[1] In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was
occupied by a lake 60 m. long.
[2] During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at San
Francisco ranged from 11.37 to 49.27 in.; from 1850 to 1904 the
average was 22.74, and the probable annual variation 4 in.
[3] The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and Fresno,
of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey and
Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them lie
between 56 deg. and 63 deg. F. The places mentioned are scattered
over 3-1/2 deg. of longitude and 6-1/2 deg. of latitude.
[4] Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use of
turbines are important features of such plants. One on the North Yuba
river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves Oakland, San
Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in San Francisco
(220 m. away) 75% of its power. Other plants are one at Electra (154
m. from San Francisco), and one on the San Joaquin, which delivers to
Fresno 62 m. distant.
[5] The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments
under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for
1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows:--total value of
products, 1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of
42.7%; leading industries, with value of product in millions of
dollars--canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23.8 millions,
third in 1900 with 13.4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing,
second in 1905 with 21.79 millions, first in 1900 with 15.71
millions; flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20.2
millions, fourth in 1900 with 13.04 millions; lumber and timber,
fourth in 1905 with 18.27 millions, second in 1900 with 13.71
millions; printing and publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17.4 millions,
sixth in 1900 with 9.6 millions; foundry and machine shop products,
sixdth in 1905 with 15.7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12.04 millions;
planing mill products, seventh in 1905 with 13.9 millions, twelfth in
1900 with 4.8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in
1905 with 10.6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4.87 millions.
[6] As months and even years often elapsed between the date when
early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual
service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of
service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at
Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto in
Lower California. All the Spanish and Mexican governors were
appointed by the national government, except in the case of the
semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose
title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national
statute regarding gubernatorial vacancies.
[7] Acting political chief, revolutionary title.
[8] Briefly recognized in South.
[9] Revolutionary title, 1836-1838.
[10] Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North.
CALIFORNIA, LOWER (_Baja California_), a long narrow peninsula between
the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, forming a territory of the
republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), 42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California
is a southward extension of the State of California, United States, and
is touched by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E.
The peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and has
an area of 58,328 sq. m. It is traversed throughout its entire length by
an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes toward the Pacific
in a succession of low hills, but breaks down abruptly toward the Gulf.
The coast has two or three good sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the
Gulf side and of Magdalena on the Pacific side being best known. The
coast is bordered by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side.
The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly
because of the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty
rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of
the desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern part is
hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern part receives
more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild and pleasant climate.
The principal natural product in this region is _orchil_, or Spanish
moss, but by means of irrigation the soil produces a considerable
variety of products, including sugar cane, cotton, cassava, cereals,
tobacco and grapes. Horses, sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile
valleys, but only to a limited extent. The territory is rich in
minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and
salt. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early
as 1700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz
being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W.
coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of mining and
other industries in the territory has led to an extension of the
California railway system southward into the peninsula, with the Mexican
government's permission, the first section of 37 m. from the northern
frontier being completed and opened to traffic in 1907. The territory is
divided into two districts, the northern having its capital at the
insignificant little village of La Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and
the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay
opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamships running
between Mazatlan and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in
1900. La Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San
Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory,
and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m.
inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures and
exports flour and leather.
By orders of Cortes the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539
by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It was called
California, the name (according to E.E. Hale) being derived from a
popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled _Sergas de Esplandian_,
in which an island named California was mentioned and situated "on the
right hand of the Indies, very near the terrestrial paradise." The name
must have been given derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower
California could not have suggested the proximity of a "terrestrial
paradise." The exploration of the coast did not extend above the
peninsula until 1842. The name California was at first applied
exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait
connected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name
Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous theory was held as
late as 1721. The first settlement was made in 1597, but was abandoned.
From 1633 to 1683 five unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a
settlement at La Paz. Finally the Jesuits succeeded in founding a
mission at Loreto on the Gulf coast, in about 26 deg. N. lat., in 1697,
and at La Paz in 1720. At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had
sixteen missions which were either self-supporting or were maintained by
funds invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper
California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were
distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, the
seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. The two
provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one governor
residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then reunited in a single
department through the political changes of 1836, which lasted no later
than 1847. Lower California was only slightly disturbed by the struggle
for independence among the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822
Admiral Lord Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean
revolutionists, appeared on the coast and plundered San Jose del Cabo,
Todos Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United States
La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small detachments from
California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under
William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic
consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the
mainland, the filibusters first withdrew to La Ensenada, near the
American frontier, and then in the following year broke up altogether
during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the
leadership of Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success,
but died for want of material support in 1880. The development of mining
and other industries since that time, together with vigorous efforts to
found colonies in the more favoured localities, have greatly improved
the situation in the territory.
See the two volumes of H.H. Bancroft's _North Mexican States and
Texas_, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his _Works_; also Arthur Walbridge
North, _The Mother of California_ (San Francisco, 1908).
CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most important of
state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, California, on the
E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place of the College of
California (founded in 1855), received California's portion of the
Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered as a state institution by the
legislature in 1868, and opened its doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it
was removed to its present site. In the revised state constitution of
1879 provision is made for it as the head of the state's educational
system. The grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes
(299-900 ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above
the university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the Golden
Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings have gradually
been provided. In 1896 an international architectural competition was
opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. Hearst (made a regent of the
university in 1898) for plans for a group of buildings harmonizing with
the university's beautiful site, and ignoring all buildings already
existing. The first prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Benard, of Paris.
The first building begun under the new plans was that for the college of
mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, providing worthily
for the important school of mining, from 1885 directed by Prof. S.B.
Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, built by state appropriation, had
been completed in 1906. The Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium
seating 7500 spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering
eucalypts, was the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used
regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra, under
the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), who originated
the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free public concerts are given on
Sunday afternoons; and there have been some remarkable dramatic
performances here, notably Sudraka's _Mricchakattika_ in English, and
Aeschylus's _Eumenides_ in Greek, in April 1907. There are no
dormitories. Student self-government works through the "Undergraduate
Students' Affairs Committee" of the Associated Students. The faculty of
the university has its own social club, with a handsome building on the
grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the colleges of letters,
social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, agriculture, mechanical,
mining and civil engineering, and chemistry, and the first two years'
course of the college of medicine--the Toland Medical College having
been absorbed by the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of
the Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of
dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post graduate
or clinical) years of the medical course--the San Francisco Polyclinic
having become a part of the university in 1892. Three of the San
Francisco departments occupy a group of three handsome buildings in the
western part of the city, overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick
astronomical department (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San
Jose, occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by
James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with $700,000,
$610,000 of this being used for the original buildings and equipments,
which were formally transferred to the university in 1888. The art
department (San Francisco Institute of art) was until 1906 housed in the
former home of Mark Hopkins, a San Francisco "railroad king"; it dated
from 1893, under the name "Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building
was destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under its
present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the old site. At the
university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davisville, Yolo county,
instruction is given in practical agriculture, horticulture, dairying,
&c.; courses in irrigation are given at Berkeley; a laboratory of plant
pathology, established in 1907 at Whittier, Riverside county, and an
experiment station on 20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study
of plant and tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine
biological laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and
another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; the
Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. The
university has excellent anthropological and archaeological collections,
mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by Mrs Hearst, to Peru
and to Egypt. In 1907 the university library contained 160,000 volumes,
ranking, after the destruction of most of the San Francisco libraries in
1906, as the largest collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe
library (given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of
the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has also the
valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and countless pamphlets
and manuscripts, dealing principally with the history of the Pacific
Coast from Alaska through Central America, and of the Rocky Mountain
region, including Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico
and Western Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe
Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr Bancroft
contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the newly organized
Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library of Karl Weinhold
(1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich in Germanic linguistics
and "culture history," was presented to the university in 1903 by John
D. Spreckels. The university publishes _The University of California
Chronicle_, an official record; and there are important departmental
publications, especially those in American archaeology and ethnology,
edited by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of
various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physiology, edited by
Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited by William Albert Setchell (b.
1864); in zoology, edited by William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in
astronomy, the publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William
Wallace Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry Morse
Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of history, a department
of university extension was organized; lecture courses, especially on
history and literature, were delivered in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension
"centres," at most of which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the
university, but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley
Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological Seminary
(Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary and a Unitarian
school.
The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From 1890 to 1900
the number of students increased fourfold. In the latter year the
university of California was second to Harvard only in the number of
academic graduate and undergraduate students, and fifth among the
educational institutions of the country in total enrolment. In July 1907
there were 519 officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226
were in the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there
were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for 1906-1907
thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. The university
conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in 1905. The affairs of
the university are administered by a board of twenty-three regents,
seven state officials and heads of educational institutions, being
members _ex officio_, and sixteen other members being appointed by the
governor and senate of the state; its instruction is governed by the
faculties of the different colleges, and an academic senate in which
these are joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was
$1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from investments, state
and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder was gifts and
endowments. There is a permanent endowment of more than $3,000,000,
partly from munificent private gifts, especially from Mrs Hearst and
from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The financial support of the state has always
been generous. No tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to
students resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students
from without the state. The university maintains about 90 undergraduate
scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellowships. All
able-bodied male students are required to take the courses in military
science, under instruction by an officer of the United States army
detailed for the purpose. Physical culture and hygiene are prescribed
for all men and women. A state law forbids the sale of liquor within one
mile of the university grounds. To realize the ideal of the university
as the head of the educational system of the state, a system of
inspection of high schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching
the prescribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for
admission to the university without examination. It was anticipated at
one time that the foundation of the Leland Stanford Junior University at
Palo Alto would injure the state institution at Berkeley; but in
practice this was not found to be the case; on the contrary, the
competition resulted in giving new vigour and enterprise to the older
university. Joseph Le Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C.
Oilman (president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly
connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler (b. 1854)
became president. He had been a graduate (1875) of Brown University, and
was professor first of comparative philology and then of Greek at
Cornell University; his chief publications are _Der griechische
Nominalaccent_ (1885); _Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in
Language_ (1887); _Principles of Language Growth_ (1891); _The
Organization of Higher Education in the United States_ (1897); _Dionysos
and Immortality_ (1899); and _Life of Alexander the Great_ (1900).
CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with _carapace_, the upper
shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper and lower
shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull
greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour.
CALIPH, CALIF, or KHALIF (Arab, _khalifa_; the lengthening of the a is
strictly incorrect), literally "successor," "representative," a title
borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the death of Mahomet, became the
civil and religious head of the Mahommedan state. In the same sense the
term is used in the Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of
God. Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known as
the "perfect" caliphs; after them the title was borne by the thirteen
Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by the thirty-seven
Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell before the Turks in 1258.
By some rigid Moslems these rulers were regarded as only amirs, not
caliphs. There were titular caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from
that date till 1517 when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the
fall of the Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the
Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova (755-1031),
and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended to descent from Ali, and
Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also assumed the name (see FATIMITES).
According to the Shi'ite Moslems, who call the office the "imamate" or
leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of
the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the office belongs to the tribe of
Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet himself belonged, but this condition
would vitiate the claim of the Turkish sultans, who have held the office
since its transference by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a
tradition falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a
time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he "is a rebel."
(See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.)
CALIPHATE.[1] The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the East who bore
the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three main
divisions:--(_a_) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of
Mahomet; (_b_) The Omayyad caliphs; (_c_) The Abbasid caliphs. To these
three groups the present article is confined; for the Western caliphs,
see SPAIN: _History_ (and minor articles such as ALMOHADES,
ALMORAVIDES); for the Egyptian caliphs see EGYPT: _History_ (S
Mahommedan) and FATIMITES. The history of Arabia proper will be found
under ARABIA: _History_.