MARCHES, CHANGE OF DIRECTION OF MARCH, CAMPS AND BIVOUACS.
MARCHES.
_Arrangement of troops._
The different elements on a march are:
(a) The independent cavalry.
(b) The advance guard.
(c) The main body.
(d) The flank guard.
(e) The rear guard.
(f) The train (including field hospitals,
ammunition, supply and pack trains).
In marches in peace time or at a distance from the enemy, cavalry and
artillery may march in rear of the infantry or on a different road.
Large bodies of cavalry and horse artillery should not, as a rule, be
intermingled with foot troops, except so far as is necessary for their
safety.
Auto truck trains may be routed on a separate road from wagons and
troops where safe and practicable. A good road should be selected for
their movement as they suffer greater proportionate delay on a poor
road than either troops or wagons.
The combat trains ordinarily accompany their organizations, except that
the artillery combat trains are usually in rear of the last infantry
organization. The firing batteries should be as a rule near the head
of the main body with a battalion or an entire regiment of infantry
immediately in front of them. A column of artillery or wagons more than
a mile in length should ordinarily have some infantry in the middle for
protection against a sudden attack in flank.
Trains follow in advance, precede in retreat, the position of the
trains thus usually indicates the direction for retreat. Sometimes
trains are sent on a separate road, on unexposed flank. The field
trains are usually combined under the command of an officer, who is
designated only in the first order or when a change is made.
There should generally be a small body of cavalry or other mounted men
at the head of the main body especially in a flank march, and a few
mounted men with the train, 6 to 12 men under an officer, designated
in orders if train is separated from main body, and not sufficiently
exposed to require a stronger escort.
Brigade trains in a forward march follow the main body at ½ to 2
miles. In a flank march they are usually closed up. In retreat they
are sent well ahead. If separated from the main body they should have
an escort if there is any risk. Often a few mounted men in addition
to the slightly wounded and footsore infantrymen on the wagons (who
are still able to fight) will be enough. Also the field trains are
usually accompanied by a number of armed men in addition to the
wagoners, including sergeants, cooks, mechanics, clerks, etc. Supply
and ammunition trains are likewise habitually accompanied by a number
of armed men. Engineers are very useful as an escort as they can
facilitate the progress of the train. The escort, if any, should be
mentioned in orders when train is separated from troops. It should
always be under the command of an officer, preferably one senior to the
Q. M.
Field trains may (a) Follow without distance (b) Follow at a certain
distance (c) Remain behind (d) Follow to a certain locality and there
remain (e) Precede at a certain distance or as rapidly as possible (f)
Move by a different route to the same or another locality. In (a) and
(b) no special escort is necessary. In the other cases circumstances
decide. The arrangement of field trains in column should generally be
the same as that of the troops to which they pertain. This is a matter
of course, and need not be mentioned in orders, at least not after
the first order. It is desirable to have the field trains join their
organizations at the end of the march. But if tactical considerations
demand, the troops can subsist for several days without their trains.
Trains should never be taken through a defile or over a bridge if a
combat is imminent, especially if retreat is possible. Keep them well
to the rear, and off the main road when entering a fight. If it be
necessary to separate the command from its trains for a considerable
period an extra reserve ration or two may be issued to the troops
before the separation. In a division action some or all of the
ammunition train would usually accompany the troops into action, the
remainder of the trains being left at or sent to a safe place in rear.
(See Chap. XVII.)
In passing a defile have a strong body of infantry at the head of the
column. It is usually inadvisable to have a strong body of cavalry
_immediately_ ahead of the infantry in such a situation. A defile
should be reconnoitered carefully, preferably on a broad front, before
allowing any considerable number of troops to enter.
The companies in a battalion and the battalions in a regiment may
alternate daily in position (this is not prescribed in orders of
supreme commander). But beyond this, daily changes in the order of
march are not advisable as they produce confusion and fatigue. The same
troops may remain as advance guard for several days at a time, say for
one series of marches--5 or 6 days--unless for some good reason, such
as their having suffered severely in combat, it seems advisable to
relieve them.
A rear guard is exceptional in a forward march--an advance guard in a
retrograde movement. In the former case the rear infantry regiment,
without orders, puts out a small rear guard (behind the trains), in the
latter case “leading troops” (designated in orders) precede the trains.
In a flank march both advance and rear guards as well as a flank guard
may be necessary--all designated in march order.
Troops should be camped or quartered conveniently with reference to
their position in column on arrival and on departure. It is well to
camp in column of route along the road if command is not too large
and conditions permit. It saves time and fatigue on both arrival and
departure.
If there is an independent mission for the cavalry beyond the sphere
of the advance guard and if the cavalry is relatively strong enough it
should be made independent. Otherwise the bulk of it is attached to the
advance guard. If a combat is imminent the tactical use of the cavalry
to develop the enemy and operate against his flanks and rear may take
precedence over other considerations, in which case the cavalry may
better be kept in hand (assigned to advance guard).
The supreme commander may march (a) Between support and reserve of
advance guard (b) At head of reserve (c) At head of main body. If he is
with the advance guard a commander should be designated for the main
body. The supreme commander may go wherever his presence is necessary.
He generally designates a certain place (as “head of reserve”) to which
messages are to be sent, and if he is not there when they come in,
an orderly takes them to him. When he is with the advance guard its
commander will usually accompany him. The supreme commander should
generally march with the advance guard if combat is at all probable. In
retreat he may join the rear guard if the enemy is pressing the pursuit.
In a flank march the distances between elements should generally be
less than in a forward march--the entire column is “closed up.”
_Time of Starting._ Infantry and other foot troops should have an hour
of daylight prior to commencing the march. Hence the first troops to
march should start about sunrise. Mounted troops should have two hours
of daylight before starting. Hence they should march about an hour
after sunrise. These are the proper hours for starting, and orders
should be arranged accordingly. Circumstances may require an earlier
start, at daybreak or, in exceptional cases, even a little earlier.
But there should be cogent reasons for a very early start. It is well
to avoid the _habit_ of early starting. Both men and animals rest well
in the hours just preceding dawn. To habitually interfere with this
rest will rapidly lower the efficiency of the troops. If the number
of mounted troops is _small_, and tactical considerations require it,
their comfort may occasionally be disregarded, and they will start
with the infantry at sunrise. As a rule the cavalry will not trot in
starting a day’s march, they should walk at least a mile. In any case
the gaits should be left to the judgment of the cavalry commander. The
independent cavalry, if it moves by a separate road, may start _later
than the infantry_, as it can make up for lost time by increase of
gait. Ordinarily it should not be sent past foot troops on the same
road (unless it be wide and paved) as this will cause confusion, delay
and discomfort.
Trains may be started out considerably earlier than troops if
necessary, as they are not subjected to such great fatigue. This, of
course, will never be necessary when trains follow in rear of troops,
but in retreat they should be sent on about 2 hours ahead of the
troops, or even sooner if necessary for their safety and to get them
out of the way. Hence they, with their escort, will frequently march
before daybreak.
In considering the probable movements of the enemy, always make
allowance for what might happen if he marches at daybreak or earlier
still, for he has this option. Are there any reasons why he might wish
to start early? If he arrived late at his camping place (after 3:00 p.
m.) this indicates the possibility of his making a start early the next
morning.
A late arrival (after 3:00 p. m.) is even more objectionable than an
early start, unless hours of march have been arranged with a long
rest to avoid the heat of mid-day. It is better to break camp before
daylight than to make it after dark.
Night marches of any considerable length should generally be avoided
except in cases of extreme urgency. If indulged in to any great extent
they will soon wear out both men and animals. Troops which have made
a long night march will not be in good trim for active operations on
the following day. Night marches are sometimes made in hot weather to
avoid the heat of the day. They may also be made for the purpose of
surprising the enemy, as to secure a favorable position from which he
may be attacked at dawn, in the retreat or pursuit of a defeated force
and in certain other special cases.
Under the conditions that obtain in modern warfare the movements of
large bodies of troops during daylight will seldom escape detection by
the enemy’s aerial scouts. Accordingly the cover of darkness will at
times be used for the concentration of reserves at critical points on
the field of battle. If the troops can be concealed at the end of such
movements it will often be advisable to allow them to rest during a
portion at least of the day following their night movement. This will
restore their vigor and render them fresh for active operations. For
night marches it is desirable that the troops be accompanied by guides.
(See also Chaps. XI and XIII.)
Movements by rail are usually not practicable except for long distances
(more than 40 miles) and when well protected from the enemy by distance
or covering troops. They pertain to strategical concentrations, but
seldom to tactical operations on a small scale.
Movements of troops in large or small numbers and over considerable
distances are successfully accomplished by the use of motor cars. Motor
transportation is adaptable to campaign, in that cars may start or end
a journey almost anywhere in the theater without regard to a fixed rail
right of way. They load, dispatch and unload without formality; they
require no sidings nor elaborate terminals.
In a large command the advance guard will be some distance in advance
of the main body. Therefore the time of starting of the latter should
not be set so early that advance guard must march before sunrise. Hence
a large force cannot make an early start as readily as a small one,
unless it camps in column of route.
Standard Times of Sunrise and Sunset at Gettysburg, Pa., 40° N lat.
(Authority--Prof. R. H. Willson, Harvard Univ.)
(Correct to within 5 minutes)
+-------------+----------+-----------+
| Date | Sunrise, | Sunset, |
| | a. m. | p. m. |
+-------------+----------+-----------+
| January 1 | 7:30 | 4:50 |
| February 1 | 7:10 | 5:20 |
| March 1 | 6:40 | 5:50 |
| April 1 | 5:50 | 6:20 |
| May 1 | 5:10 | 7:00 |
| June 1 | 4:40 | 7:20 |
| July 1 | 4:40 | 7:30 |
| August 1 | 5:00 | 7:10 |
| September 1 | 5:30 | 6:40 |
| October 1 | 6:00 | 5:50 |
| November 1 | 6:30 | 5:00 |
| December 1 | 7:10 | 4:40 |
+-------------+----------+-----------+
NOTE: For intermediate dates, interpolate.
Daybreak and dusk occur about an hour (more or
less) before sunrise and after sunset. They are
indefinite times, and it is better not to use such
expressions in orders, but to give standard times.
_The Start._ The start is arranged as described under “Advance Guards.”
A large body cannot be assembled at one point. The initial point
should preferably be at a crossroad, which organizations can reach by
a number of different routes. If there is any danger of confusion or
interference the routes of different organizations to the initial point
should be prescribed. In a large command, where the advance guard and
main body are separated by a considerable distance, an initial point
should be designated for each. The order of the supreme commander will
designate the hour at which the main body will start from its initial
point and the hour at which the advance guard will clear _its_ initial
point, or preferably, the distance at which the advance guard will
precede the main body (in starting). This latter arrangement allows the
advance guard commander to select his initial point, which is usually
desirable. During the march the main body will usually regulate its
march on that of the advance guard if the latter be larger than a
battalion. In a small command the same initial point is used for the
advance guard and main body. The order of the supreme commander in this
case will ordinarily designate the hour at which the advance guard is
to clear the initial point and the hour at which the main body starts
therefrom, or the distance at which it is to follow the advance guard.
Each subordinate commander is responsible that his command takes its
proper place in column at the proper time without interference with
other organizations. In an assembly order for a large command troops
whose starting times do not differ by more than ten minutes would be
grouped under one time heading. See also remarks under “The start,” and
“Assembly order,” in the Chapter on advance guards.
It is not always possible to foresee the end of a day’s march. In
such cases the order should direct the march “provisionally” on some
intermediate point in the right direction, arrival at which without
interruption is reasonably certain.
_Length and speed of marches._ Marches often cause greater losses than
battles. A forced march may cost more than a fierce engagement. Hence
avoid forced marches and all unnecessary hardships. A long march should
not be undertaken with green troops. The early marches of a campaign
should not be more than 8 or 9 miles per day for infantry or mixed
troops. From this they can be gradually increased to a maximum of about
15 miles for a brigade or smaller force. Small bodies can make longer
marches than large ones. Thus a battalion might march 16 miles, whereas
12 to 13 would be the usual limit for a division. Anything more than
15 miles for infantry or 25 for cavalry, is a forced march, except for
small commands of seasoned troops.
The average speed of infantry without halts is 3 miles per hour (a mile
in 20 minutes) or, including halts, 2½ miles per hour. There should
be a halt of 10 minutes in each hour, and if the march extends into
the afternoon a long halt of about an hour near noon. Troops should be
informed of duration of halts.
Troops cannot march continually. After 5 or 6 days of steady marching
(or less if combats also are included) even seasoned troops need
a day of rest. Tactical requirements are paramount, but one must
not forget that endurance of troops, even of cavalry, has a limit.
Unnecessary hardships must be avoided. The fighting power of a command
is considerably below the normal immediately after a forced march, and
almost nil after a night march. Night marches may require half again as
much time to cover the same distance as those executed during the day,
in the case of a large command.
It is not safe to assume a speed of more than 2 miles an hour for a
wagon train. Field Artillery can keep pace with infantry, unless roads
are very poor as in some mountainous sections of the U. S. On good
roads and for moderate distances Light Field Arty. can keep pace with
cavalry, but horse arty. is better for service with a cavalry command.
The following table shows the marching rates of various arms:
+----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
| | Miles/hr | Miles/hr | Miles/day | Miles/day |
| ARM | At drill |on the march| Ordinary | Forced |
| | | with halts | march | march |
+----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
|Infantry or | | | | |
| mixed troops | 3 | 2¼ to 2¾ | 12 to 16 | 16 to 30 |
+----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
|Cavalry | | | 20 to 25 | 25 to 50 |
|Walk | 4 | 3¼ to 3½ | | |
|Trot | 8 | | | |
|Gallop | 12 | | | |
|Alternating | | | | |
| walk and trot | | 5 | | |
+----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
|Wagons | | 2 to 2¼ | 12 to 20 | |
+----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
NOTE. _Empty_ wagons on good roads can make longer
marches. Small convoys of light auto trucks can average from 5 to
10 miles per hour, according to the nature of the road and other
conditions. (See Chap. XVII.)
_General Remarks._ The elongation of a column (over road distances
given in F. S. R.) may vary from nothing at the start to 20 per cent at
the conclusion of a day’s march. 10 per cent is a fair average.
For a rapid current the limiting depths fordable are, for infantry 3
ft., for cavalry 4 ft., for artillery or wagons 2½ ft. If current is
sluggish allow ⅓ more for infantry and cavalry.
Usually march on the main or best road. The distance may be somewhat
greater, but the time required will usually be less. The best roads in
the U. S. are none too good. During the march troops should remain on
the road, but in taking position for combat both troops and artillery
may move across country. Even in such a case it is best to remain on
the road as long as possible.
The front is always in the direction of the enemy. Thus in a retreat
the _right flank_ guard would be on the _left hand_ of the column. The
head of a column is in the direction of march, which may be to the rear.
Do not use words “sunrise” or “daybreak” in orders, but give standard
time.
Troops usually march better and suffer less from fatigue in cold
weather than in very warm weather.
It is not ordinarily practicable to march artillery or trains in double
column on roads in the U. S. But trains or troops in rear of other
trains may be brought to the front by halting the wagons ahead of them
on one side of the road. It is very embarrassing for artillery to have
to countermarch on U. S. roads. But it is _possible_. During a march
one side of the road should be left clear for the passage of messengers.
In connection with subject of marches read also “Advance,” “Rear and
Flank Guards,” and “Cavalry tactics.”
_Change in direction of march._ A change of direction of march usually
results from a change in the situation causing a change of mission. An
example of this would be a case in which the main body unexpectedly
encountered the enemy in force. In such a case it would ordinarily
be the duty of all detachments within reach to rejoin for the main
battle--“march to the sound of the guns,”--abandoning for the time
being their less important missions. Upon arrival such detachments
should as a rule not attack the enemy independently, but should send
word of the time and place of their arrival and place themselves under
the orders of the supreme commander. While it is the rule that all
detachments within reach should rejoin for the main conflict, yet
there will be cases where a detachment is justified in staying out
of a battle it might have joined. Of this the best example is where
the detachment can “contain” a relatively larger force of the enemy,
thus keeping it out of the main combat. If the enemy opposed to the
detachment is of less strength than itself it may be contained by a
portion of the detachment, while the rest marches to join the battle. A
detachment should not allow itself to be contained by an inferior force.
In making the change of direction some suitable point to the former
front should be selected and occupied by the advance guard to cover
the change of direction. If there be any danger from the direction
of the former front the advance guard continues its march as a flank
guard, a new advance guard being pushed out from the main body. For
such a movement two roads at suitable distance are required (see
“Flank Guards.”) In making a change of direction it is well to avoid
countermarching troops, and especially artillery, if practicable.
In making a change of direction the safety of the trains must be
carefully considered. If the detachment is joining the main body for
battle, its trains (if with it) may well be sent by the shortest
practicable route, escorted if necessary, to join those of the main
body, or to some other safe place. If danger is to be anticipated from
the former front now become a flank, the trains should preferably be
moved on a parallel road on the unexposed flank.
ORDER--CHANGE IN DIRECTION OF MARCH.
Detch., 1st Div., 1st Blue Army Corps,
HUNTERSTOWN, PA.,
Field Orders, } 17 Nov., '12--11:20 a. m.
No. -- }
Gettysburg-Antietam 3" Map.
1. Our division is engaged with the enemy in force near BONEAUVILLE.
A hostile detachment estimated at 5 bns., a battery and a troop,
apparently unsupported, is intrenching near NEWCHESTER. The 1st
Squadron, 1st Cavalry, defeated the hostile troop near road junction
594, and drove it back towards NEWCHESTER.
2. This command will march southeast in two columns, to join the
division. Former march conditions now cease.
3. (a) The cavalry will continue in observation of the force near
NEWCHESTER, delaying it in case it attempts to advance, and will
reconnoiter to the north and through NEW OXFORD to the east.
(b) The advance guard, reinforced by a platoon of the 1st Sq., 1st
Cav., will march southeast via 585--573--586--R. F. WEAVER on 572, and
as left flank guard cover the march of the main body.
(c) The main body will turn south at 554 and will march provisionally
on 562.
The Commanding Officer of the 2nd Inf. will send forward 2 companies as
advance guard to precede the main body at about 600 yards.
4. Messages to head of main body.
A,
Brig. General.
Verbally to staff, C. O. Adv. Gd. (1st Inf.).
By mtd. messenger to C. O. 2d and 3d Inf., 1st Sq., 1st Cav.
Report of dispositions to C. G., 1st Div., by aide.
Note: In this case the trains of the detachment are with those of the
division. Hence all reference to trains is omitted from the order. This
order as dictated will be written by the staff present and copies sent
to officers not present.
CAMPS AND BIVOUACS.
Troops should not be bivouacked in the open except for very cogent
reasons. A comfortable camp on a sanitary site is always desirable,
provided tactical requirements permit the selection.
Troops should not be kept in column at the end of a day’s march but
should be placed in camp immediately upon their arrival so as to give
the men as much rest as possible. Hence the halt order should be issued
well in advance, should be brief, and if practicable a staff officer
accompanied by a surgeon should be sent ahead to make the necessary
preliminary arrangements, and be ready with the aid of assistants to
assign and lead organizations to their camps upon arrival, with a
minimum of delay and confusion.
The important considerations in the selection of camps, aside from
those of a tactical nature are:
1. A plentiful supply of water, streams or wells. It is usually
assumed that any stream shown in blue on the map has water in it. The
troops should be camped with reference to the water supply so that
all may reach it as conveniently as possible. Along the banks of the
same stream infantry or other foot troops should preferably be camped
_upstream_, and cavalry, artillery and trains, _downstream_.
2. A camp should preferably be near a crossroad, as this gives a choice
and multiplicity of routes for movements and facilitates communication
generally. It is always desirable that a camp be _near_ the main road,
for the sake of convenience in arrival and departure, and if it be a
large camp, roads through the camp and even a railroad for convenient
supply are desirable. The camp should not be so close to an important
road as to be disturbed by the noise and dust of traffic.
3. Fuel is an essential requisite, and forage desirable.
4. The available area should be sufficient to accommodate the command.
(See ante for table of camp areas.)
5. Especially in cold weather a southern exposure with a hill or wood
to give protection from the prevailing winds is desirable. In summer,
if the weather is very warm, an _open_ wood which gives shade without
interfering with the circulation of air, makes an excellent camp site.
6. Firm ground, such as good turf or gravel, with good drainage (ground
water not too high), is very essential. These features may, of course,
be artificially improved.
Troops should be assigned to camp conveniently with reference to
their manner of arrival and departure. A camp in column of route
facilitates placing the troops as well as resumption of the march.
It is therefore, to be preferred for a short stay (over night) when
tactical requirements allow it. The usual regimental camp is a column
of battalion camps. (See also Chap. XVII.)
The health and efficiency of the troops are often best conserved by
utilizing buildings for shelter, especially in cold or inclement
weather. When tactical considerations permit troops may be billeted.
Public buildings, warehouses, etc., if available, are to be preferred
to private residences.