[1] See a note in Archbishop Tenison's handwriting in his copy of the
_Eikon Basilike_ preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's
_Bibliography_, p. 15.
GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES (1789-1854), French botanist, was born at
Angoulême on the 4th of September 1789. He studied pharmacy first in the
shop of a brother-in-law at Cognac, and then under P.J. Robiquet at
Paris, where from R.L. Desfontaines and L.C. Richard he acquired a
knowledge of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the
military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served at
Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette "Uranie" as pharmaceutical
botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded by D. de Freycinet. The
wreck of the vessel on the Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819,
deprived him of more than half the botanical collections he had made in
various parts of the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and
Brazil, and in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to "La Bonite" during its
circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the growth of
plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary "phytons" involved him,
during the latter years of his life, in much controversy with his
fellow-botanists, more especially C.F.B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on
the 16th of January 1854.
Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-Beaupré
wrote "Lettres sur l'organographie et la physiologie," _Arch. de
botanique_, ii., 1883; "Recherches générales sur l'organographie," &c.
(prize essay, 1835), _Mém. de l'Académie des Sciences_, t. viii. and
kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the
multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of
dicotyledonous plants, and other subjects; and _Réfutation de toutes
les objections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques_ (1852).
GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT (1827-1908), French geologist and palaeontologist,
was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th of September 1827, and was
educated at the college, Stanislas. At the age of twenty-five he made
explorations in Cyprus and Greece, residing in the latter country from
1855 to 1860. He then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata
at Pikermi and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene in
age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic and African
types. He also published an account of the geology of the island of
Cyprus (_Mém. Soc. Géol. de France_, 1862). In 1853, while still in
Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A. d'Orbigny, who was the first to
hold the chair of palaeontology in the museum of natural history at
Paris. In 1872 he succeeded to this important post; in 1882 he was
elected member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over
the meetings of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held
in Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished for
his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support which his studies
have rendered to the theory of evolution.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Animaux fossiles et géologie de l'Attique_ (2 vols.,
1862-1867); _Cours de paléontologie_ (1873); _Animaux fossiles du Mont
Lebéron_ (1873); _Les Enchaînements du monde animal dans les temps
géologiques_ (_Mammifères Tertiaires_, 1878; _Fossiles primaires_,
1883; _Fossiles secondaires_, 1890); _Essai de paléontologie
philosophique_ (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in _Geol. Mag._
(1903), p. 49. (H. B. W.)
GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay, especially with a
sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of colour or ornament. The
accurate origin of the various senses which this word and the
substantive "gaud" have taken are somewhat difficult to trace. They are
all ultimately to be referred to the Lat. _gaudere_, to rejoice,
_gaudium_, joy, some of them directly, others to the French derivative
_gaudir_, to rejoice, and O. Fr. _gaudie_. As a noun, in the sense of
rejoicing or feast, "gaudy" is still used of a commemoration dinner at a
college at the university of Oxford. "Gaud," meaning generally a toy, a
gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically applied to
larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.
GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter, son of the landscape
painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843), was born at Wiesenbach near
Gutenstein in Lower Austria on the 20th of September 1807. It was the
intention of his father that he should devote himself to agriculture,
but the example of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered
his inclination towards art. Under his father's direction he began
studies in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the
chief masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy and
court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours in the
districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces which he
exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded as remarkable
productions for his years, and led to his receiving commissions in 1825
and 1826 from Prince Metternich and Caraman, the French ambassador. His
reputation was greatly increased by his picture "The Storm," exhibited
in 1829, and from that time his works were much sought after and
obtained correspondingly high prices. His "Field Labourer" was regarded
by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition of 1834,
and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a place in the first
rank of painters of that class of subjects. The peculiarity of his
pictures is the representation of human and animal figures in connexion
with appropriate landscapes and in characteristic situations so as to
manifest nature as a living whole, and he particularly excels in
depicting the free life of animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with
great mastery of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit
patient and keen observation, free and correct handling of details, and
bold and clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.
Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a
selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose by
the Austrian _Kunstverein_ (Art Union).
GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. _gauja, jaugia_, Fr. _jauge_, perhaps
connected with Fr. _jale_, a bowl, _galon_, gallon), a standard of
measurement, and also the name given to various instruments and
appliances by which measurement is effected. The word seems to have been
primarily used in connexion with the process of ascertaining the
contents of wine casks; the name gauger is still applied to certain
custom-house officials in the United States, and in Scotland it means an
exciseman. Thence it was extended to other measurements, and used of the
instruments used in making them or of the standards to which they were
referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great variety to
enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object he is making is of
the proper dimensions (see TOOL), and similar gauges of various forms
are employed to ascertain and to specify the sizes of manufactured
articles such as wire and screws. A rain gauge is an apparatus for
measuring the amount of the rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge
indicates the pressure and force of the wind. The boilers of steam
engines are provided with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge.
The purpose of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or
not there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists
of two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being placed
at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water to fall,
and the other at the point above which it should not rise; a glass tube
connects the two cocks, and when they are both open the water in this
stands at the same level as in the boiler. The steam gauge shows the
pressure of the steam in the boiler. One of the commonest forms, known
as the Bourdon gauge, depends on the fact that a curved tube tends to
straighten itself if the pressure within it is greater than that outside
it. This gauge therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic
material, and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler
and arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending
actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure within
the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to bend or coil
itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, the gauge then
becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far the pressure in the vessel to
which it is attached is below that of the atmosphere. In railway
engineering the gauge of a line is the distance between the two rails
(see RAILWAY). In nautical language, a ship is said to have the weather
gage when she is to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when
to leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt "gage," a
spelling which prevails in America for all senses.
GAUHATI, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district of Eastern
Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but partly on the right
bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 14,244. It is beautifully situated,
with an amphitheatre of wooded hills to the south, but is not very
healthy. There are many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks,
of its historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken and
retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty years, but in 1681
it became the residence of the Ahom governor of lower Assam, and in 1786
the capital of the Ahom raja. On the cession of Assam to the British in
1826 it was made the seat of the British administration of Assam, and so
continued till 1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in
the Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected by an
excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage are
situated in the immediate vicinity, the temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2
m. west of the town, and the rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel
of the Brahmaputra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district
and of the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military
cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-Bengal
railway. There are a second-grade college, a government high school, a
law class and a training school for masters. Gauhati is an important
centre of river trade, and the largest seat of commerce in Assam.
Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and an export trade in mustard seed,
cotton, silk and forest produce are carried on. Gauhati suffered very
severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.
GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855- ), American artist, was born in Jersey
City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855. He was a pupil of J.G.
Brown and L.E. Wilmarth, and he became a painter of military pictures,
portraying incidents of the American Civil War. He was elected an
associate of the National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full
academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of
American Artists. His important works include: "Charging the Battery,"
"News from Home," "Cold Comfort on the Outpost," "Silenced," "On the
Look-out," and "Guerillas returning from a Raid."
GAUL, the modern form of the Roman _Gallia_, the name of the two chief
districts known to the Romans as inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples,
(a) _Gallia Cisalpina_ (or _Citerior_, "Hither"), i.e. north Italy
between Alps and Apennines and (b) the far more important _Gallia
Transalpina_ (or _Ulterior_, "Further"), usually called _Gallia_ (Gaul)
simply, the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees,
the Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parts of
Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of _Gallia_ was [Greek:
Galatia], but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic region in central
Asia Minor, sometimes styled _Gallograecia_.
(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 B.C.; later it
adopted Roman civilization; about 42 B.C. it was united with Italy and
its subsequent history is merged in that of the peninsula. Its chief
distinctions are that during the later Republic and earlier Empire it
yielded excellent soldiers, and thus much aided the success of Caesar
against Pompey and of Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the
poet Virgil (by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus,
Cornelius Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished
writers.[1]
(b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek colony of
Massilia was founded (? 600 B.C.). Roman armies began to enter it about
218 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from Montpellier to the Pyrenees (i.e.
all that was not Massiliot) with its port of Narbo (mod. _Narbonne_) and
its trade route by Toulouse to the Atlantic, was formed into the
province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself into a Roman
municipality. Commercial motives prompted the step, and Roman traders
and land speculators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was
extended north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself
became weak and dependent on Rome.
It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century B.C. that we
have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest account is
that contained in the _Commentaries_ of Julius Caesar. According to this
authority, Gaul was at that time divided among three peoples, more or
less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, the Gauls, who called
themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The first of these extended from the
Pyrenees to the Garumna (Garonne); the second, from that river to the
Sequana (Seine) and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching
eastward presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from
this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus bordering
on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes as a fourth division
the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By far the greater part of the
country was a plain watered by numerous rivers, the chief of which have
already been mentioned, with the exception of its great central stream,
the Liger or Ligeris (Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna
or Gebenna (Cévennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation
Vosegus or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in
Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races
distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them, and dwelling
in the division occupied by the Celts, were the Helvetii, the Sequani
and the Aedui, in the basins of the Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar
(Saône), who, he says, were reckoned the three most powerful nations in
all Gaul; the Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and
Carnutes in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican
tribes between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii,
Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci were Belgic
tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the Allobroges
inhabited the north of the Provincia, having been conquered in 121 B.C.
The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have been much
discussed (see CELT, and articles on the chief tribes).
The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of Gaul,
north-west of the Cévennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, and in 49 also
annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman territory. Now the second
period of her history opens; it remained for Roman territory to become
romanized.
Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was left to
Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also by his successor
Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative areas.
(i) _Narbonensis_, that is, the land between Alps, sea and Cévennes,
extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus found it, distinct in
many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature it is a sun-steeped southern
region, the home of the vine and olive, of the minstrelsy of the
Provençal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the colder and
more sober north. By history it had already (in the time of Augustus)
been Roman for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It
was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need no
garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul
(appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden of troops, while its
local government was assimilated to that of Italy. The old Celtic tribes
were broken up: instead, municipalities of Roman citizens were founded
to rule their territories. Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the
_colonia_ of Vienna takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find
Nemausus (Nîmes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took
rapidly to Italian ways. By A.D. 70 it was "Italia verius quam
provincia" (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias towards the
Italian civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy
and southern Gaul. But though education spread, the results were
somewhat disappointing. Trade flourished; the corporations of bargemen
and the like on the Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could
afford splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great
administrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists
alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.
(ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic in
climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively styled
"Gallia Comata," often "Tres Provinciae," was divided into three
provinces, each under a _legatus pro praetore_ appointed by the emperor,
with a common capital at Lugudunum (Lyons). The three provinces were:
_Aquitania_, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire;
_Lugudunensis_, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany
in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and _Belgica_ in the north. The
boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also it
was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces
were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine army was close at
hand. As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike
that of Italy or Narbonensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed
unknown, but very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the
old tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme. But
the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them,
revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and
in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS). But all five
leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship,
and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than
the Roman empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted
Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became hardly
distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they eagerly accepted
the worship of "Augustus and Rome," devised by the first emperor as a
bond of state religion connecting the provinces with Rome. Each August,
despite the heat, representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia
Comata met at Lyons, elected a priest, "sacerdos ad aram Augusti et
Romae," and held games. The post of representative, and still more that
of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the ambitions
which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the vigorous development
of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained
their own local feeling. Even in the 3rd century the cult of Celtic
deities (Hercules Magusanus, Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic
_leuga_ reintroduced instead of the Roman mile on official milestones,
and a brief effort made to establish an independent, though romanized,
Gaul under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 250-273). Not
only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: it was
also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be romanized as
fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even probable that Celtic was
spoken in forest districts into the 4th century A.D. Town life, however,
grew. The _chefs-lieux_ of the tribes became practically, though not
officially, municipalities, and many of these towns reached considerable
size and magnificence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal
relations by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name
of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the Remi
and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the appellations in
use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius--these forms being
indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of locative of the tribe names.
Literature also flourished. In the latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus,
Apollinaris, Sidonius and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia
Comata, kept alive the classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul
but for the world.
(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military frontier.
Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to the Elbe. His plans
were foiled by the courage of Arminius and the inability of the Roman
exchequer to pay a larger army. Instead, his successor Tiberius
organized the Rhine frontier in two military districts. The northern one
was the valley of the Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south
of Bonn: the southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland.
Each district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions,
which were disposed at various times in some of the following
fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn),
Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa (Windisch
in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely military, were
called, after the garrisons, "exercitus Germanicus superior" (south) and
"inferior" (north). Later one or two municipalities were
founded--Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne (A.D. 51), Colonia Augusta
Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain), Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside
Vetera--and about 80-90 A.D. the two "Exercitus" were turned into the
two provinces of Upper and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts
formed the defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to
keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four
provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.
These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but without
seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country, indeed,
continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions till after 400.
In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst over Gaul: Roman rule
practically ceased and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians
and Franks began to form. There were still a Roman general and Roman
troops when Attila was defeated in the _campi Catalaunici_ in A.D. 451,
but the general, Aetius, was "the last of the Romans," and in 486 Clovis
the Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.
For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern towns
(ARLES, NÎMES, ORANGE &c.), BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, AQUEDUCT,
ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, &c.; for religion see DRUIDISM; for the
famous schools of Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Marseilles
and Narbonne, see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (ed.
1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250; for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen,
_Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See
also Desjardins, _Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule
romaine_ (Paris, 1877); Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des
institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (Paris, 1877); for
Caesar's campaigns, article CAESAR, JULIUS, and works quoted; for
coins, art. NUMISMATICS and articles in the _Numismatische
Zeitschrift_ and _Revue numismatique_ (e.g. Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461
foll.). (F. J. H.)