likewise adored by fishermen, especially those who lived

about the promontories washed by the sea. There is scarcely any of the

gods to whom the poets have given a greater diversity of parents. The

most common opinion is, that he was the son of Mercury and Penel{)o}pe.

As soon as he was born, his father carried him in a goat's skin to

heaven, where he charmed all the gods with his pipe, so that they

associated him with Mercury in the office of their messenger. After this

he was educated on Mount Maen{)a}lus, in Arcadia, by Si{)o}ne and the

other nymphs, who, attracted by his music, followed him as their

conductor.

Pan, though devoted to the pleasures of rural life, distinguished

himself by his valor. In the war of the giants he entangled Typhon in

his nets. Bacchus, in his Indian expedition, was accompanied by him with

a body of Satyrs, who rendered Bacchus great service. When the Gauls

invaded Greece, and were just going to pillage Delphi, Pan struck them

with such a sudden consternation by night, that they fled without being

pursued: hence the expression of a _Panic fear_, for a sudden terror.

The Romans adopted him among their deities, by the names of Lupercus and

Lycaeus, and built a temple to him at the foot of Mount Palatine.

He is represented with a smiling, ruddy face, and thick beard covering

his breast, two horns on his head, a star on his bosom, legs and thighs

hairy, and the nose, feet, and tail of a goat. He is clothed in a

spotted skin, having a shepherd's crook in one hand, and his pipe of

unequal reeds in the other, and is crowned with pine, that tree being

sacred to him.

Pan probably signifies the universal nature, proceeding from the divine

mind and providence, of which the heaven, earth, sea, and the eternal

fire, are so many members. Mythologists are of opinion that his upper

parts are like a man, because the superior and celestial part of the

world is beautiful, radiant, and glorious: his horns denote the rays of

the sun, as they beam upwards, and his long beard signifies the same

rays, as they have an influence upon the earth: the ruddiness of his

face resembles the splendor of the sky, and the spotted skin which he

wears is the image of the starry firmament: his lower parts are rough,

hairy, and deformed, to represent the shrubs, wild creatures, trees, and

mountains here below: his goat's feet signify the solidity of the earth;

and his pipe of seven reeds, that celestial harmony which is made by the

seven planets; lastly, his sheep-hook denotes that care and providence

by which he governs the universe.

SILENUS. As Bacchus was the god of good humor and fellowship, so none of

the deities appeared with a more numerous or splendid retinue, in which

Sil{=e}nus was the principal person; of whose descent, however, we have

no accounts to be relied on. Some say he was born at Malea, a city of

Sparta; others at Nysa in Arabia; but the most probable conjecture is,

that he was a prince of Caria, noted for his equity and wisdom. But

whatever be the fate of these different accounts, Sil{=e}nus is said to

have been preceptor to Bacchus, and was certainly a very suitable one

for such a deity, the old man being heartily attached to wine. He

however distinguished himself greatly in the war with the giants, by

appearing in the conflict on an ass, whose braying threw them into

confusion; for which reason, or because, when Bacchus engaged the

Indians, their elephants were put to flight by the braying of the ass,

it was raised to the skies, and there made a constellation.

The historian tells us that Sil{=e}nus was the first of all the kings

that reigned at Nysa; that his origin is not known, it being beyond the

memory of mortals: it is likewise said that he was a Phrygian, who lived

in the reign of Midas, and that the shepherds having caught him, by

putting wine into the fountain he used to drink of, brought him to

Midas, who gave him his long ears; a fable intended to intimate that

this extraordinary loan signified the faculty of receiving universal

intelligence. Virgil makes Sil{=e}nus deliver a very serious and

excellent discourse concerning the creation of the world, when he was

scarcely recovered from a fit of drunkenness, which renders it probable

that the sort of drunkenness with which Sil{=e}nus is charged, had

something in it mysterious, and approaching to inspiration.

He is described as a short, corpulent old man, bald-headed, with a flat

nose, prominent forehead and long ears. He is usually exhibited as

over-laden with wine, and seated on a saddled ass, upon which he

supports himself with a long staff in the one hand, and in the other

carries a _cantharus_ or jug, with the handle almost worn out with

frequent use.

SYLVANUS. The descent of Sylv{=a}nus is extremely obscure. Some think

him son of Faunus, some say he was the same with Faunus, whilst others

suppose him the same deity with Pan, which opinion Pliny seems to adopt

when he says that the AEgipans were the same with the Sylvans. He was

unknown to the Greeks; but the Latins received the worship of him from

the Pelasgi, upon their migration into Italy, and his worship seems

wholly to have arisen out of the ancient sacred use of woods and groves,

it being introduced to inculcate a belief that there was no place

without the presence of a deity. The Pelasgi consecrated groves, and

appointed solemn festivals, in honor of Sylv{=a}nus. The hog and milk

were the offerings tendered him. A monument consecrated to this deity,

by one Laches, gives him the epithet of Littor{=a}lis, whence it would

seem that he was worshipped upon the sea-coasts.

The priests of Sylv{=a}nus constituted one of the principal colleges of

Rome, and were in great reputation, a sufficient evidence of the fame of

his worship. Many writers confound the Sylv{=a}ni, Fauni, Satyri, and

Sil{=e}ni, with Pan.

Some monuments represent him as little of stature, with the face of a

man, and the legs and feet of a goat, holding a branch of cypress in his

hand, in token of his regard for Cyparissus, who was transformed into

that tree. The pineapple, a pruning-knife in his hand, a crown coarsely

made, and a dog, are the ordinary attributes of the representations of

this rural deity. He appears sometimes naked, sometimes covered with a

rustic garb which reaches down to his knee.

Sylv{=a}nus, as his name imports, presided over woods, and the fruits

that grew in them; agreeable to which, (in some figures) he has a lap

full of fruit, his pruning-hook in one hand, and a young cypress tree in

the other. Virgil mentions the latter as a distinguishing attribute of

this god: the same poet, on another occasion, describes him as crowned

with wild flowers, and mentions his presiding over the cornfields as

well as the woods.

SATYRI, _or_ SATYRS, a sort of demi-gods, who with the Fauns and

Sylvans, presided over groves and forests under the direction of Pan.

They made part of the _dramatis pers{=o}nae_ in the ancient Greek

tragedies, which gave rise to the species of poetry called satirical.

There is a story that Euph{=e}mus, passing from Caria to the extreme

parts of the ocean, discovered many desert islands, and being forced by

tempestuous weather to land upon one of them, called Satyr{)i}da, he

found inhabitants covered with yellow hair, having tails not much less

than horses. We are likewise told, that in the expedition which Hanno

the Carthaginian made to the parts of Lybia lying beyond Hercules'

pillars, they came to a great bay called the Western Horn, in which was

an island where they could find or see nothing by day-light but woods,

and yet in the night they observed many fires, and heard an incredible

and astonishing noise of drums and trumpets; whence they concluded that

a number of Satyrs abode there.

It is pretended there really were such monsters as the pagans deified

under the name of Satyrs; and one of them, it is said, was brought to

Sylla, having been surprised in his sleep. Sylla ordered him to be

interrogated by people of different countries, to know what language he

spoke; but the Satyr only answered with cries, not unlike those of goats

and the neighing of horses. This monster had a human body, but the

thighs, legs, and feet of a goat. To the above stories may be added that

of the Satyr who passed the Rubicon in presence of Caesar and his whole

army.

The Satyrs of the ancients were the ministers and attendants of Bacchus.

Their form was not the most inviting; for though their countenances were

human, they had horns on their foreheads, crooked hands, rough and hairy

bodies, feet and legs like a goat's, and tails which resembled those of

horses. The shepherds sacrificed to them the firstlings of their flocks,

but more especially grapes and apples; and they addressed to them songs

in their forests by which they endeavored to conciliate their favor.

When Satyrs arrived at an advanced age they were called Sil{=e}ni.

FAUNI, _or_ FAUNS, a species of demi-gods, inhabiting the forests,

called also _Sylv{=a}ni_. They were sons of Faunus and Fauna, or Fatua,

king and queen of the Latins, and though accounted demi-gods, were

supposed to die after a long life. Arnobius, indeed, has shown that

their father, or chief, lived only one hundred and twenty years. The

Fauns were Roman deities, unknown to the Greeks. The Roman Faunus was

the same with the Greek Pan; and as in the poets we find frequent

mention of _Fauns_, and _Pans_, or _Panes_, in the plural number, most

probable the Fauns were the same with the Pans, and all descended from

one progenitor.

The Romans called them _Fauni_ and _Ficarii_. The denomination _Ficarii_

was not derived from the Latin _ficus_ a _fig_, as some have imagined,

but from _ficus_, _fici_, a sort of fleshy tumor or excrescence growing

on the eyelids and other parts of the body, which the Fauns were

represented as having. They were called Fauni, _a fando_, from

_speaking_, because they were wont to speak and converse with men; an

instance of which is given in the voice that was heard from the wood, in

the battle between the Romans and Etrurians for the restoration of the

Tarquins, and which encouraged the Romans to fight. We are told that the

Fauni were husbandmen, the Satyrs vine-dressers, and the Sylv{=a}ni

those who cut down wood in the forests.

They were represented with horns on their heads, pointed ears, and

crowned with branches of the pine, which was a tree sacred to them,

whilst their lower extremities resembled those of a goat.

Horace makes Faunus the guardian and protector of men of wit, and

Virgil, a god of oracles and predictions; but this is, perhaps, founded

on the etymology of his name, for {phonein} in Greek, and _Fari_ in

Latin, of which it has been supposed a derivative, signify to _speak_;

and it was, perhaps, for the same reason, they called his wife _Fauna_,

that is, _Fatidica_, _prophetess_. Faunus is described by Ovid with

horns on his head, and crowned with the pine tree.

PRIAPUS is said, by some, to have been the son of Bacchus and Nais, or

as others will have it, of Chi{)o}ne; but the generality of authors

agree, that he was son of Bacchus and Venus. He was born at

Lamps{)a}chus, a city of Mysia, at the mouth of the Hellespont, but in

so deformed a state, that his mother, through shame, abandoned him. On

his growing up to maturity, the inhabitants of the place banished him

their territories, on account of his vicious habits; but being soon

after visited with an epidemic disease, the Lampsacans consulted the

oracle of Dod{=o}na, and Pri{=a}pus was in consequence recalled. Temples

were erected to him as the tutelar deity of vineyards and gardens, to

defend them from thieves and from birds.

He is usually represented naked and obscene, with a stern countenance,

matted hair, crowned with garden herbs, and holding a wooden sword, or

scythe, whilst his body terminates in a shapeless trunk. His figures are

generally erected in gardens and orchards to serve as scarecrows.

Pri{=a}pus held a pruning-hook in his hands, when he had hands, for he

was sometimes nothing more than a mere log of wood, as Martial somewhat

humorously calls him. Indeed the Roman poets in general seem to have

looked on him as a ridiculous god, and are all ready enough either to

despise or abuse him.

Trimalchio, in his ridiculous feasts described by Petronius, had a

figure of this god to be held up during his dessert: it was made of

paste, and, as Horace observes on another occasion, that he owed all his

divinity to the carpenter, Petronius seems to hint that he was wholly

obliged for it to the pastry cook in this. Some mythologists make the

birth of Pri{=a}pus allude to that radical moisture which supports all

vegetable productions, and which is produced by Bacchus and Venus, that

is, the solar heat, and the fluid whence Venus is said to have sprung.

Some affirm that he was the same with the Baal of the Phoenicians,

mentioned in scripture.

ARISTAEUS, son of Apollo, by the nymph Cyrene, daughter of Hypseus, king

of the Lap{)i}thae, was born in Lybia, and in that part of it where the

city Cyrene was built. He received his education from the nymphs, who

taught him to extract oil from olives, and to make honey, cheese, and

butter; all which arts he communicated to mankind. Going to Thebes, he

there married Auton{)o}e, daughter of Cadmus, and, by her, was father to

Actaeon, who was torn in pieces by his own dogs. At length he passed into

Thrace, where Bacchus initiated him into the mysteries of the Orgia, and

taught him many things conducive to the happiness of life. Having dwelt

some time near Mount Hemus, he disappeared, and not only the barbarous

people of that country, but the Greeks likewise decreed him divine

honors.

It is remarked by Bayle, that Aristaeus found out the solstitial rising

of Sirius, or the dog-star; and he adds, it is certain that this star

had a particular relation to Aristaeus; for this reason, when the heats

of the dog-star laid waste the Cycl{)a}des, and occasioned there a

pestilence, Aristaeus was entreated to put a stop to it. He went directly

into the isle of Cea, and built an altar to Jupiter, offered sacrifices

to that deity, as well to the malignant star, and established an

anniversary for it. These produced a very good effect, for it was from

thence that the Etesian winds had their origin, which continue forty

days, and temper the heat of the summer. On his death, for the services

he had rendered mankind, he was placed among the stars, and is the

Aquarius of the Zodiac.

TERMINUS was a very ancient deity among the Romans, whose worship was

first instituted by Numa Pompilius, he having erected in his honor on

the Tarpeian hill a temple which was open at the top. This deity was

thought to preside over the stones or land-marks, called Term{)i}ni,

which were so highly venerated, that it was sacrilege to move them, and

the criminal becoming devoted to the gods, it was lawful for any man to

kill him. The Roman Term{)i}ni were square stones or posts, much

resembling our mile-stones, erected to show that no force or violence

should be used in settling mutual boundaries; they were sometimes

crowned with a human head, but had seldom any inscriptions; one,

however, is mentioned to this effect, "Whosoever shall take away this,

or shall order it to be taken away, may he die the last of his family."

VERTUMNUS, the Proteus of the Roman ritual, was the god of tradesmen,

and, from the power he had of assuming any shape, was believed to

preside over the thoughts of mankind. His courtship of Pom{=o}na makes

one of the most elegant and entertaining stories in Ovid. The Romans

esteemed him the god of tradesmen, from the turns and changes which

traffic effects. There was no god had a greater variety of

representations than Vertumnus. He is painted with a garland of flowers

on his head, a pruning hook in one hand, and ripe fruits in the other.

Pom{=o}na has a pruning hook in her right hand, and a branch in her

left. Pliny introduces this goddess personally, even in his prose, to

make her speak in praise of the fruits committed to her care. We learn

from Ovid that this goddess was of that class which they anciently

called Hamadryads.

Both these deities were unknown to the Greeks, and only honored by the

Romans. Some imagine Vertumnus an emblem of the year, which, though it

assume different dresses according to the different seasons, is at no

time so luxuriant as in autumn, when the harvest is crowned, and the

fruits appear in their full perfection and lustre; but historians say

that Vertumnus was an ancient king of the Tuscans, who first taught his

people the method of planting orchards, gardens, and vineyards, and the

manner of cultivating, pruning, and grafting fruit-trees; whence he is

reported to have married Pom{=o}na. Some think he was called Vertumnus,

from turning the lake Curtus into the Tiber.

CHAPTER VI.

_Goddesses of the Woods._

DIANA, daughter of Jupiter and Lat{=o}na, and sister of Apollo, was born

in the island of Delos. She had a threefold divinity, being styled

Di{=a}na on earth, Luna, or the moon, in heaven, and Hec{)a}te, or

Proserpine, in hell. The poets say she had three heads, one of a horse,

another of a woman, and the third of a dog. Hesiod makes Di{=a}na, Luna,

and Hec{)a}te, three distinguished goddesses.

Of all the various characters of this goddess, there is no one more

known than that of her presiding over woods, and delighting in hunting.

The Di{=a}na Venatrix, or goddess of the chase, is frequently

represented as running on, with her vest flying back with the wind,

notwithstanding its being shortened, and girt about her for expedition.

She is tall of stature, and her face, though so very handsome, is

something manly. Her feet are sometimes bare, and sometimes adorned with

a sort of buskin, which was worn by the huntresses of old. She often has

a quiver on her shoulder, and sometimes holds a javelin, but more

usually her bow, in her right hand. It is thus she makes her appearance

in several of her statues, and it is thus the Roman poets describe her,

particularly in the epithets they give this goddess, in the use of which

they are so happy that they often bring the idea of whole figures of her

into your mind by a single word. The statues of this Di{=a}na were very

frequent in woods: she was represented there in all the different ways

they could think of; sometimes as hunting, sometimes as bathing, and

sometimes as resting herself after her fatigue. The height of Di{=a}na's

stature is frequently marked out in the poets, and that, generally, by

comparing her with her nymphs.

Another great character of Di{=a}na is that under which she is

represented as the intelligence which presides over the planet of the

moon; in which she is depicted in her car as directing that planet. Her

figure under this character is frequently enough to be met with on gems

and medals, which generally exhibit her with a lunar crown, or crescent

on her forehead, and sometimes as drawn by stags, sometimes by does,

but, more commonly than either, by horses. The poets speak of her

chariot and her horses; they agree with the artists in giving her but

two, and show, that the painters of old generally drew them of a perfect

white color.

A third remarkable way of representing Di{=a}na was with three bodies;

this is very common among the ancient figures of the goddess, and it is

hence the poets call her the triple, the three-headed, and the

three-bodied Di{=a}na. Her distinguishing name under this triple

appearance is Hec{)a}te, or Trivia; a goddess frequently invoked in

enchantments, and fit for such black operations; for this is the

infernal Di{=a}na, and as such is represented with the characteristics

of a fury, rather than as one of the twelve great celestial deities: all

her hands hold instruments of terror, and generally grasp either cords,

or swords, or serpents, or fire-brands.

There are various conjectures concerning the name _Hec{)a}te_, which is

supposed to come from a Greek word signifying an _hundred_, either

because an hundred victims at a time used to be offered to her, or else

because by her edicts the ghosts of those who die without burial, wander

an hundred years upon the banks of the Styx. Mythologists say that

Hec{)a}te is the _order_ and _force_ of the Fates, who obtained from the

divine power that influence which they have over human bodies; that the

operation of the Fates are hidden, but descend by the means and

interposition of the stars, wherefore it is necessary that all inferior

things submit to the cares, calamities, and death which the Fates bring

upon them, without any possibility of resisting the divine will.

Hesiod relates of Hec{)a}te, to show the extent of her power, that

Jupiter had heaped gifts and honors upon her far above all the other

deities; that she was empress of the earth and sea, and all things which

are comprehended in the compass of the heavens; that she was a goddess

easy to be entreated, kind, and always ready to do good, bountiful of

gold and riches, which are wholly in her power; that whatever springs

from seed, whether in heaven, or on earth, is subject to her, and that

she governs the fates of all things.

PALES was a rural goddess of the Romans. She was properly the divinity

of shepherds, and the tutelar deity and protectress of their flocks. Her

votaries had usually wooden images of her. A feast called Palilia or

Parilia was celebrated on the twenty-first of April, or, according to

some, in May, in the open fields. The offerings were milk and cakes of

millet, in order to engage her to defend their flocks from wild beasts

and infectious diseases. As part of the ceremony, they burned heaps of

straw, and leaped over them. Some make Pales the same with Vesta or

Cyb{)e}le. This goddess is represented as an old woman.

FLORA, the goddess of flowers, was a Roman deity. The ancients made her

the wife of Zephyrus, to intimate that Flora, or the natural heat of the

plant, must concur with the influence of the warmest wind for the

production of flowers. Varro reckons Flora among the ancient deities of

the Sabines, which were received into Rome on the union of the Sabines

with the Romans. Ovid says, that her Greek name was Chloris, and that

the Latins changed it into Flora.

FERONIA was the goddess of woods and orchards. She is called Feronia

from the verb _fero, to bring forth_, because she _produced_ and

_propagated_ trees, or from Fer{=o}n{)i}ci, a town situated near the

foot of Mount Soracte, in Italy, where was a wood, and a temple

dedicated to her; which town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in his

catalogue of the forces of Turnus. The Lacedemonians first introduced

her worship into Italy under Evander; for these people, being offended

at the rigor of the laws of Lycurgus, resolved to seek out some new

plantation, and arriving, after a long and dangerous voyage, in Italy,

they, to show their gratitude for their preservation, built a temple to

Feronia, so called from their _bearing patiently_ all the fatigues and

dangers they had encountered in their voyage. This edifice casually

taking fire, the people ran to remove and preserve the image of the

goddess, when on a sudden the fire became extinguished, and the grove

assumed a native and flourishing verdure.

Horace mentions the homage that was paid to this deity, by washing the

face and hands, according to custom, in the sacred fountain which flowed

near her temple. Slaves received the cap of liberty at her shrine, on

which account they regarded her as their patroness. How Feronia was

descended, where born, or how educated, is not transmitted to us; but

she is said to have been wife to Jupiter Anxur, so called, because he

was worshipped in that place.

[Illustration:

NEPTUNE RISING FROM THE SEA

HE SITS SUPERIOR & THE CHARIOT FLIES.

Pope's Homer's Iliad. B. 13. L. 41

Pl. 7.]

NYMPHAE, _the_ NYMPHS, were certain inferior goddesses, inhabiting the

mountains, woods, valleys, rivers, seas, &c. said to be daughters of

Oceanus and Tethys. According to ancient mythology, the whole universe

was full of these nymphs, who are distinguished into several ranks and

classes, though the general division of them is into celestial and

terrestrial. I. The Celestial Nymphs, called _Uraniae_, were supposed to

govern the heavenly bodies or spheres. II. The Terrestrial Nymphs,

called _Epigeiae_, presided over the several parts of the inferior world;

these were again subdivided into those of the water, and those of the

earth.

The Nymphs of the water were ranged under several classes: 1. The

Ocean{)i}des, or Nymphs of the ocean. 2. The Nereids, daughters of

Nereus and Doris. 3. The Naiads, Nymphs of the fountains. 4. The

Ephydri{)a}des, also Nymphs of the fountains; and 5. The Limni{)a}des,

Nymphs of the lakes. The Nymphs of the earth were likewise divided into

different classes; as, 1. The Ore{)a}des, or Nymphs of the mountains. 2.

The Napaeae, Nymphs of the meadows; and 3. The Dryads and Hamadryads,

Nymphs of the woods and forests. Besides these, there were Nymphs who

took their names from particular countries, rivers, &c. as the

Dardan{)i}des, Tiber{)i}des, Ismen{)i}des, &c.

Pausanias reports it as the opinion of the ancient poets that the Nymphs

were not altogether free from death, or immortal, but that their years

wore in a manner innumerable; that prophecies were inspired by the

Nymphs, as well as the other deities; and that they had foretold the

destruction of several cities: they were likewise esteemed as the

authors of divination.

Meursius is of opinion, that the Greeks borrowed their notion of these

divinities from the Phoenicians, for _nympha_, in their language,

signifying _soul_, the Greeks imagined that the souls of the ancient

inhabitants of Greece had become Nymphs; particularly that the souls of

those who had inhabited the woods were called Dryads; those who

inhabited the mountains, Ore{)a}des; those who dwelt on the sea-coasts,

Nereids; and, lastly, those who had their place of abode near rivers or

fountains, Naiads. Though goats were sometimes sacrificed to the Nymphs,

yet their stated offerings were milk, oil, honey and wine. They were

represented as young and beautiful virgins, and dressed in conformity to

the character ascribed to them.

CHAPTER VII.

_Gods of the Sea._

NEPTUNE was the son of Saturn, and Rhea or Ops, and brother of Jupiter.

When arrived at maturity, he assisted his brother Jupiter in his

expeditions, for which that god, on attaining to supreme power, assigned

him the sea and the islands for his empire. Whatever attachment Neptune

might have had to his brother at one period, he was at another expelled

heaven for entering into a conspiracy against him, in conjunction with

several other deities; whence he fled, with Apollo, to Laomedon, king of

Troy, where Neptune having assisted in raising the walls of the city,

and being dismissed unrewarded, in revenge, sent a sea-monster to lay

waste the country.

On another occasion, this deity had a contest with Vulcan and Minerva,

in regard to their skill. The goddess, as a proof of her's, made a

horse, Vulcan a man, and Neptune a bull, whence that animal was used in

the sacrifices to him, though it is probable that, as the victim was to

be black, the design was to point out the raging quality and fury of the

sea, over which he presided. The Greeks make Neptune to have been the

creator of the horse, which he produced from out of the earth with a

blow of his trident, when disputing with Minerva who should give the

name to Cecropia, which was afterwards called Athens, from the name in

Greek of Minerva, who made an olive tree spring up suddenly, and thus

obtained the victory.

In this fable, however, it is evident that the horse could signify

nothing but a ship; for the two things in which that region excelled

being ships and olive-trees, it was thought politic by this means to

bring the citizens over from too great a fondness for sea affairs, to

the cultivation of their country, by showing that Pallas was preferable

to Neptune, or, in other words, _husbandry to sailing_, which, without

some further meaning, the production of a horse could never have done.

It notwithstanding appears that Neptune had brought the management of

the horse, as likewise the art of building ships, to very great

perfection; insomuch that Pamphus, who was the most ancient writer of

hymns to the gods, calls him the benefactor of mankind, in bestowing

upon them horses and ships which had stems and decks that resembled

towers.

If Neptune created the horse, he was likewise the inventor of

chariot-races; hence Mithrid{=a}tes, king of Pontus, threw chariots,

drawn by four horses, into the sea, in honor of Neptune: and the Romans

instituted horse-races in the circus during his festival, at which time

all horses ceased from working, and the mules were adorned with wreaths

of flowers.

Neptune, represented as a god of the sea, makes a considerable figure:

he is described with black or dark hair, his garment of an azure or

sea-green color, seated in a large shell drawn by whales, or sea-horses,

with his trident in his hand, attended by the sea-gods Palaemon, Glaucus,

and Phorcys; the sea-goddesses Thetis, Melita, and Panop{=e}a, and a

long train of Tritons and sea-nymphs.

The inferior artists represent him sometimes with an angry and disturbed

air; and we may observe the same difference in this particular between

the great and inferior poets as there is between the bad and the good

artists. Thus Ovid describes Neptune with a sullen look, whereas Virgil

expressly tells us that he has a mild face, even where he is

representing him in a passion. Even at the time that he is provoked, and

might be expected to have appeared disturbed, and in a passion, there is

serenity and majesty in his face.

On some medals he treads on the beak of a ship, to show that he presided

over the seas, or more particularly over the Mediterranean sea, which

was the great, and almost the only scene for navigation among the old

Greeks and Romans. He is standing, as he generally was represented; he

most commonly, too, has his trident in his right hand: this was his

peculiar sceptre, and seems to have been used by him chiefly to rouse up

the waters; for we find sometimes that he lays it aside when he is to

appease them, but he resumes it when there is occasion for violence.

Virgil makes him shake Troy from its foundation with it; and in Ovid it

is with the stroke of this that the waters of the earth are let loose

for the general deluge. The poets have generally delighted in describing

this god as passing over the calm surface of the waters, in his chariot

drawn by sea-horses. The fine original description of this is in Homer,

from whom Virgil and Statius have copied it.

In searching for the mythological sense of the fable, we must again have

recourse to Egypt, that kingdom which, above all others, has furnished

the most ample harvest for the reaper of mysteries. The Egyptians, to

denote navigation, and the return of the Phoenician fleet, which

annually visited their coast, used the figure of an Osiris borne on a

winged horse, and holding a three-forked spear, or harpoon. To this

image they gave the name of Poseidon, or Neptune, which, as the Greeks

and Romans afterwards adopted, sufficiently proves this deity had his

birth here. Thus the maritime Osiris of the Egyptians became a new deity

with those who knew not the meaning of the symbol.

TRITON. It is not agreed who were the parents of Triton; but he was a

sea-deity, the herald and trumpeter of Oceanus and Neptune. He sometimes

delighted in mischief, for he carried off the cattle from the Tanagrian

fields, and destroyed the smaller coasting vessels; so that to appease

his resentment, the Tanagrians offered him libations of new wine.

Pleased with its flavor and taste, he drank so freely that he fell

asleep, and tumbling from an eminence, one of the natives cut of his

head. He left a daughter called Tristia.

The poets ordinarily attribute to Triton, the office of calming the sea,

and stilling of tempests: thus in the Metamorphoses we read, that

Neptune desiring to recall the waters of the deluge, commanded Triton to

sound his trumpet, at the noise of which they retired to their

respective channels, and left the earth again habitable, having swept

off almost the whole human race.

This god is exhibited in the human form from the waist upwards, with

blue eyes, a large mouth, and hair matted like wild parsley; his

shoulders covered with a purple skin, variegated with small scales, his

feet resembling the fore feet of a horse, and his lower parts

terminating in a double forked tail: sometimes he is seen in a car, with

horses of a bright cerulean. His trumpet is a large conch, or sea-shell.

There were several Tritons, but one chief over all, the distinguished

messenger of Neptune, as Mercury was of Jupiter, and Iris of Juno.