they took brine, carefully filtered, and so saturated with salt that an
egg would float on it; this was placed with the fish in a new saucepan;
wild marjoram was added, and the whole boiled over a gentle fire, until
the fish was entirely dissolved. Then wine, reduced to two-thirds by
boiling, was added. It was left to get cold; the liquid was several
times filtered, till it became quite clear, and was then finally placed
in an uncovered vase.[XXIII-34]
Although fish was generally used, the flesh of several animals was
sometimes employed in the formation of garum.[XXIII-35] It was, however,
submitted to the same preparations as those already mentioned.
Such was this wonderful seasoning, forming the chief delight of the
ancients, whose praises poets have sung, and the composition of which
formerly exercised the singularly mad intelligence of Maître François
Rabelais. The reader will doubtless remark, that the principal elements
of garum are almost invariably the same: fish, salt, and a greater or
less fermentation. But perhaps some one may exclaim: “This must be
detestable!” No doubt, but then no one ever thought of regaling himself
with this liquid; it was never taken alone; it was but reserved as a
seasoning for a host of dishes, in order to heighten their flavour.
It must also be observed, that a skilful cook always took care to
modify the garum before he sent it to table, by the help of various
ingredients, such as pepper, vinegar, Falernian wine,[XXIII-36] water,
and oil,[XXIII-37] according to the use to which it was destined, or the
degree of strength it was expedient it should possess. Hence that
variety of seasonings with garum,--sweet,[XXIII-38] sharp, mixed with
water, wine, vinegar, and many other substances which changed or
corrected the acid flavour of the primitive condiment,[XXIII-39] though
without in the least depriving it of the qualities which fermentation
had communicated to it.
It results from the different citations of which this chapter is
composed, that recipes for the making of garum are to be obtained more
easily than people seem to think at the present time. Everyone may not
be of the same opinion with regard to the kind of fish generally used by
the ancients to obtain this liquid, although all difficulties would be
removed by admitting--which certainly is nothing but right--that they
chose at one time mackerel or tunny fish; at others, gudgeons and small
sardines; sometimes even the red mullet, in spite of its rarity and
price. But it is evident that garum was prepared by either dissolving
and liquefying these fish in their brine, either whole, their
intestines, or their liver, and that, to effect this, it was only
necessary to expose to the sun the vessel containing them; or that they
simply put small fish into a dish, with vinegar and parsley, placed it
on a charcoal fire, and stirred it for some time, when it was wanted for
immediate use.
It must have been remarked in reading this work, that Apicius very
frequently employs garum; he places it in every sauce, but never makes
use of this seasoning unmixed, never does he serve it by itself as a
special dish. This celebrated gastronomist has bequeathed us the recipe
for a digestive garum. It is as follows:--
Mix with some honey, half an ounce of pepper, three scruples of
eschalots, six scruples of cardamum, one scruple of spikenard, and six
scruples of mint; add vinegar to this mixture, and then pour in some
garum.[XXIII-40]
The _Hypotrimma_, or stomachic condiment, of the same master, merits
also our attention:--Mix carefully some pepper, benzoin, mint,
pine-nuts, dried raisins, and dates, with fresh (not salt) cheese,
vinegar, oil, honey, and wine, reduced by boiling to one half; add garum
to this mixture.[XXIII-41]
The _Moretaria_ appears to be a variety of the Hypotrimma; it is a
mixture of mint, rue, coriander, fennel, the whole fresh, with benzoin,
pepper, honey, and vinegar; to this, garum is added.[XXIII-42]
Whatever may be the opinion the reader may form of this garum, of which
mention has so frequently been made, and which has been alternately
praised and despised by the moderns, it is certain that the most
fastidious persons were madly fond of it, and that in the time of Pliny,
it was so much esteemed, that its price equalled that of the most
precious perfumes.
“At the present day this celebrated seasoning is forgotten in Italy, but
in Turkey it is still in use. The inn-keepers of Constantinople preserve
in garum the cooked fish not consumed in the day.”--BOSC.
HONEY.
What is sweeter than honey?[XXIII-43] what is more pure,[XXIII-44] or
more nourishing?[XXIII-45] It is the milk of the aged, it prolongs their
existence,[XXIII-46] and when they descend into the tomb, it still
serves to embalm them.[XXIII-47]
Pagan antiquity ascribed the honour of the discovery of this useful
substance to the Athenian Aristæus, who taught mankind to feed on it.
This valuable service procured him a patent of nobility. He was made a
descendant of Bacchus or Apollo.[XXIII-48]
It is not necessary to say that honey was known in the east long before
the rise of Athens; it is already mentioned in the first book of the
holy writings.[XXIII-49]
It is said that Spain owed its knowledge of this delicious aliment to
Gorgor, King of the Curetes, who was polite enough to take some on the
occasion of a journey which he made into that country.[XXIII-50] The
Peninsula could afterwards furnish this delicacy for the tables of Rome
and Italy.
The Greeks esteemed honey most highly;[XXIII-51] they employed it in
pastry, and in _ragoûts_;[XXIII-52] their philosopher, Pythagoras, eat
nothing else with his bread, and, as he lived to be ninety years old, he
recommended his disciples to follow the same _régime_.[XXIII-53] They
profited by th sage’s counsel, and found themselves all the better for
it.[XXIII-54]
A benevolent goddess protected bees, hives, and the honeycomb. She was
called Mellona, and a grateful piety offered her honey every new-year’s
day.[XXIII-55]
Theophrastus distinguished three kinds of honey: that which the bees
extract from flowers, that which comes from the air, and lastly, the
honey from reeds.[XXIII-16] We clearly perceive that he means honey,
manna, and sugar.
Virgil thought that a gentle dew falls on the flowers, and became
immediately the prey of bees, which deposited it in their
cells.[XXIII-17] Pliny has adopted the same graceful error,[XXIII-18]
and even Galen himself partakes of it.[XXIII-19]
The ancients caused honey to be served at the beginning of a
repast;[XXIII-60] it was used in lieu of sugar in the preparation of
preserves and some kinds of beverages, which will hereafter claim our
attention. They preferred that of Attica,[XXIII-61] and insisted on its
being thick, clear, granulated, transparent, fresh, and aromatic, with a
somewhat sharp flavour.[XXIII-62] The faculty attributed to it great
virtues.[XXIII-63]
Honey served as a basis to the wonderful seasoning of Apicius, which we
present to the studious investigation of modern gastronomy:--Put fifteen
pounds of honey into a brass vessel, containing two pints of wine. Warm
at a very gentle fire, stir, and when it rises, pour over more wine. Let
the mixture rise three times, then take it from the fire, and skim it
the next day. Then add four ounces of ground pepper, three scruples of
gum, a drachm of spikenard, a drachm of saffron, five drachms of dried
dates, after softening them in wine; pour on the whole eighteen pints of
light wine.[XXIII-64]
The _Oxyporon_ was another seasoning much in vogue two thousand years
ago, and in which honey was the principal ingredient. It was composed by
mixing two ounces of cummin seed, one ounce of ginger, one ounce of
green rue, and six scruples of nitre, with one ounce of pepper, and
twelve scruples of fine dates; nine ounces of honey were then poured
over the whole.[XXIII-65]
Sometimes they contented themselves with macerating cummin seed in
vinegar, which they left to dry, and then pounded it; that done, it was
put into honey.[XXIII-66]
“The honey most esteemed is the white, granulated, and of an aromatic
flavour. The honey from the French provinces of Narbonne, the Gatinais,
or Britanny, is the most esteemed. Honey is next of kin to sugar, having
the same properties. It is frequently used in domestic economy, and in
medicine as a laxative. It enters into a number of remedies, either as a
corrective, or an excipient.”--“_Dictio. Encycl._”
SUGAR.
Theophrastus, the first among the ancients who speaks of sugar, classes
it among the number of honeys.[XXIII-67] Dioscorides also calls it
“honey of reeds;” he adds that these reeds grow in India, or in Arabia
Felix, and that the agreeable substance they contain has some analogy
with salt.[XXIII=68] Pliny also gives it the same name. It is, according
to this naturalist, a kind of honey, with which certain reeds are
filled, and used only in medicine.[XXIII-69]
This was also the opinion of many ancient authors;[XXIII-70] one of
whom, Paul Eginetta, calls sugar--Indian salt.[XXIII-71]
The sugar cane appears to be originally a native of the East Indies.
From the most remote ages the Chinese have understood the art of
cultivating it. The histories of the Egyptians, Phœnicians, and Jews,
make no mention of it. The Greek physicians are the first who speak of
it.
It was not till the year 1471 that a Venetian discovered the method of
purifying brown sugar and making loaf sugar. He gained an immense
fortune by this discovery.[XXIII-72]
Sugar cane, well purified, and disburthened of all foreign matter, is
white, solid, inodorous, soluble in water, of a soft and agreeable
savour. Its specific gravity is 1.6065; it is used as a seasoning in a
multitude of dishes, in preparing syrups, preserving of fruits, _&c._,
_&c._
CINNAMON.
In the time of Theophrastus, it was said that cinnamon grew in a dark
and silent valley, guarded night and day by fearful serpents. Animated
by the hope of gain, some individuals, careless of their existence,
risked their lives by gathering some of this precious bark. When they
had the good luck to avoid the vigilant reptiles, they consecrated to
the sun part of their booty, which the radiant orb immediately consumed
to prove his acceptance of the offering.[XXIII-73]
Others, thinking this little tale on the subject of cinnamon rather too
dramatic, pretended that the shrub furnishing it was found only on high
mountains, to which man was forbidden all access. But fortunately
certain birds--the phoenix, among others--great amateurs of aromatics,
make their nests of its small branches; these nests are taken, and in
this manner, whether the year be good or bad, a sufficient stock of
cinnamon is obtained without much trouble.[XXIII-74] Pliny recognises
two kinds of it--one white, the other black, both of which were brought
to Rome from Ethiopia, in the reign of Vespasian.[XXIII-75]
Eighty years after (A.D. 164), Galen informs us that cinnamon was still
very scarce in Italy; that the Emperors alone possessed any; and that
they even preserved it among the curiosities they made it their pleasure
to collect and keep in their palaces.[XXIII-76]
The same writer regards this so precious and uncommon cinnamon as an
excellent cordial and a good digestive.[XXIII-77]
We may add that it was only well known in Europe after the frequent
voyages of the Portuguese to India.[XXIII-78]
However, in 1168, an abbot of St. Gilles, in Languedoc, having a favour
to ask of Louis-le-Jeune, thought there was no better means of
persuading him to grant it than to send him a small stock of
cinnamon.[XXIII-79]
Our forefathers (in the middle ages) had their tables furnished with
cinnamon sauce; nutmeg, mustard, and garlic sauces; cold sauces; parsley
and vinegar sauces, hot sauces, hell sauces, burgher sauces; cherry,
plum, mulberry, grape, gorse, rose, and flower sauces. They were served
with roast meat.
Cinnamon is daily employed in medicine, in diarrhœa, several fevers,
&c., &c., and in pharmacy. That from China is much thicker than the
others, its colour darker, and its odour more powerful; essential oil is
drawn from it, and preserved in flagons, sealed with the arms of
government, and sold at a very high price.
CLOVES.
Cloves were very little known to the ancients. Theophrastus,
Dioscorides, and Galen do not speak of them.
Pliny says that some cloves were brought to Rome, very similar to
grains of pepper but a little longer; that they were only to be found in
India, in a wood consecrated to the gods; and that they served in the
fabrication of perfumes.[XXIII-80]
The conquest of India by the Portuguese rendered them common throughout
Europe.
Cloves contain a considerable quantity of essential aromatic oil, thick,
brown, and very heavy, to which it owes its aromatic properties and
sharp burning savour. Cloves are employed as a seasoning or as medicine.
PEPPER.
The two great cities of antiquity knew how to appreciate pepper, and
employed it largely in their culinary labours. They distinguished two
kinds: one round, the other long and thin.[XXIII-81]
Dioscorides and Pliny describe the shrub, on which are to be seen pods
filled with seeds of pepper, resembling millet, according to the first
of these writers, and like small beans, according to the
other.[XXIII-82]
Our readers no doubt remember the importance which Apicius ascribes to
pepper, in the learned recipes of that skilful _Archimagirus_.
VERJUICE.
Verjuice, the use of which is very ancient, was used more in
pharmaceutical preparations than in the seasoning of food.[XXIII-83]
Galen attributes to it refreshing qualities, and advises it in certain
cases.[XXIII-84]
Verjuice is a kind of grape, very acid, and which never gets perfectly
ripe. The _suc_ of verjuice is used in medicine and culinary preparation
as an astringent. The juice is not proper to make wine, but a very
agreeable syrup is obtained from it.
VINEGAR.
The greater part of ancient nations were acquainted with the use of
vinegar. Reapers in the east soaked their bread in it, to freshen
it[XXIII-85] The Greeks esteemed that of Cnide, of Sphette, of Cleone,
and above all the vinegar of Egypt,[XXIII-86] which was reputed to be
the best among the Romans, who tempered its acrimony by mixing with it
some sweet substance.[XXIII-87]
These masters of the world did not fancy they possessed all the comforts
of life when they wanted vinegar; therefore they always had a large
provision of it in their cellars, as all their seasonings
proved.[XXIII-88]
This passion (for it certainly amounted to a passion) is easily
explained by the admirable qualities they attributed to the pungent
liquid. It was believed to be astringent, digestive, antibilious,
refreshing, and an antiscorbutic.[XXIII-89] Mixed with water, it was the
drink of the soldiers,[XXIII-90] who, thanks to this beverage, braved
the intemperance of the seasons and the different climates of Europe,
Africa, and Asia.
The Greeks and Romans esteemed highly their pickles: these consisted of
flowers, herbs, roots, and vegetables, preserved in vinegar, and which
kept a long time in cylindrical vases with wide mouths.[XXIII-91] They
were prepared with the greatest care; and these plants were often
macerated in oil, brine, and vinegar, with which they were impregnated
drop by drop.[XXIII-92] Meat, also, cut in very small pieces, was
treated in the same manner.
Vinegar of an exorbitant price was obtained from some precious wines,
and that price was again increased by the proverbial cupidity of some
butlers in great houses. We doubt much, however, whether any of those
worthy personages ever made such a bill as a certain French seigneur
dared to do under the reign of Louis XIII. It is said that the Duc de la
Meilleraye, grand master of the artillery of France, presented to the
minister a bill in which figured an article of 1,300,000 francs
(£52,000), for vinegar to cool the cannons! The sum appeared rather
large, but La Meilleraye was a near relation of Richelieu, and the
article passed without the least contestation.[XXIII-93]
TRUFFLE.
A truffled turkey was to be eaten at a dinner where Buffon was invited.
A few minutes before setting down to table, an elderly lady inquired of
the celebrated naturalist where the truffle grew. “At your feet,
madame.” The lady did not understand; but it was thus explained to her:
“_C’est au pied des charmes_” (yoke elm tree). The compliment appeared
to her most flattering. Towards the end of the dinner, some one asked
the same question of the illustrious writer, who, forgetting that the
lady was beside him, innocently replied: “They grow _aux pieds des vieux
charmes_” (old yoke elm trees). The lady overheard him, and no longer
thought anything of his amiability.
Nevertheless Buffon was right. It was around the yoke elm trees of
Lampsachus, Acarnidea, Alopecomesia, and Elis, that those famous
truffles were discovered, whose reputation was spread in all parts and
which Italy envied Greece.[XXIII-94]
The truffle! beloved treasure that the earth conceals within her
bosom--as she does the precious metals, which she seems to have yielded
grudgingly to the patient researches of the gastronomist; the magiric
records do not tell us at what memorable epoch this exquisite tubercle
astonished, for the first time, the palate of man; but a doubtful
tradition maintains that a vile animal (a pig), guided by his marvellous
gluttony, found out the existence of this pearl of banquets.
Pliny was very much inclined to range the truffles amidst astonishing
prodigies. He fancied that he saw it at its birth increase without
roots, without the slightest fibre, without the least capillary vessel
likely to transmit to it nutritious juices;[XXIII-95] therefore he
believed that, sown by thunder-bolts in the autumnal storms,[XXIII-96]
this daughter of thunder grew like minerals by juxta-position, and
relates on this subject the history of Lartius Licinius, governor of
Spain, who, while biting a truffle with avidity, broke one of his teeth
against a Roman denarius which chance alone had inclosed within
it.[XXIII-97]
The Greeks thought a great deal of a delicious species of truffles,
smooth outside, red within, which were found just under the surface of
the ground, and did not show the slightest appearance of
vegetation.[XXIII-98] Another kind was also much sought after by
amateurs, probably on account of their scarcity. They were originally
from Africa, and called cyrenaïc, white outside, of an excellent
perfume, and exquisite flavour.[XXIII-99]
The Athenians, enlightened appreciates of all sorts of merits, accepted
with gratitude a _ragoût_ with truffles, invented by Cherips. That
culinary genius did not long enjoy his glory; a premature death carried
him off from his stoves, his honours, and his fortune; but the Greeks
did not bury their gratitude in his tomb; his sons became citizens of
Athens, and the name of their father, more fortunate than that of
Christopher Columbus, clung for ever to his brilliant
discovery.[XXIII-100]
The doctors of other days did not exactly agree upon the quality either
good or bad of truffles. Philoxenes, whose opinion met with many
partisans, would have it that a great quantity should be eaten cooked
under the ashes, and deliciously impregnated with a succulent
sauce.[XXIII-101] It was, however, recommended to choose them with the
most particular attention, because some had the reputation of being as
poisonous as mushrooms.[XXIII-102]
The Romans were as fond of truffles as the Greeks, and that is not
saying little.[XXIII-103] Apicius gives a method of preparing them which
is as follows:--
After they are boiled in water, put a little stick through them, and
then place them for an instant before the fire; season them afterwards
with oil, a little meat gravy, some skirrets, wine, pepper, and honey,
in proper proportions. When the sauce is boiling, make a thickening, and
serve.[XXIII-104]
The illustrious epicurean prepared them also with pepper, benzoin,
coriander and rue, to which he added a little honey, oil, and
gravy.[XXIII-105]
The estimable Platina insists that, in the first place, truffles should
be washed in wine, and afterwards cooked under the ashes; and that they
be served hot, and sprinkled over with salt and pepper.[XXIII-106]
This is the composition of a syrup of truffles, taken from the old
Arabian medicine. We believe it to be very little known, and should not
be surprised if it were, some day, to obtain the renown it seems to
deserve. It was composed of truffles, balm, and holy thistle, boiled in
water with sugar; and to each pound of the decoction was added one
scruple of water distilled from honey, and half an ounce of some
spirit--say, for example, spirits of wine--to each pound of liquor. The
whole was aromatised with musk and a little rose-water. Two ounces of
this syrup were administered hot,[XXIII-107] in cases of weakness.
Salmasius, who knew much of the Greek tongue, and very little of
cookery, avers that the ancients knew two different kinds of truffles.
One species was similar to ours, and the other a variety from Africa,
already mentioned, white outside and the size of a quince.[XXIII-108]
Leo the African, says that the Arabs cook these truffles in milk, and
that they think them exquisite. Thereupon Salmasius exclaims against the
insipidity of this dish, or the ignorance of Leo the African; and
immediately points out, with an air of triumph, the celebrated Avicenna,
who informs us that, after the truffles were peeled and cut in small
pieces, they were cooked in water and salt, and then dished up with oil,
benzoin, and spices. Salmasius will have it that Avicenna’s truffles had
no other flavour than that given by the sauce, and he has no forgiveness
for those poor Arabs who dared to dress them otherwise.
If this clever Hellenist had studied this savoury tubercle with as much
care as he bestowed on the writers of the history of Augustus, he would
have learned that the peculiar perfume which distinguishes it retains,
in the midst of seasoning the most laboriously prepared, the same power
it possesses when eaten by itself, and without any dressing.
Apicius had less of literature than Salmasius, but he was most assuredly
gifted in a very superior degree with that _mens divinior_ which makes
great cooks and illustrious poets. This assimilation has nothing
surprising in it, if we only remember that genius is nothing else than
the faculty of producing; and who ever bequeathed to posterity
productions more exquisite than those of Archestrates and Apicius?
Let us hear from this latter how to preserve truffles. You must be
careful not to put them in contact with water; that is to say, that they
ought to be kept very dry. They are placed separately in vessels, and
covered with iron filings, or saw-dust. Close each vessel hermetically
with plaster, and keep them in a dark and cool place.[XXIII-109]
The truffle is a very remarkable vegetable, which, without stems, roots,
or fibres, grows of itself, isolated in the bosom of the earth,
absorbing the nutritive juice. Its form is round, more or less regular;
its surface is smooth or tuberculous; the colour dark-brown outside,
brown, grey, or white within. Its tissue is formed of articulated
filaments, between which are spheric vesicles, and in the interior are
placed reproductive bodies, small brown spheres, called _truffinelles_.
Truffles vegetate to the depth of five or six inches in the high sandy
soils of the south-west of France, of Piedmont, &c., &c. Their mode of
vegetation and reproduction is not known. Dogs are trained to find them,
as well as pigs, and boars also, who are very fond of them. They are
eaten cooked under the ashes, or in wine and water. They are preserved,
when prepared in oil, which is soon impregnated with their odour.
Poultry is stuffed with them, also geese’s livers, pies, and cooked
pork, besides numerous _ragoûts_. They possess, it is said, exciting
virtues.
MUSHROOMS.