FOOTNOTES:_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Calhoun" to "Camoens" Volume 5, Slice 1

[1] See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH

[2] Translated by Abel Remusat, _Noveaux Melanges Asiatiques_ (1829).

CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman, was the son of a

wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In 1785 his father retired,

leaving the direction of the business to Pierre and his two brothers,

but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to politics, and was sent by his

fellow-citizens as deputy _suppleant_ to Versailles, where he was little

more than a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was

elected a member of the municipality, was one of the founders of the

Jacobin club in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he

drew up a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a

republic,--the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the

Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence, his

honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active member of the

committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the

treasury. Nothing could be more false than the common opinion that as a

financier his sole expedient was to multiply the emissions of

_assignats_. His remarkable speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a

convincing proof of his sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from

the clubs, and even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new

institutions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a law

passed sequestrating the possessions of the _emigres_, and demanded,

though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to French Guiana.

He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly. Re-elected to the

Convention, he opposed the pretensions of the Commune and the proposed

grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced

Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an

account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing of

military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, in spite of

the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred the hatred of

Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which

would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew

steadily. On the 15th of December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a

proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the

trial of Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or

postponement. He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolutionary

Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public Safety he

worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On the 3rd of

February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800 millions of

_assignats_, for the expenses of the war. His courageous intervention in

favour of the Girondists on the and of June 1793 served Robespierre as a

pretext to prevent his re-election to the Committee of Public Safety.

But Cambon soon came to the conclusion that the security of France

depended upon the triumph of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to

accord his active co-operation to the second committee. He took an active

share in the various expedients of the government for stopping the

depreciation of the _assignats_. He was responsible, especially, for the

great operation known as the opening of the _Grand Livre_ (August 24),

which was designed to consolidate the public debt by cancelling the

stock issued under various conditions prior to the Revolution, and

issuing new stock of a uniform character, so that all fund-holders

should hold stock of the revolutionary government and thus be interested

in its stability. Each fund-holder was to be entered in the Great Book,

or register of the public debt, for the amount due to him every year.

The result of this measure was a rise in the face value of the

_assignats_ from 27% to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of

finance Cambon was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of

dictatorship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary

Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on the 8th

Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-revolutionary and an

aristocrat. Cambon's proud and vehement reply was the signal of the

resistance to Robespierre's tyranny and the prelude to his fall. Cambon

soon had reason to repent of that event, for he became one of those most

violently attacked by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets

and the journals of J.L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former

_Montagnard_. He was charged with being responsible for the discredit of

the _assignats_, and even accused of malversations. On the 21st of

February 1795 the project which he presented to withdraw four milliards

of _assignats_ from circulation, was rejected, and on the 3rd of April

he was excluded from the committee of finance. On the 16th Germinal,

Tallien procured a decree of accusation against him, but he was already

in safety, taking refuge probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not

seem to have remained in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial

some of the insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th

Brumaire of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to

return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near

Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow escape from

an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to find in Bonaparte the

saviour of the republic, but, deceived by the 18th Brumaire, he lived

throughout the whole of the empire in peaceful seclusion. During the

Hundred Days he was deputy for Herault in the chamber of

representatives, and pronounced himself strongly against the return of

the Bourbons, and for religious freedom. Under the Restoration the

"amnesty" law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he

withdrew to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died

on the 15th of February 1820. (R. A.*)

See Bornarel, _Cambon_ (Paris).

CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist, was born on the 20th

of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private

secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years

of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as

prefect successively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876),

Nord (1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being

nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became

French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890,

and in 1898 to London. He was decorated with the grand cross of the

Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences.

His brother, JULES MARTIN CAMBON (1845- ), was called to the bar in

1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service

in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the

Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see

Guyot, _L'oeuvre de M. Jules Cambon_, Paris, 1897), where he had served

in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at

Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of

peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United

States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin.

CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary division of

Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, 13 m. E.N.E. of

Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. It lies on the

northward slope of the central elevation of the county, and is in the

neighbourhood of some of the most productive tin and copper mines. These

and the manufacture of mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants.

The parish church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient

stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art and

mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine,

the school attracting a large number of students. It was developed from

classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners' Association, and a three years'

course of instruction is provided.

Camborne (_Cambron, Camron_) formed a portion of the extensive manor of

Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by the earl of

Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. Its

interests were economically insignificant until the beginning of the

18th century when the rich deposits of copper and tin began to be

vigorously worked at Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this

mine alone had produced ore worth L2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth

L5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other mines in

the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double that of 1830, six

times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of 1660. Camborne was the

scene of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the

engineer, born in the neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William

Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three

fairs on the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 25th of February

were granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been

transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the subject of

a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the 19th century it

has been held on Saturdays.

CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the

department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the main line of the

Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai is situated on the right

and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of which traverse the west of the

town) and at one extremity of the canal of St Quentin. The

fortifications with which it was formerly surrounded have been for the

most part demolished. The fosses have been filled up and the ramparts in

part levelled to make way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues

stretching out on all sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are

the huge square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the

chateau de Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the

13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a stone and

brick structure of the early 17th century. Handsome boulevards now skirt

the town, the streets of which are clean and well-ordered, and a large

public garden extends at the foot of the citadel, with a statue of

Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. The former cathedral of Cambrai

was destroyed after the Revolution. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame

is a church of the 19th century built on the site of the old abbey

church of St Sepulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of

Fenelon, archbishop from 1695 to 1715, by David d'Angers. The church of

St Gery (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a marble

rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place d'Armes, a large

square in the centre of the town, is bordered on the north by a handsome

hotel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt in the 19th century. The Tour

St Martin is an old church-tower of the 15th and 18th centuries

transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance

to the former archiepiscopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance

period. The present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral,

occupies the site of an old Benedictine convent.

Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has

tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of

trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of

France. Its educational institutions include communal colleges,

ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and music. The library

has over 40,000 volumes and there is a museum of antiquities and objects

of art. The chief industry of Cambrai is the weaving of muslin

(_batiste_) and other fine fabrics (see CAMBRIC); wool-spinning and

weaving, bleaching and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the

manufacture of chicory, oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are

also large beet-sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in

cattle, grain, coal, hops, seed, &c.

Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of _Camaracum_, which is mentioned

in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was the capital of the

Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, it was captured

and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the

Hungarians in 953. During the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries it was the

scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on

the one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately

effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained

possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, duke of

Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 16th century Charles

V. caused it to be fortified with a strong citadel, for the erection of

which the castles of Cavillers, Escaudoeuvres and many others were

demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which

assigned it to France, it frequently passed from hand to hand by capture

or treaty. In 1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League

of Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis

XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians in

1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is also called, the Ladies'

Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of

Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of

these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and

was raised in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till

the Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received the

title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in 1510 were

raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including the town

itself and its territory, called Cambresis.

See E. Bouly, _Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambresis_ (Cambria, 1843).

CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western

Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land

round the Solway (now Cumberland and adjacent regions), and the former

came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were

sometimes interchanged by early medieval writers.

CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally employed to

designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks which possesses a

connected suite of fossils. The strata of this system rest upon the

Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the Ordovician system. Until the

fourth decade of the 19th century all stratified rocks older than the

Carboniferous had been grouped by geologists into a huge and indefinite

"Transition Series." In 1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison

began the herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of

rocks as it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England.

Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where the rocks

are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are comparatively

difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, began to work at the

upper end of the series where the stratigraphy is simple and the fossils

are abundant. Murchison naturally made the most of the fossils

collected, and was soon able to show that the transition series could be

recognized by them, just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to

themselves; as he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous

rocks further afield and continually lower in the series. This

fossil-bearing set of strata he first styled the "fossiliferous

greywacke series," changing it in 1835 to "Silurian system."

In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name "Cambrian series" for the

older and lower members. Murchison published his Silurian system in

1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to include the barren slates

and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the Long Mynd. So far, the two

workers had been in agreement; but in his presidential address to the

Geological Society of London in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that

the Cambrian contained no fossils that differed from those of the Lower

Silurian. Whereupon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh

rocks with the assistance of J.W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in

1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the Upper

Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his _Siluria_, in which

he treated the Cambrian system as a mere local facies of the Silurian

system, and he included in the latter, under J. Barrande's term

"Primordial zone," all the lower rocks, although they had a distinctive

fauna.

Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected from

similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of "Cambrian"

was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, it was taken to

apply only to a group of rocks without a characteristic fauna and

therefore impossible to recognize. Most of the Cambrian rocks were

coloured as Silurian on the British official geological maps.

Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on the

British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of the

Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his Silurian system

downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick adhered to the original

grouping of his Cambrian system, and even proposed to limit the Silurian

to the Ludlow and Wenlock beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base.

This attitude he maintained until the year of his death (1873), when

there appeared his introduction to Salter's _Catalogue of Cambrian and

Silurian Fossils._

It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was

necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was left for

the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove that the rocks

below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison did indeed possess a

characteristic fauna, and their work was confirmed by researches going

on in other countries. To-day the recognition of the earliest

fossil-bearing recks, below the Llandeilo formation of Murchison, as

belonging to the Cambrian system, and the threefold subdivision of the

system according to palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly

established.

It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian as the

lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages being

Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use _Silurique_ to

cover the same period with the Cambrian as the lowest series, but these

differences of treatment are merely nominal. Jules Marcou and others

have used _Taconic_ (Taconian) as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C.

Lapworth proposed to apply the same term to the lowest subdivision

only; he had also used "Annelidian" in the same sense. These names are

of historical interest alone.

_Cambrian Rocks._--The lithological characters of the Cambrian rocks

possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the globe. Muds,

sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant types. In Scotland,

North America and Canada important deposits of limestone occur and

subordinate limestones are found in the Cambrian of central Europe.

In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the

United States, the rocks still retain their original horizontality of

deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the sands are still

incoherent; but in most parts of the world they bear abundant evidence

of the many movements and stresses to which they have been exposed

through so enormous a period of time. Thus, we find them more

frequently, folded, tilted and cleaved; the muds have become shales,

slates, phyllites or schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates

have become quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very

generally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more

recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized material

are not wanting.

[Illustration: Distribution of Cambrian Rocks.]

Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they form an

important feature and occur in considerable thickness; they are

represented by lavas of olivine-diabase and by contemporaneous tuffs

which are traversed by later granite and quartz felsite. In the Cambrian

of Brittany there are acid lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and

diorite appear in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada

igneous rocks have been observed.

In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found full of

boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner that is

typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the Gaisa beds

near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These formations lie at the base of

the lowest Cambrian strata and may possibly be included in the

pre-Cambrian, though in Norway they are clearly resting upon a striated

floor of crystalline rocks.

_Cambrian Life._--In a general survey of the life of this period, as it

is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are apparent: (1)

the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna and that of the present

day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage differs in no marked manner from

that of the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian periods; there is a

certain family likeness which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary

complexity and diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but

within certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian

strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks--if we leave out of

account the very few and very obscure organic remains hitherto recorded

from the pre-Cambrian--yet we appear to enter suddenly into the presence

of a world richly peopled with a suite of organisms already far advanced

in differentiation; the Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from

what must have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this

remote period are distant from the creatures of to-day.

With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great classes of

animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple protozoa appear in the

form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges are represented by such forms as

_Archaeoscyphia_, Hexactinellid sponges by _Protospongia_; Graptolites

(_Dictyograptus (Dictyonema)_) come on in the higher parts of the

system. Medusa-like casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of

Scandinavia (_Medusina_) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama

(_Brooksella_). Corals, _Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus_, &c., lived in

the Cambrian seas along with starfishes (_Palaeasterina_), Cystideans,

_Protocystites, Trochocystites_ and possibly Crinoids, _Dendrocrinus_.

Annelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor

(_Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus_, &c.). Crustacea occupied an

extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as

_Hymenocaris_, and Ostracods like _Entomidella_; but by far the most

important in numbers and development were the Trilobites, now extinct,

but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the Cambrian period trilobites

had already attained their maximum size; some species of _Paradoxides_

were nearly 2 ft. long, but in company with these monsters were tiny

forms like _Agnostus_ and _Microdiscus_. Many of the Cambrian trilobites

appear to have been blind, and they had not at this period developed

that flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later.

Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-articulated forms

(_Obolus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis_, &c.); amongst the

articulate genera are _Kutorgina, Orthis, Khynchonella._ It is a

striking fact that certain of these non-articulate "lamp-shells" are

familiar inhabitants of our present seas. Each of the principal groups

of true mollusca was represented: Pelecypods (_Modioloides_);

Gasteropods (_Scenella, Pleurotomaria, Trochonema_); Pteropods

(_Hyohthellus, Hyolithes, Salleretta_); Cephalopods (_Orthoceras,

Cystoceras_). Of land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain

markings on slates and sandstones, such as the "fucoids" of Scandinavia

and Scotland, the _Phycoides_ of the Fichtelgebirge, _Eophyton_ and

other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be the casts of fucoid

plants; but it is by no means sure that many of them are not mere

inorganic imitative markings or the tracks or casts of worms.

_Oldhamia_, a delicate branching body, abundant in the Cambrian of the

south-east of Ireland, is probably a calcareous alga, but its precise

nature has not been satisfactorily determined.

_Cambrian Stratigraphy._--Wherever the Cambrian strata have been

carefully studied it has now been found possible and convenient to

arrange them into three series, each of which is characterized by a

distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a Lower Cambrian with

_Olenellus_, a middle series with _Paradoxides_ and an Upper Cambrian

with _Olenus_. It is true that these fossils are not invariably present

in every occurrence of Cambrian strata, but this fact notwithstanding,

the threefold division holds with sufficient constancy. An uppermost

series lies above the _Olenus_ fauna in some areas; it is represented by

the Tremadoc beds in Britain or by the _Dictyonema_ beds or

_Euloma-Niobe_ fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention:

(1) Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first

differentiated from the old "Transition Series"; (2) North America, on

account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the abundance and

perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, made classic by the great

labours of J. Barrande.

_Great Britain and Ireland._--The table on p. 88 contains the names

that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata in

the areas of outcrop in Wales and England; at the same time it

indicates approximately their relative position in the system.

In _Scotland_ the upper and middle series are represented by a thick

mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone (1500 ft.). In

the lower series are, in descending order, the "Serpulite grits" or

"Salterella beds," the "Fucoid beds" and the "Eriboll quartzite,"

which is divided into an upper "Pipe rock" and lower "Basal

quartzite."

The Cambrian rocks of _Ireland_, a great series of purple and green

shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded

sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh

rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in the

future to the overlying Ordovician.

_North America._--On the North American continent, as in Europe, the

Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the lower or

"Georgian," with _Olenellus_ fauna; (2) the middle or "Acadian," with

_Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus_ fauna; (3) the upper or "Potsdam,"

with _Olenus_ fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms for

Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland and Labrador

coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-west of those

points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain valley into Alabama, a

distance of some 2000 m.; and the rocks are brought up again on the

western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, western Montana and British

Columbia. The middle division covers approximately the same region as

the lower one, and in addition it is found in the states of Texas,

Oklahoma, and Arizona, in western Montana, and possibly in western

Wisconsin. The lower division, in addition to covering the areas

already indicated, spreads over the interior of the United States.

_Bohemia_.--The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized by

J.F. Pompesk; to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian groups.

They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. The Cambrian

system is covered by his stages "B" and "C"; the former a barren

series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter a series of grey

and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, greywackes

and conglomerates.

+----------------+--------------------+---------------+----------------------------------------------------------------+

| | North Wales. | South Wales. +--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

_Scandinavia_.--Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished clearly

on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found in a thin

series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing shales

play an important part. Limestones and shales with the _Euloma-Niobe_

fauna come at the top. The upper series (_Olenus_) has been minutely

zoned by W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg and J.C. Moberg. In the middle

series (_Paradoxides_) three thin limestone bands have been

distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans-Kalk and the

Andrarums-Kalk.

On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by the Roros

schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystalline

schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian rocks.

_Baltic Province._--The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all

soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of

Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called "blue clay"

(really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a fucoidal

sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent of the Lower

Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an important break appears in

the system, for the _Paradoxides_ and _Olenus_ divisions are absent.

The upper members are the "Ungulite grit" and about 20 ft. of

Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been traced into Siberia (lat.

71 deg.) and on the island of Vaigatch.

_Central Europe._--Besides the Bohemian region previously mentioned,

Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of France, in

Spain and the Thuringer Wald. In the Ardennes the system is

represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and quartz

schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. A.

Dumont has arranged the whole series (_Terrain ardennais_) into three

systems, an upper "Salmien," a middle "Revinien" and a lower

"Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to unite the

two lower groups in one.

_France_.---In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple

conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability upon

pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern Poitou. In the

Rennes basin limestones--often dolomitic--are associated with

quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones also occur in the

Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old lands of Languedoc,

equivalents of the two upper divisions of the Cambrian have been

recorded; and the uppermost members of the system appear in Herault.

Patches of Cambrian rocks are found in the Pyrenees.

In _Spain_ slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than

9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega,

thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian rocks

occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper Cambrian

strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal.

In _Russian Poland_ is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and

shales; Some of the beds yield a _Paradoxides_ fauna.

In the _Thuringer Wald_ are certain strata, presumably Cambrian since

the uppermost beds contain the _Euloma-Niobe_ fauna.

_Sardinia_ contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cambrian

system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neobolus or

Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle subdivision.

The same group is probably represented in Corea and the Liao-tung by

the thick "Sinisian" formation of F. von Richthofen.

In _South America_ upper Cambrian rocks have been recorded from north

Argentina.

The Lower Cambrian has been found at various places in _South

Australia_; and in _Tasmania_ a thick series of strata appears to be

in part at least of Upper Cambrian age.

_General Physical Conditions in the Cambrian Period._--The Cambrian

rocks previously described are all such as would result from deposition,

in comparatively shallow seas, of the products of degradation of land

surfaces by the ordinary agents of denudation. Evidences of shallow

water conditions are abundant; very frequently on the bedding surfaces

of sandstones and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and

pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, and

these records of the weather of this remote period are preserved as

sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our tidal reaches.

Ripple marks and current bedding further point, to the shallowness of

the water at the places where the rocks were made.

No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses of the

sea--although the absence of well-developed eyes in the trilobites has

led some to assume that this condition was an indication that the

creatures lived in abyssal depths.

At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of that period

must have been elevated into regions of fairly high ground; this we may

assume from the nature of the Cambrian deposits which are mainly the

product of the denudation of such ground. Over the land areas thus

formed, the seas in Cambrian time gradually spread, laying down first

the series known as Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the

land the wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits--in Europe, the middle

series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are usually

unconformable on older rocks.

During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the crust may

have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake conditions. The common

occurrence of red strata has been cited in support of this view.

Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free from extensive

volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in Brittany the earlier portions

of this period were marked by voluminous outpourings; a condition that

was feebly reflected in central and southern Europe.

No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the climatic

peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red rocks may in some

cases suggest desert conditions; and there is good reason to suppose

that in what are now Norway and China a glacial cold prevailed early in

the period.

Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian deposits,

which may generally be explained by the greater rapidity of deposition

in some areas than in others. Nothing could be more striking than the

difference between the thicknesses in western and eastern Europe; in

Brittany the deposits are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least

12,000 ft., in western England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern

Scotland 2000 ft., while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete

Cambrian succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North

America, the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous

regions on the west and on the east--reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter

and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British

Columbia)--while over the interior of the continent it is seldom more

than 1000 ft. thick.

Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the Cambrian

period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was pointed out by

Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there appeared two marine

provinces--a northern one extending from Russia to the British Isles

through Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a southern one comprising

France, Bohemia, the Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that

some kind of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there

is a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and eastern

America; many fossils of this period are common to Britain, Sweden and

eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a north Atlantic basin

existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there was also a Pacific basin more

extensive than at present; this is borne out by the similarity between

the Cambrian faunas of China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author

postulates an Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe,

Greenland and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the

present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between Australia and

India, where the faunas have much in common.

REFERENCES.--The literature devoted to the Cambrian period is very

voluminous, important contributions having been made by A. Sedgwick,

Sir R.I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. Groom, J.W. Salter, J.E.

Marr, C.D. Walcott, G.F. Matthew, E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande,

F. Schmidt, W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg, S.L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson

and many others. A good general account of the period will be found in

Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with

references), and from an American point of view, in T.C. Chamberlin

and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American

sources). See also J.E. Marr, _The Classification of the Cambrian and

Silurian Rocks_, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of

publication); A. Geikie _Q.J. Geol. Sac._, 1891, xlvii., Ann. address,

p. 90; F. Frech, "Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des

Cambrium," _Compte Rendu. Congres Geol. Internal. 1897,

St-Petersbourg_ (1899); _Geological Literature added to the Geological

Society's Library_, published annually since 1893. (J. A. H.)

CAMBRIC, a word derived from _Kameryk_ or _Kamerijk_, the Flemish name

of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, France, where the cloth of

this name is said to have been first made. It was originally made of

fine linen. There is a record of a privy purse expenditure in 1530 for

cambric for Henry VIII.'s shirts. Cambric has been used for many years

in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine

underclothing; also for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The

yarns for this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads

and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. Embroidery

cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, said to be called

after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a kind of cambric

frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are largely copied in

cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, and in many cases cotton

alone, taking the place of the original flax line yarns.

CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. Under the Norman and early Plantagenet

kings of England the earldom of Cambridge was united with that of

Huntingdon, which was held among others by David I., king of Scotland,

as the husband of earl Waltheof's daughter, Matilda. As a separate

dignity the earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count

(afterwards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King

Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death) Edward created

his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cambridge, the title being

afterwards merged in that of duke of York, which was bestowed upon

Edmund in 1385. Edmund's elder son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who

succeeded his father as duke of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402,

appears to have resigned the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in

this year his younger brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In

the following year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry

V., and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son,

Richard, who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle

Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held by Richard,

and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, afterwards King Edward

IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the Yorkist dynasty.

In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon James

Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created him earl of

Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor James, 3rd

marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In 1651 when William, 2nd

duke of Hamilton, died, his English title became extinct.

Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of earl of

Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his brother Henry, duke

of Gloucester, only to become extinct on Henry's death in the following

year. In 1661 Charles, the infant son of James, duke of York, afterwards

King James II., was designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but

the child died before the necessary formalities were completed. However,

two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were actually

created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died in childhood.

After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 it was proposed to

grant an English title to George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover,

who, after his grandmother, the electress Sophia, and his father, the

elector George Louis, was heir to the throne of England; and to give

effect to this proposal George Augustus was created marquess and duke of

Cambridge in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of

Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in favour

of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He and his son are

dealt with below.

ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was born in London on

the 24th of February 1774. Having studied at the university of

Gottingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the Hanoverian and British

armies, and, in November 1801, was created earl of Tipperary and duke of

Cambridge, becoming a member of the privy council in the following year.

The duke is chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on

the conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to the

rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was appointed

viceroy. He held this position until the separation of Great Britain and

Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and moderation, appears to have

ruled the country with great success during a difficult period.

Returning to England the duke became very popular, and was active in

supporting many learned and benevolent societies. He died in London on

the 8th of July 1850. In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter

of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his

successor, George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick

William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide

(1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck.

GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLES, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), was

born at Hanover on the 26th of March 1819. He was thus about two months

older than his cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the

line of succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover by

the Rev. J.R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November 1837, after he had

served for a short time in the Hanoverian army, the rank of colonel in

the British army was conferred upon him, and he was attached to the

staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in

Ireland with the 12th Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842

colonel of the 17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he

was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then promoted

major-general. In October 1846 he took command of the Limerick district,

and shortly afterwards of the Dublin district. In 1850 his father died,

and he succeeded to the dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry

in 1852, he held that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the

Crimean War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and

Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June of the same

year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was present at the battles

of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, and at the siege of Sevastopol. On

the 15th of July 1856 he was appointed general commanding-in-chief, on

the 9th of November 1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887,

commander-in-chief. The long period during which he held the command of

the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War brought to light

great administrative defects, and led to a regrouping of the

departments, which, with the whole personnel of the army, were brought

under the authority of the secretary of state for war. The

constitutional changes involved did not, however, affect seriously the

organization of the military forces. Only in 1870, after the successes

of Prussia had created a profound impression, were drastic changes

introduced by Cardwell into the entire fabric of the army. The objects

of the reformers of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods

adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by the duke of

Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority of officers. Further

changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again the duke found much to

criticize. His opinions stand recorded in the voluminous evidence taken

by the numerous bodies appointed to inquire into the condition of the

army. They show a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations

as such, a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this

judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally supposed

is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout the period of

change, while protesting, the duke invariably accepted and loyally

endeavoured to carry out the measures on which the government decided.

In a memorandum addressed to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude

as follows:--"Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state

policy it is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, I

am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability." This attitude

he consistently maintained in all cases in which his training and

associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate changes the need

for which was not apparent to him. His judgment was especially

vindicated in the case of an ill-advised reduction of the artillery

carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under the order in council of February

1888, the whole responsibility for military duties of every kind was for

the first time centred upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out

by the Hartington commission in 1890, involved "an excessive

centralization" which "must necessarily tend to weaken the sense of

responsibility of the other heads of departments, and thus to diminish

their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose position entailed many

duties apart from those strictly appertaining to a commander-in-chief,

could not give personal attention to the vast range of matters for which

he was made nominally responsible. On the other hand, the

adjutant-general could act in his name, and the secretary of state could

obtain military advice from officials charged with no direct

responsibility. The effect was to place the duke in a false position in

the eyes of the army and of the country. If the administration of the

army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which violated

principles. His active control of its training during the whole period

of his command was less hampered, and more directly productive of good

results.

Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge evinced a warm

interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great experience combined

with a retentive memory made him a master of detail. He was famous for

plain, and strong, language; but while quick to condemn deviations from

the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great precision

in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural kindliness made him

ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the older generation of soldiers,

he could not easily adapt himself to the new conditions, and in

dispensing patronage he was somewhat distrustful of originality, while

his position as a member of the royal family tended to narrow his scope

for selection. He was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations

of pure seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The

army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge it had a

commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly anxious amid

many difficulties to promote its well-being. The duke resigned the

commandership-in-chief on the 1st of November 1895, and was succeeded by

Lord Wolseley, the duties of the office being considerably modified. He

was at the same time gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces.

He was made ranger of Hyde Park and St James's Park in 1852, and of

Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military Academy in 1862,

and its president in 1870, and personal aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria

in 1882. He died on the 17th of March 1904 at Gloucester House, London.

The chief honours conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835;

G.C.M.G., 1845; G.C.B., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he was

president of Christ's hospital. The duke of Cambridge was married to

Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge after her marriage.

She died in 1890.

See Rev. E. Sheppard, _George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir of his

Private Life_ (London, 1906); and Willoughby Verner, _Military Life of

the Duke of Cambridge_ (1905).

CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802), English poet, was born in London on

the 14th of February 1717. He was educated at Eton and at St John's

College, Oxford. Leaving the university without taking a degree, he took

up residence at Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and

went to live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In

1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society of many

notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes many jesting

allusions to Cambridge in the character of newsmonger. He died at

Twickenham on the 17th of September 1802. His chief work is the

_Scribleriad_ (1751), a mock epic poem, the hero of which is the

Martinus Scriblerus of Pope, Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded

by a dissertation on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his

master. The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read by

literary people; but it never became popular, and the allusions, always

obscure, have little interest for the present-day reader. He made a

valuable contribution to history in his _Account of the War in

India...on the Coast of Coromandel from the year 1750 to 1760..._

(1761). He had intended to write a history of the rise and progress of

British power in India, but this enterprise went no further than the

work just named, as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the

use of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan.

_The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq., including several Pieces

never before published, with an Account of his Life and Character by

his Son, George Owen Cambridge_ (1803), includes, besides the

_Scribleriad_, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty

papers originally published in Edward Moore's paper called _The

World_. His poems are included in A. Chalmers's _English Poets_

(1816).

CAMBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough, the seat of a

university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, 56 m. N. by

E. of London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the Great

Northern, London & North-Western and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379.

It lies in a flat plain at the southern border of the low Fen country,

at an elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part

of the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a tributary

of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To the south and west

the slight hills bordering the fenland rise gently. The parliamentary

borough of Cambridge returns one member. The municipal borough is under

a mayor, 12 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Calhoun" to "Camoens" Volume 5, Slice 1 · 第 27 / 33 题