[1] Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending
different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one
society or church.
CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German chronologer, was born of a peasant
family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the 21st of February 1556. By the
exercise of his musical talents he earned money enough for the start, at
Helmstadt, of an university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron
enabled him to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the
music-school at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same
capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the 24th of
November 1615, despite the offers successively made to him of
mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg. In his _Opus
Chronologicum_ (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he expounded a system based
on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. An ingenious, though ineffective,
proposal for the reform of the calendar was put forward in his _Elenchus
Calendarii Gregoriani_ (Frankfort, 1612); and he published a book on
music, _Melodiae condendae ratio_ (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading.
For details see V. Schmuck's _Leichenrede_ (1615); J. Bertuch's
_Chronicon Portense_ (1739); F.W.E. Rost's _Oratio ad renovendam S.
Calvisii memoriam_ (1805); J G. Stallbaum's _Nachrichten uber die
Cantoren an der Thomasschule_ (1842); _Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie_; Poggendorff's _Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch._
CALVO, CARLOS (1824-1906), Argentine publicist and historian, was born
at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February 1824, and devoted himself to the
study of the law. In 1860 he was sent by the Paraguayan government on a
special mission to London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published
in 1863 his _Derecho international teorico y practice de Europay
America_, in two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French
version. The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern
authorities on the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition had
become enlarged to six volumes. Senor Calvo's next publications were of
a semi-historical character. Between 1862 and 1869 he published in
Spanish and French his great collection in fifteen volumes of the
treaties and other diplomatic acts of the South American republics, and
between 1864 and 1875 his _Annales historiques de la revolution de
l'Amerique latine_, in five volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders
at the Ghent congress of the _Institut de Droit International._ In the
following year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his
_Dictionnaire du droit international public et prive_ in that city.
Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris.
CALW or KALW, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the
Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains
a Protestant and a Roman Catholic Church, two schools, missionary
institution, and a fine public library. The industries include spinning
and weaving operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather
are also manufactured. The timber trade, chiefly with the Netherlands,
is important. The place is in favour as a health resort.
The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages the town was
under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, whose possessions
finally passed to Wurttemberg in 1345. In 1634 the town was taken by the
Bavarians, and in 1692 by the French.
CALYDON ([Greek: Kalydon]), an ancient town of Aetolia, according to
Pliny, 7-1/2 Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was said to
have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have been the scene of
the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of the famous Calydonian
boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the fields; and to have taken part in
the Trojan war. In historical times it is first mentioned (391 B.C.) as
in the possession of the Achaeans, who retained it for twenty years, by
the assistance of the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the
attacks of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) it
was restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of Pompey it
was a town of importance; but Augustus removed its inhabitants to
Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate his victory at Actium (31
B.C.). The walls of Calydon are almost certainly to be recognized in the
Kastro of Kurtaga. These comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large
gate and five smaller ones, and are situated on a hill on the right or
west bank of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town
probably indicate the position of the temple of Artemis Laphria, whose
gold and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together probably with
her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all kinds of beasts, wild
and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre and consumed.
See W.M. Leake, _Travels in N. Greece_, i. p. 109, iii. pp. 533 sqq.;
W.J. Woodhouse, _Aetolia_, pp. 95 ssq. (E. Gr.)
CALYPSO, in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus, or Nereus),
queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When Odysseus was shipwrecked on
her shores, Calypso entertained the hero with great hospitality, and
prevailed on him to remain with her seven years. Odysseus was then
seized with a longing to return to his wife and home; Calypso's promise
of eternal youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by
Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of grief.
(Homer, _Odyssey_, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.)
CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, the first
European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to explore the West
African coast between Cape St Catherine (2 deg. S.) and Cape Cross (21
deg. 50' S.) almost from the equator to Walfish Bay. When King John II.
of Portugal revived the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam
(about midsummer (?) 1482) to open up the African coast still further
beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps
in August 1482), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only
in fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was also ascended
for a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives. Cam
then coasted down along the present Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and
erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this
voyage, at Cape Santa Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in
13 deg. 26' S. He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April
1484, when John II. ennobled him, made him a _cavalleiro_ of his
household (he was already an _escudeiro_ or esquire in the same), and
granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and 14th of April 1484).
That Cam, on his second voyage of 1483-1486, was accompanied by Martin
Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very
doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected
two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first
at another "Monte Negro" in 15 deg. 41' S., the second at Cape Cross in
21 deg. 50', this last probably marking the end of his progress
southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 map of
Henricus Martellus Germanus), Cam died off Cape Cross; but Joao de
Barros and others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a
native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cam on his two
voyages have all been discovered _in situ_, and the inscriptions on two
of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485
respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross
padrao is now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile);
those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in
the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society.
See Barros, _Decadas da Asia_, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy de
Pina, _Chronica d' el Rei D. Joao II._; Garcia de Resende, _Chronica_;
Luciano Cordeiro, "Diogo Cao" in _Boletim_ of the _Lisbon Geog.
Soc._, 1892; E.G. Ravenstein, "Voyages of Diogo Cao," &c., in _Geog.
Jnl._ vol. xvi. (1900); also _Geog. Jnl._ xxxi. (1908). (C. R. B.)
CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO (1824-1896), Spanish statesman and financier,
was born in Cadiz in 1824. The first part of his life was devoted to
mercantile and financial pursuits at Cadiz and then in Madrid, where he
managed the affairs of and liquidated a mercantile and industrial
society to the satisfaction and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he
became a captain in the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in
the Cortes for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards
elected ten times deputy, twice senator and life senator in 1877.
Camacho took a prominent part in all financial debates and committees,
was offered a seat in the Mon cabinet of 1864, and was appointed
under-secretary of state finances in 1866 under Canovas and O'Donnell.
After the revolution of 1868 he declined the post of minister of finance
offered by Marshal Serrano, but served in that capacity in 1872 and 1874
in Sagasta's cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in
the Cortes among the dynastic Liberals with Sagasta as leader, and
became finance minister in 1881 at a critical moment when Spain had to
convert, reduce, and consolidate her treasury and other debts with a
view to resuming payment of coupons. Camacho drew up an excellent budget
and collected taxation with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years
later Sagasta again made him finance minister under the regency of Queen
Christina, but had to sacrifice him when public opinion very clearly
pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and his severity in
collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons unsuccessful as a
governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company. He then seceded from the
Liberals, and during the last years of his life he affected to vote with
the Conservatives, who made him governor of the Bank of Spain. He died
in Madrid on the 23rd of January 1896. (A. E. H.)
CAMALDULIANS, or CAMALDOLESE, a religious order founded by St Romuald.
Born of a noble family at Ravenna _c._ 950, he retired at the age of
twenty to the Benedictine monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe; but
being strongly drawn to the eremitical life, he went to live with a
hermit in the neighbourhood of Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here
a colony of hermits grew up around him and he became the superior. As
soon as they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to
another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, only
to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other colonies of
hermits or "deserts" as they were called. In this way during the course
of his life Romuald formed a great number of "deserts" throughout
central Italy. His chief foundation was at Camaldoli on the heights of
the Tuscan Apennines not far from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during
half the year. Romuald's idea was to reintroduce into the West the
primitive eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first
Egyptian and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the
oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain days
for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to food,
clothing, silence and general observance. Besides the hermits there were
lay brothers to help in carrying out the field work and rougher
occupations. St Romuald and the early Camaldolese exercised considerable
influence on the religious movements of their time; the emperors Otto
III. and Henry II. esteemed him highly and sought his advice on
religious questions. Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the
still heathen parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them
suffered martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five
of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary, but he was
unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. After his death
mitigations were gradually introduced into the rule and manner of life;
and in the monastery of St Michael in Murano, Venice, the life became
cenobitical. From that time to the present day there have always been
both eremitical and cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to
ordinary Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and
into Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a "desert,"
the primitive observance of the institute being strictly maintained.
There are a few other "deserts," all in Italy, except one in Poland; and
there are about 90 hermits. The chief monastery of the cenobitical
Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less
than forty. Since the 11th century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at
present there are five nunneries with 150 nuns, all belonging to the
cenobitical branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white.
See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max
Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896) i. S 29; and the art.
"Camaldulenser" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), and
Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.)
CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE (1710-1770), French dancer, of Spanish
descent, was born in Brussels on the 15th of April 1710. Her father,
Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis, earned a scanty living as violinist and
dancing-master, and from childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten
years of age she was given lessons by Mlle Francoise Prevost
(1680-1741), then the first dancer at the Paris Opera, and at once
obtained an engagement as _premiere danseuse_, first at Brussels and
then at Rouen. Under her grandmother's family name of Camargo she made
her Paris _debut_ in 1726, and at once became the rage. Every new
fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair was copied by all at
court; her shoemaker--she had a tiny foot--made his fortune. She had
many titled adorers whom she nearly ruined by her extravagances, among
others Louis de Bourbon, comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from
the stage from 1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight
ballets or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the
first ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the
regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by Nicolas
Lancret in the Wallace collection, London.
CAMARGUE (_Insula Camaria_), a thinly-populated region of southern
France contained wholly in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and
comprising the delta of the Rhone. The Camargue is a marshy plain of
alluvial formation enclosed between the two branches of the river, the
Grand Rhone to the east and the Petit Rhone to the west. Its average
elevation is from 6-1/2 to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30
m. in length and an area of 290 sq. m., of which about a quarter
consists of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the
banks of the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by the
black bulls and white horses of the region and by large flocks of sheep,
or of marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated with salt. The
region is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes, bustards, partridge, and by
sea-birds of various kinds. The Etang de Vaccares, the largest of the
numerous lagoons and pools, covers about 23 sq. m.; it receives three
main canals constructed to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is
protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of the
rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of the
lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river-water is used for
irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The climate is characterized
by hard winters and scorching summers. Rain falls in torrents, but at
considerable intervals. The mistral, blowing from the north and
north-west, is the prevailing wind. The south-eastern portion of the
Camargue is known as the Ile du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the
west of the Petit Rhone goes by the name of Petite Camargue.
CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south coast, about
17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by Syracuse in 599 B.C.,
but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for attempting to assert its
independence. Hippocrates of Gela received its territory from Syracuse
and restored the town in 492, but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the
Geloans, however, founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in
general hostile to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it
gave some slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the
Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its abandonment
by Dionysius's order, but in 258 fell into the hands of the Romans. Its
complete destruction dates from A.D. 853. The site of the ancient city
is among rapidly shifting sandhills, and the lack of stone in the
neighbourhood has led to its buildings being used as a quarry even by
the inhabitants of Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above
ground but a small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few
foundations of houses; portions of the city wall have been traced by
excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see J.
Schubring in _Philologus_, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in _Monumenti dei
Lincei_, ix. 201, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north lay the lake to
which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred, [Greek: mhae kinei
Kamarinan], when the citizens inquired as to the advisability of
draining it.
CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, duke of Parma (1753-1824), French
statesman, was born at Montpellier on the 18th of October 1753. He was
descended from a well-known family of the legal nobility (_noblesse de
la robe_). He was designed for the magistracy of his province; and in
1771, when for a time the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the
others, by the chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal
tribunal substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with
ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the court of
accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing the principles of
the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned by the _noblesse_ of the
province to draw up the _cahier_ (statement of principles and
grievances); and the _senechaussee_ of Montpellier elected him deputy to
the states-general of Versailles; but the election was annulled on a
technical point. Nevertheless in 1792 the new department of Herault, in
which Montpellier is situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the
Convention which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September
1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins and the
Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself mainly with the
legal and legislative work which went on almost without intermission
even during the Terror. The action of Cambaceres at the time of the
trial of Louis XVI. (December 25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was
characteristic of his habits of thought. At first he protested against
the erection of the Convention into a tribunal in these words: "The
people has chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as
judges." He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for
his defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with the
majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended that the
penalty should be postponed until the cessation of hostilities, and that
the sentence should then be ratified by the Convention or by some other
legislative body. It is therefore inexact to count him among the
regicides, as was done by the royalists after 1815. Early in 1793 he
became a member of the Committee of General Defence, but he did not take
part in the work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public
Safety, until the close of the year 1794. In the meantime he had done
much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly with Merlin
of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of the revolutionary
epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 he also used his tact and
eloquence on behalf of the restoration of the surviving Girondins to the
Convention, from which they had been driven by the _coup d'etat_ of the
31st of May 1793. In the course of the year 1795, as president of the
Committee of Public Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign
affairs, he was largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain.
Nevertheless, not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of
the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was entrusted
after the _coup d'etat_ of Vendemiaire 1795; but, as before, his powers
of judgment and of tactful debating soon carried him to the front in the
council of Five Hundred. The moderation of his views brought him into
opposition to the Directors after the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor
(September 1797), and for a time he retired into private life. Owing,
however, to the influence of Sieyes, he became minister of justice in
July 1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieyes in their
enterprise of overthrowing the Directory (_coup d'etat_ of Brumaire
1799).
After a short interval Cambaceres was, by the constitution of December
1799, appointed second consul of France--a position which he owed
largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the conviction which Sieyes
entertained of his value as a manipulator of public assemblies. It is
impossible here to describe in detail his relations to Napoleon, and the
part which he played in the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on
called the Code Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful
intervention of Cambaceres helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon
the consulship for life (August 1, 1802); but the second consul is known
to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, notably the
execution of the duc d'Enghien, the rupture with England, and the
proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1804). This last occurrence ended
his title of second consul; it was replaced by that of arch-chancellor
of the Empire. To him was decreed the presidence of the Senate in
perpetuity. He also became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808
the title duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in
helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambaceres did the
state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to curb the
impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises so fatal as the
intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the invasion of Russia (1812)
proved to be. At the close of the campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph
Bonaparte the responsibility for some of the actions which zealous
Bonapartists have deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In
1815, during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at the
bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his master, he
felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time exiled from
France. A decree of 13th May 1818 restored him to his civil rights as a
citizen of France; but the last six years of his life he spent in
retirement. He was a member of the Academy till the 31st of March 1816,
when a decree of exclusion was passed. In demeanour he was quiet,
reserved and tactful, but when occasion called for it he proved himself
a brilliant orator. He was a celebrated _gourmet_, and his dinners were
utilized by Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft.
See A. Aubriet, _Vie de Cambaceres_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1825).
(J. Hl. R.)
CAMBALUC, the name by which, under sundry modifications, the royal city
of the great khan in China became known to Europe during the middle
ages, that city being in fact the same that we now know as Peking. The
word itself represents the Mongol Khan-Balik, "the city of the khan," or
emperor, the title by which Peking continues, more or less, to be known
to the Mongols and other northern Asiatics.
A city occupying approximately the same site had been the capital of one
of the principalities into which China was divided some centuries before
the Christian era; and during the reigns of the two Tatar dynasties that
immediately preceded the Mongols in northern China, viz. that of the
Khitans, and of the Kin or "Golden" khans, it had been one of their
royal residences. Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the
Khitan, and of Chung-tu, which it had from the Kin, it holds a
conspicuous place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter
dynasty. He captured it in 1215, but it was not till 1284 that it was
adopted as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol
steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position a few
hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu or Yenking,
where he founded the new city of Ta-tu ("great capital"), called by the
Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan-Balik; and from this time dates
the use of the latter name as applied to this site.
The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud rampart, the
longer sides of which ran north and south. These were each about 5-1/3
English m. in length, the shorter sides 3-3/4 m., so that the circuit was
upwards of 18 m. The palace of the khan, with its gardens and lake,
itself formed an inner enclosure fronting the south. There were eleven
city gates, viz. three on the south side, always the formal front with
the Tatars, and two on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide
and straight from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by
the palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan.
Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the fall of the
Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming) which supplanted them
established their residence at Nan-king ("South Court"), but this proved
so inconvenient that Yunglo, the third sovereign of the dynasty,
reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it then, for the first time, the name of
Pe-king ("North Court"). This was the name in common use when the
Jesuits entered China towards the end of the 16th century, and began to
send home accurate information about China. But it is not so now; the
names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both signifying
"capital." The restoration of Cambaluc was commenced in 1409. The size
of the city was diminished by the retrenchment of nearly one-third at
the northern end, which brought the enceinte more nearly to a square
form. And this constitutes the modern (so-called) "Tatar city" of
Peking, the south front of which is identical with the south front of
the city of Kublai. The walls were completed in 1437. Population
gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of the
old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in 1544,
enclosed by a wall and called the "outer city." It is the same that is
usually called by Europeans "the Chinese city." The ruins of the
retrenched northern portion of Kublai's great rampart are still
prominent along their whole extent, so that there is no room for
question as to the position or true dimensions of the Cambaluc of the
middle ages; and it is most probable, indeed it is almost a necessity,
that the present palace stands on the lines of Kublai's palace.
The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an
archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the
missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (d. 1330); but though some
successors were nominated it seems probable that no second metropolitan
ever actually occupied the seat.
Maps of the 16th and 17th centuries often show Cambaluc in an imaginary
region to the north of China, a part of the misconception that has
prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is often in popular literature
written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow accented in verse _Cambalu_. But
this spelling originates in an accidental error in Ramusio's Italian
version, which was the chief channel through which Marco Polo's book was
popularly known. The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology
in calling it Cambaluc, which should be accented _Cambaluc_.
CAMBAY, a native state of India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay.
It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225, showing a decrease of
16% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900. The estimated gross
revenue is L27,189; the tribute, L1460. In physical character Cambay is
entirely an alluvial plain. As a separate state it dates only from about
1730, the time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present
chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the governors of
Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law, Nizam Khan, governor
of Cambay, and established himself there.
The town of CAMBAY had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It is supposed to
be the _Camanes_ of Ptolemy, and was formerly a very flourishing city,
the seat of an extensive trade, and celebrated for its manufactures of
silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but owing principally to the gradually
increasing difficulty of access by water, owing to the silting up of the
gulf, its commerce has long since fallen away, and the town has become
poor and dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a
channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The trade
is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is celebrated for
its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, of reputation
principally in China. The houses in many instances are built of stone (a
circumstance which indicates the former wealth of the city, as the
material had to be brought from a very considerable distance); and
remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in circumference, which formerly
surrounded the town, enclose four large reservoirs of good water and
three bazaars. To the south-east there are very extensive ruins of
subterranean temples and other buildings half-buried in the sand by
which the ancient town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the
Jains, and contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black,
the other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates, is
Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the emperor Akbar;
the black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. In 1780 Cambay was taken
by the army of General Goddard, was restored to the Mahrattas in 1783,
and was afterwards ceded to the British by the peshwa under the treaty
of 1803. It was provided with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the 11
m. required to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda's line through Petlad.
CAMBAY, GULF OF, an inlet in the coast of India, in the Gujarat division
of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but is shallow and abounds in
shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed that the depth of water in this
gulf has been decreasing for more than two centuries past. The tides,
which are very high, run into it with amazing velocity, but at low water
the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of
the town of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the
channel by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the British
districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the railway from
Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay, has for some time past been
attracting the trade to itself.
CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _camera_, vault), in
architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and provided for the
depression or sagging, which it is liable to, before it has settled down
to its bearings. A "camber arch" is a slight rise given to the
straight-arch to correct an apparent sinking in the centre (see ARCH).
CAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), French operatic composer, was born in Paris
in 1628. He was a pupil of Chambonnieres. In 1655, after he had obtained
the post of organist at the church of St Honore, he married Marie du
Moustier. He was musical superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother
of Louis XIV., and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac.
His earlier works, the words of which were furnished by Pierre Perrin,
continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes till the death
of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin received a patent for the
founding of the _Academie Nationale de musique_, the germ of the Grand
Opera, and Cambert had a share in the administration until both he and
Perrin were discarded in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his
subsequent neglect, and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was
musical superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where
soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to Charles
II. One at least of his operas, _Pomone_, was performed in London under
his direction, but it did not suit the popular taste, and he is supposed
to have killed himself in London in 1677. His other principal operas
were _Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus_ and _Les Peines et les plaisirs
de l'amour_.
CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded
N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by Deptford and Lewisham, W. by
Lambeth, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop,
(1901) 259,339. Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the
derivation of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham
and Nunhead, and Dulwich (q.v.) with its park, picture-gallery and
schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are many good
houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and southward towards the high
ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park (72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and
Park (113 acres) are the largest of several public grounds, and
Camberwell Green was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside
the southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation, the Crystal
Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the Camberwell school of
arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a
university settlement, founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier
Trinity settlement. The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three
divisions, North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member: but is
not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the Dulwich division
extending to include Penge, outside the county of London. The borough
council consists of a mayor, ten aldermen, and sixty councillors.
CAMBIASI, LUCA (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly known as
Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also Cambiaso or Cangiagio),
was born at Moneglia in the Genoese state, the son of a painter named
Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to drawing at a very early age, imitating his
father, and developed great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of
fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's
_Metamorphoses_ on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in
conjunction with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of
execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friendship with
Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together, with so much
similarity of style that their works could hardly be told apart; from
this friend Cambiasi learned much in the way of perspective and
architecture. Luchetto's best artistic period lasted for twelve years
after his first successes; from that time he declined in power, though
not at once in reputation, owing to the agitations and vexations brought
upon him by a passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife
having died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and
children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for marrying
her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he accepted an invitation
from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial a series of frescoes which
had been begun by Castello, now deceased; and it is said that one
principal reason for his closing with this offer was that he hoped to
bring the royal influence to bear upon the pope, but in this again he
failed. Worn out with his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the
second year of his sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold
designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the
Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day with
pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting a head of a
laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh
changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The
artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty
equalling or transcending that even of Tintoret. He made a vast number
of drawings, and was also something of a sculptor, executing in this
branch of art a figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the
ablest artists of his day. In personal character, notwithstanding his
executive energy, he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His
son Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto.
The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the church of
S. Giorgio--the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo Imperiali
Terralba, a Genoese suburb--a fresco of the "Rape of the Sabines"; in
S. Maria da Carignano--a "Pieta," containing his own portrait and
(according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law. In the
Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise on the
vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture
he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to
that time, ever been given for a single work.
CAMBODIA[1] (called by the inhabitants _Sroc Khmer_ and by the French
_Cambodge_), a country of south-eastern Asia and a protectorate of
France, forming part of French Indo-China.
_Geography_.--It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by Annam, S.E. and
S. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by Siam. Its area
is estimated at approximately 65,000 sq. m.; its population at
1,500,000, of whom some three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese,
Annamese, Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia
lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering this territory on
the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines south-west as
far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and resumes a southerly
course. The salient feature of Cambodian geography is the large lake
Tonle-Sap, in a depression 68 m. long from south-east to north-west and
15 m. wide. It is fed by several rivers and innumerable torrents, and
at flood-time serves as a reservoir for the Mekong, with which it is
connected by a channel some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and
joining the river at Pnom-Penh. In June the waters of the Mekong,
swollen by the rains and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a
height of 40 to 45 ft. and flow through the Bras du Lac towards the
lake, which then covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river
inundates the marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season
the current reverses and the depression empties so that the lake shrinks
to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. to a
maximum of 5 ft. Tonle-Sap probably represents the chief wealth of
Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over 30,000, most of whom
are Annamese; the fish, which are taken by means of large nets at the
end of the inundation, are either dried or fermented for the production
of the sauce known as _nuoc-mam_. The northern and western provinces of
Cambodia which fall outside the densely populated zone of inundation are
thinly peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly wooded
and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does not exceed 5000
ft. The region to the east of the Mekong is traversed by spurs of the
mountains of Annam and by affluents of the Mekong, the most important of
these being the Se-khong and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into
the Mekong at Stung-treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing
population, fringe the west coast.
_Climate, Fauna and Flora._--The climate of Cambodia, like that of
Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the monsoons.
During the north-east monsoon, from the middle of October to the middle
of April, dry weather prevails and the thermometer averages from 77 deg.
to 80 deg. F. During the south-west monsoon, from the middle of April to
the middle of October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies
between 85 deg. and 95 deg. The wild animals of Cambodia include the
elephant, which is also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and some
species of wild ox; also the tiger, panther, leopard and honey-bear.
Wild boars, monkeys and rats abound and are the chief enemies of the
cultivator. The crocodile is found in the Mekong, and there are many
varieties of reptiles, some of them venomous. The horse of Cambodia is
only from 11 to 12 hands in height, but is strong and capable of great
endurance; the buffalo is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in
large numbers. Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and
other valuable woods and gums are among the natural products.
_People_.--The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity with their
Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The race is probably the
result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of Indo-China with the Aryan
and Mongolian invaders of the country. The men are taller and more
muscular than the Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and
inclined to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the
mouth large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown,
the hair black and, while in childhood the head is shaved with the
exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed so as
to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the langouti or loin-cloth, which
the men supplement with a short jacket, the women with a long scarf
draped round the figure or with a long clinging robe. Morose,
superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling, the Cambodians are at
the same time clean, fairly intelligent, proud and courageous. The wife
enjoys a respected position and divorce may be demanded by either party.
Polygamy is almost confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to
work, the Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them live on
the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts built upon piles or
floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is Buddhism, and involves great
respect towards the dead; the worship of spirits or local genii is also
wide-spread, and Brahmanism is still maintained at the court. Monks or
_bonzes_ are very numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach
the young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals and
the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of the
Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no hereditary
nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood-relationship--the
members of the royal family within the fifth degree (the _Brah-Vansa_)
those beyond the fifth degree (_Brah-Van_), and the _Bakou_, who, as
descendants of the ancient Brahmans, exercise certain official functions
at the court. These castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by
themselves, are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are
nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, and
are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the administration.
Under the native regime the common people attached themselves to one or
other of the mandarins, who in return granted them the protection of his
influence. Under French rule, which has modified the old usages in many
respects, local government of the Annamese type tends to supplant this
feudal system. Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897.
Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal dialects of
south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and rich in
vowel-sounds. The king's language and the royal writing, and also
religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan origin and akin to
Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and complicated. The books
(manuscripts) are generally formed of palm-leaves upon which the
characters are traced by means of a style.
_Industry and Commerce._--Iron, worked by the tribe of the Kouis, is
found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians show skill in working
gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats, fans and silk and cotton
fabrics, are also produced to some small extent, but fishing and the
cultivation of rice and in a minor degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton,
pepper, indigo, maize, tea and sugar are the only industries worthy of
the name. Factories exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of
cotton-seeds. The Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so
far as his own needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and
oxen are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which is
in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in commerce.
Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China, Kampot, the
only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to coasting vessels. With
the exception of the highway from Pnom-Penh (q.v.) the capital, to
Kampot, the roads of Cambodia are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh
communicates regularly by the steamers of the "Messageries Fluviales" by
way of the Mekong with Saigon.
_Administration_.--At the head of the government is the king (_raj_).
His successor is either nominated by himself, in which case he sometimes
abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the five chief mandarins
from among the Brah Vansa. The _upayuvraj (obbaioureach)_ or king who
has abdicated, the heir-presumptive (_uparaj, obbareach_) and the first
princess of the blood are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The
king is advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of
the class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about fifty
provinces administered by members of that body. France is represented by
a resident superior, who presides over the ministerial council and is
the real ruler of the country, and by residents exercising supervision
in the districts into which the country is split up for the purposes of
the French administration. In each residential district there is a
council, composed of natives and presided over by the resident, which
deliberates on questions affecting the district. The resident superior
is assisted by the protectorate council, consisting of heads of French
administrative departments (chief of the judicial service, of public
works. &c.) and one native "notable," and the royal orders must receive
its sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign policy,
public works, the customs and the exchequer are in French hands, while
the management of police, the collection of the direct taxes and the
administration of justice between natives remain with the native
government. A French tribunal alone is competent to settle disputes
where one of the parties is not a native.
The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia for 1899 and
1904:--
Receipts. Expenditure.
1899 L235,329 L188,654
1904 250,753 229,880
The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including the
poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which together
amounted to L172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of expenditure are the
civil list, comprising the personal allowance to the king and the royal
family (L46,018 in 1904), public works (L39,593) and government house
and residences (L29,977).
_History_.--The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, are
conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between the
autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now represented by
the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading race from the
plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th century B.C., Chinese
chronicles, which are almost the only source for the history of Cambodia
till the 5th century A.D., mention a region called Fou-nan, in later
times appearing under the name of Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the
Menam, it extended eastwards to the Mekong and may be considered
approximately coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before
the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to
exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they introduced
Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hinduizing process became
more marked about the 5th century A.D., when, under S'rutavarman, the
Khmers as a nation rose into prominence. The name _Kambuja_, whence the
European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu _Kambu_, the name of
the mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been officially
adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country about this period.
At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of S'rutavarman ceased to rule
over the whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was divided
into two portions ruled over by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have
been re-established about the beginning of the 9th century, when with
Jayavarman III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of
Khmer greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monuments
were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see ANGKOR) was completed
under Yasovarman about A.D. 900. In the 10th century Buddhism, which had
existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival
Brahmanism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of
Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and
appears to have been carried out under the direction of the Brahman
Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the monarchs of this period.
The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern
Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later 15th century was
absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the 12th
century, in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings.
War was also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and
the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have been the
immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. From the last decade
of the 13th century there dates a valuable description of Tchin-la[2]
written by a member of a Chinese embassy thereto. The same period
probably also witnessed the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of
Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been
subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of
the Menam. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of
which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the 14th
century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive and were able
repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn. These aggressions were
continued in the 15th century, in the course of which the capital was
finally abandoned by the Khmer kings, the ruin of the country being
hastened by internal revolts and by feuds between members of the royal
family. At the end of the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded
Angkor-Thorn as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During
that century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the
country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle
of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the
arrival of the French. At the beginning of the 17th century the Nguyen,
rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of
Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the 18th century, Cambodia,
governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a
field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of
the 18th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed
by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were concluded after a last and
indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a result of which Ang-Duong,
the protege of Siam, was placed on the throne at the capital of Oudong,
and the Annamese evacuated the country. In 1863, in order to counteract
Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagree was sent by Admiral la
Grandiere to the court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and
as a result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate
of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-Penh. In 1867
a treaty between France and Siam was signed, whereby Siam renounced its
right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in
return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos
territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the
king, confirming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal
authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by it, its
provisions were not put in force till several years later. In 1904 the
territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese
provinces of Melupre and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the
latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907
exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By
the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right
bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded by his brother
Sisowath.
See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); L. Moura,
_Le royaume de Cambodge_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883); A. Leclere, _Les
codes cambodgiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on
Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_
(Paris, 1873).