will find a string occasionally that will give forth waves or beats so
similar to the real ones that it takes a practiced ear to distinguish
the difference. Where a unison contains a string of this kind, select
some other string by which to tune the interval, and leave the bad
string until the last; you may then find difficulty in being able to
tell when you have it in unison. The cause may be a twisted string, a
fault in the string by imperfect drawing of the wire, or in the
construction of the sound-board.
In the low bass tones, a kind of false waves are always present, and
will annoy the tuner long after he has been in regular practice. They
are, however, of a different nature from the true waves in that they
are of a metallic timbre and of much greater rapidity than the latter.
Close attention will generally enable the tuner to distinguish between
them. They are caused by what is known as "harmonics" or "over-tones";
the string vibrating in fractional segments.
False waves will occur in an annoying degree when the tuner sets a
mute on a nodal point in the string; it will cause the muted string to
sound a real harmonic tone. This does not happen in the upright, as
the mutes are set so near the end of the string as to preclude this
possibility. In the square, however, it very frequently happens, as
there are so many nodes between the dampers and the bridge, where the
tuner sets his mutes. If, for instance, he is tuning an octave and has
his mute set precisely in the middle of the vibrating segment, in
place of muting the string it sounds its own octave, which will
disturb the ear in listening for the tone from the one free string.
Move the mute either way until it is found to mute the string
entirely.
QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIV.
1. Explain the cause of the beats.
2. How many _beats_ per second in a unison of two strings, one
tuned to 100, the other to 101 vibrations per second?
3. How many beats per second in an octave, the lower tone of which
is tuned to 100, the upper to 201 vibrations per second?
4. How many beats per second in a fifth, the fundamental of which
is tuned to 100, the fifth to 151?
5. The fifth, 2F-3C, when properly tempered, should beat 1-3/4
times per second. How often should a fifth, an octave higher,
beat?
LESSON XV.
~MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS PERTAINING TO THE PRACTICAL WORK OF TUNING,
REGULATING, AND REPAIRING.~
~Comparison of the Different Systems.~--Up to this time, we have given
no account of any system of tuning except the one recommended. For the
purpose of making the student more thoroughly informed we detail here
several different systems which have been devised and practiced by
other tuners. It is a matter of history that artisans in this
profession and leaders in musical science have endeavored to devise a
system of temperament having all the desirable qualifications.
The aims of many have been to invent a system which uses the fewest
number of tones; working under the impression that the fewer the tones
used in the temperament, the easier the tuner's work. These have
reduced the compass of the temperament to the twelve semi-tones from
middle C to B above; or from F below, to E above middle C. This
system requires the tuner to make use of both fourths and fifths. Not
only does he have to use these two kinds of intervals in tuning, but
he has to tune by fourths up and fourths down, and, likewise, by
fifths up and fifths down. When tuning a fifth upward, he flattens it;
and when tuning a fifth downward he sharpens the lower tone; when
tuning a fourth upward, he sharpens it; when tuning a fourth downward,
he flattens the lower tone.
It is readily seen that by a system of this kind the tuner's mind is
constantly on a strain to know how to temper the interval he is
tuning, and how much to temper it, as fourths require a different
degree of tempering from the fifths; and he is constantly changing
from an interval upward to one downward; so, this system must be
stamped as tedious and complicated, to say the least. Yet this system
is much followed in factories for rough tuning, and also by many old
professional tuners.
The table on the following page gives the succession of intervals
generally taken by tuners employing this system using the tones within
the F octave mentioned above. Middle C is obtained in the usual way,
from the tuning fork.
SYSTEM A.
By middle C tune F fifth below. Temper sharp.
By F " B♭ (A♯) fourth above. " "
" C " G fourth below. " flat
" G " D fifth above. " "
" D " A fourth below. " "
" A " E fifth above. " "
" E " B fourth below. " "
" B " F♯ fourth below. " "
" F♯ " C♯ fifth above. " "
" C♯ " G♯ fourth below. " "
" G♯ " D♯ fifth above. " "
Then try D♯ with A♯ previously tuned for "wolves."
We think a little study and trial of this system will produce the
conviction that it is a very difficult and precarious one, and that it
has every disadvantage but one, namely, that it uses the smallest
possible number of tones, which is really of little value, and does
not compensate for the difficulty encountered and the uncertainty of
the results.
Another system which has many advantages over the above, is one which
employs fifths only and covers a compass of an octave and a half. This
system is similar to ours in that it employs fifths in the same
succession as far as G♯, the most of them, however, being an octave
higher. From this G♯ there is a break in the succession, and the
tuner goes back to middle C from which he started and tunes by fifths
downward until he reaches the G♯ at which he left off. This system
employs the tones from F below middle C to C, octave above. Below is
the succession, starting upon 3C, whose pitch is determined as usual.
SYSTEM B.
By 3C tune 2C octave below.
" 2C " 2G fifth above.
" 2G " 1G octave below.
" 1G " 2D fifth above.
" 2D " 2A fifth above.
" 2A " 1A octave below.
" 1A " 2E fifth above.
" 2E " 2B fifth above.
" 2B " 1B octave below.
" 1B " 2F♯ fifth above.
" 2F♯ " 1F♯ octave below.
" 1F♯ " 2C♯ fifth above.
" 2C♯ " 2G♯ fifth above.
" 2G♯ " 1G♯ octave below.
By 2C tune 1F fifth below. Temper sharp.
" 1F " 2F octave above.
" 2F " 1B♭ fifth below. Temper sharp.
" 1B♭ " 2B♭ octave above.
" 2B♭ " 2E♭ fifth below. Temper sharp.
Now by 2E♭ try 1A♭ (G♯) fifth below for the "wolf."
Note that this last trial brings you back to the last tone
tuned before the break.
This system is used by a great number of very successful tuners, and
it has but one appreciable disadvantage, which is that involved in
changing from fifths upward to fifths downward. This difficulty is
easily overcome, if it were all there is to encounter; but in
practice, we find that after tuning the intervals in the above
succession down to the last step in the first series, middle C will
often have changed pitch somewhat, and the last five tones with their
octaves tuned from it will not be in true harmony with the intervals
tuned in the first series. For this reason it is better to go on
through, as in our system, tuning by fifths upward, and if there is
any change of pitch in the first tones tuned, they may be more easily
corrected by going over them in the same way as at the start; also,
the amount of difficulty in locating discrepancies is greatly
lessened.
SYSTEM C.
The following system is one that is followed by many good tuners of
the present day and has many advantages. To use this system
successfully, however, one must be familiar with the number of beats
necessary in each interval used.
Take 1F as a standard.
By 1F, tune 2C, fifth above.
By 1F, tune 1B♭, fourth above.
By 1F, tune 1A, major third above.
By 1F, tune 2D, sixth above.
By 1F, tune 1A♭, minor third above.
By 1F, tune 2F, octave above.
By 2C or 2D, tune 1G, fourth or fifth below.
By 1G, 1A or 2C, tune 2E, sixth, fifth or third above.
By 1G or 2E, tune 1B, third above or fourth below.
By 1A or A♯, tune 2C♯, major or minor third above.
By 1A♭, 1B♭ or 1B, tune 2E♭, fifth, fourth or major third above.
By 1B♭, 1B, 2C♯ or 2E♭, tune 1F♯, major third, fourth, fifth or sixth below.
As each step is taken in this system, the tone tuned is tested with
any or all of the tones previously tuned.
You will notice that six tones are tuned by the first standard, F.
Therefore, if any error is left in any one of the intervals it exists
in this only and is not transmitted to other tones, if corrected
before such other tones are used to tune by.
The numerous tests possible, early in the system, and the small
compass used, one octave, may be said to be the chief advantages of
the system.
The intervals used are the minor and major third, perfect fourth and
fifth, and major sixth. The thirds and sixths beat from about 7 to
nearly 12 per second. The exact number of beats for each step in the
system may be calculated from the "Table of Vibration Numbers" in
Lesson XIII. For instance, take middle C (2C) at 256, and its major
third, 2E. The exact third, determined by multiplying 256 by 5/4, is
found to be 320. By reference to the table, we find the tempered third
vibrates 322.54. The difference then is 2.54 vibrations per second,
and, knowing that a difference of one vibration from the exact major
third produces 4 beats, we simply multiply 2.54 by 4 and we have
10.16, the number of beats we should hear per second when this third
is tempered correctly. Other intervals may be figured out in like
manner by reference to the various tables given.
It is very doubtful if a beginner could succeed with this system. He
should tune by an easier system until he can hear the beats very
distinctly and judge quite accurately the rapidity of them. Having
acquired this ability, he may try this system and follow it in
preference to others.
In any system used it is well to test your work in the following
manner:
Begin with your lowest major third and strike each third in
succession, ascending chromatically. Of course, each third should beat
slightly faster than the one below it. For instance, in our system of
two octaves, take 1C-E; this third should beat about 5 per second.
Next, take 1C♯-F, which should beat about 5-1/2 per second. The beats
should increase each test nearly a half beat, or the amount of 5 beats
in this octave; hence, 2C-E will beat about 10 per second; or, using
the exact figures, 10.16. After arriving at the last-named test, 2C-E,
you may test the remainder of the two octaves by tenths, beginning
with 1C-2E. The tenth is similar to the third mathematically, and its
beats are even more distinct.
We may remark here that our system may be reduced to the compass of an
octave and a half by simply not tuning the octaves upward which reach
beyond 2F♯; and if anything were to be gained and nothing lost by
shortening the compass of the temperament, we would advise using only
the octave and a half. But in many years of experience in tuning all
imaginable types, styles and kinds of pianos, and by all systems, we
have found good reasons for adopting the two-octave temperament as
laid down in Lesson VIII, for universal application. Its advantages
may be summed up as follows:
~Simplicity.~--But two kinds of intervals are employed: the fifth and
the octave. The fifth is always tuned to a fundamental below and hence
always flattened, which relieves the tuner of any mental operation to
determine which way he is to temper. Being a regular succession of
fifths and octaves, without a break, the system is easily learned, and
can be followed with little mental strain.
~Uniformity.~--After the tuner has become well trained in tempering
his fifths, there is little danger of an uneven temperament, as the
various intervals used in trials will prove a false member in some
chord in time to correct it before he has gotten so far from it as to
make the correction difficult. When a correction is necessary, the
offending point is most easily found.
~Precision.~--In our experience, we have never known another system by
which we could attain the absolute precision gained by this.
~Stability.~--Stability is the feature wherein rests the paramount
reason for employing two octaves. From what has been said in previous
lessons concerning the liability of some strings to flatten or sharpen
by reason of altering the tension of other strings, the student will
readily see that the temperament should cover a sufficient portion of
the instrument, if possible, to insure that it will stand while the
remaining portion is being tuned. Our two octaves cover nearly all the
strings between the over-strung bass and the brace in the metal plate.
This being the case, any reasonable alteration of the strings beyond,
or outside, the braces from the temperament, will rarely, if ever,
affect it noticeably.
~Final Inspection.~--Always test every key on the piano, or especially
those of the middle five octaves, for bad unisons. Upon finding one,
search for the string that has stood in tune, by testing each string
of the unison with its octave. This being done, simply bring the other
to it. Go over the whole key-board, striking octaves, and correct any
that might offend. One extremely bad tone or octave may disparage your
reputation, when in reality your work merits commendation.
~Loose Pins.~--You will occasionally find pianos in which the tuning
pins have become so loose that they will not resist the pull of the
strings. If many of them are in this condition it is better, before
you begin to tune, to take a hammer of considerable weight and drive
them a little. Commence at one end of the row of pins and aim to
strike all the pins with the same force. Those which are tight enough
will not yield to the blow, while those which are loose may require
two or three blows to tighten them sufficiently. This defect is
generally found in very old squares or cheap uprights wherein the
pin-block is of poor material or defective in manufacture or in pianos
which have been abused.
~Split Bridges.~--Even in pianos of the highest grade, we sometimes
find a string sounding as if there was a pin or some metallic
substance bearing against it. In such cases, find the string and
examine the place where it crosses the bridge. You will often find the
bridge split at that point or the bridge-pin, having yielded to the
pressure of the string, vibrates against the next pin, giving rise to
the singing effect. You can do little if anything toward repairing a
split bridge. You may, however, stop the singing by inserting the
point of your screw-driver between the close pins and pressing them
apart. This will generally stop the difficulty for the time being at
least.
Strings crossing the bridge near a split will not stand in tune well,
and will, perhaps, have to be gone over two or three times. The same
may be said of a broken metal plate. Many old squares have broken
plates; generally found near the overstrung bass, or within the first
octave of the treble. All the tuner can do is to apprise the owner of
the defect and inform her that it will not stand well at this point,
as the intense strain is thrown largely upon the wooden frame, which
will have a tendency to yield gradually to it.
~Stringing.~--Strings break while the tuner is drawing them up,
sometimes because he does not pull them gradually, gives them an
abrupt turn or draws them too far above the pitch at which they are
intended to stand. More often, however, they break from being rusty at
the point where they pass over the bridge or around the tuning pin.
The best instruction concerning putting on new strings is, follow
appearances. Make the string you put on look just like those on the
instrument. In most modern pianos the string is wound with three coils
around the pin.
You will, of course, have to take out the action; not the key-board,
however, unless it be one of those rare cases where the key-board and
upper action are built to come out together. In the square it is only
necessary to remove the shade over the dampers, and the dampers, which
are all removed easily by taking out the screw at the left. This
allows the whole set of dampers with their support to come out
together.
Treble strings are nearly always passed around the hitch-pin, one wire
thus forming two strings. Take out the old string, noticing how it
passes over and under the felt at the dead end. After removing the
string always give the pin about three turns backward to draw it out
sufficiently so that when a new string is put on, the pin will turn
into the block as far as it did originally. Run one end of the string
barely through the hole in the tuning pin and turn it about twice
around, taking pains that the coils lie closely; then unwind enough
wire (of the same size of course) from your supply to reach down to
the hitch pin and back. Place the string on the bridge pins properly,
draw it as tight as you can by hand and cut it off about three
fingers' width beyond the pin upon which it is to be wound. This will
make about three coils around the pin. Place the end in the hole and
turn up gradually, watching that the string is clear down on hitch pin
and properly laid on the bridge. New strings will require drawing up
two or three times before they will stand in tune, and even then they
will run down in a short time. It is well on this account to leave
them slightly sharp, calling the owner's attention to the fact.
[Illustration: KNOT FOR SPLICING WIRE.]
When a bass string breaks at the point where it starts around the
tuning pin, it can nearly always be spliced and the trouble of sending
it away to have a new one made be avoided. Take a piece of new wire as
large or larger than the old string and splice it to the broken end
by a good secure knot. A knot called the square or ruft knot is the
best for this purpose. When a bass string breaks too far from the pin
to permit of a splice, the only resort will be to send the broken
string to some factory and have a new one made from it.
QUESTIONS ON LESSON XV.
1. Name the advantages and disadvantages of system A.
2. Name the advantages and disadvantages of system B.
3. What are the important points to be desired in any system of
setting temperament?
4. State three or four items of importance in the operation of
putting on a new string.
5. Why do pianos get out of tune?
LESSON XVI.
~TUNING AND REPAIRING THE REED ORGAN.~
An impression seems to be prevalent among some musicians of the more
advanced class, that the reed organ has gone or is going out of use;
in certain communities there appears to be sufficient ground for such
an impression; in other communities, however, we find the number of
organs largely in excess of the number of pianos. Not only is this the
case, but statistics of the various organ factories throughout the
United States show that the output is enormous, which is a sufficient
assurance that the reed organ is not an obsolete instrument by any
means. To be sure, the organ has been superseded in numerous cases by
the piano, which is, in many respects, a greatly superior instrument,
and, generally speaking, is more popular; yet, the reed organ has its
special features of tone quality and adaptation, which render it even
more desirable to many than the piano, aside from the fact of its
being less expensive.
The musical effects possible on the organ and not on the piano may be
few; but they are of no small value, when certain kinds of musical
compositions are to be rendered.
One great point in favor of the organ is, that it is capable of
continuing any tone or chord for any length of time, without
diminution, while in the piano, the bass tones may be continued for
considerable time, the middle tones a shorter length of time, and the
extreme high tones of the treble have but the slightest duration;
every tone in the piano gradually grows weaker from the instant of its
sounding until it fades into silence. Another feature of the organ,
not possible in the piano, is its ability of making the "crescendo" (a
gradual increase of strength or volume) in single tones or chords.
Still another point in favor of the organ (not in the tuner's favor,
however) is that it rarely gets out of tune and does not require being
gone over by the tuner at short intervals in order to keep it in fit
condition to be used.
The idea with which we desire to impress the student by the foregoing
remarks is, that while the piano is a superior instrument, and the art
of tuning the piano is a much deeper study from the general tuner's
standpoint than that of doing the various things the tuner is called
to do on the organ, he should not consider the reed organ of minor
importance, or slight the organ when called upon to put it in order.
The fact is, persons having organs in their homes cherish them as much
as others do their pianos, and there is no reason why they should not
have as good service.
It will be impossible to give anything more than general instruction
in organ work, as the difference in construction is so pronounced.
Pianos are built practically on the same plan, and when the
construction of one is learned, the tuner will find little difficulty
in others of the same type; but it seems that every organ manufacturer
has his own hobbies as to the best means of securing results; however,
the general principles are the same, and, like many operations coming
under the hand of the tuner, all that is necessary is to examine,
reason, and use good mechanical judgment.
CLEANING.
Organs need cleaning about once a year, or oftener if they are kept
and used in dusty places. The bellows are suction or exhaustion
bellows, and they draw the air in at the top of the organ through the
reeds and discharge it below. The effect of this is that if any dust
is floating in the air it is drawn in about the action and reeds,
where it settles and clogs the working parts, stopping the vibration
of the reeds entirely.
The front board or key strip is usually held in place by a screw at
each end, but sometimes by slides entering the holes in the side of
the case, which may be disconnected by wooden buttons at each end,
which are pulled toward the center. The back of all organs may be
entered by removing the board at the back of the case, held in place
by screws or buttons. Close all the stops, then take your dust blower,
if you have one, or a cloth, and remove all the dirt possible in this
way. Lift the muffler boards worked by the right knee-swell, take a
brush and clean thoroughly next to the reeds which will be exposed
when the muffler boards are raised.
If any dirt is left here it will be drawn into the reeds the instant
the organ is played. In bad cases, in fact it is better in every case,
to draw every reed, letting them lie in a row on the reed board and
going over each one separately, brush the dust from it. This will
improve the tone, or, rather, the tune of the instrument. Dirt on the
tongue of a reed adds sufficient weight to alter the pitch, and if it
is removed, the instrument will generally be in as good tune as when
it left the factory. Simply cleaning an organ in this way is often
called tuning, by inexperienced persons. If it happens that there are
only a few reeds that do not speak, and the owner does not care to pay
for a thorough cleaning, you will find the silent reeds by the method
given under the head "Examination," and, drawing them, clean and
replace.
STOPS.
Each stop on the organ (if there be no dummies) affects either the
tone quality or the power of the instrument. The Vox Humana stop
affects the quality of the tone by operating a fan in the rear of the
instrument or a contrivance contained in a small box, which produces a
tremolo effect. All other stops may be said to affect the power. Stops
having such names as Diapason, Melodia, Dulcet, Celeste, Cremona,
Echo, Principal, Bourdon, Sub Bass, Piccolo, Flute, Dulciana, etc.,
etc., open certain sets of reeds supposed to give forth a tone quality
similar to the instrument whose name it bears, or the tone of the
pipes of the pipe organ bearing such names. These stops operate on
the sets of reeds by raising the mutes which, when closed, stop the
passage of air through the reeds.
The octave coupler stop, sometimes called Harmonique, controls an
arrangement whereby, when a key is depressed, its octave is made to
sound also. "Forte" stops lift the mufflers or swells, and as these
are controlled by the right knee-swell, the Forte stop may be
considered of little value. The left knee-swell, called the Full Organ
swell, as its name implies, opens up the full power of all sets of
reeds and throws on the couplers.
A mere peep into any organ will disclose the mechanical working of
stops, which is in such great variety that we will not attempt to
detail it here.
EXAMINATION.