decorated with a profusion of utensils similar in every respect to our
own in point of shape--such as gridirons, cullenders, dripping-pans, and
tart dishes. These objects are of tolerably thick bronze, plated with
fine silver.[XXII-61] Charming shells of the same metal, serve to mould
the pastry,[XXII-62] which is afterwards disposed with order on the
shelves of a country oven,[XXII-63] or in the upper part of the
authepsa,--a kind of saucepan of Corinthian brass, of considerable
value, and made with such art that its contents cook instantly and
almost without fire.[XXII-64] This simple and ingenious vessel possesses
a double-bottom; the uppermost one holds
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE No. XII.
From the ancients very little is left us of their kitchen utensils;
however, the vessels and instruments which they used must have been
in great variety; they had boilers called by the names of
_caldarium_, _cacabus_, _cortina_, _adhenum_; chaldron, _lebes_;
stewpan, _sartago_; saucepan, _pultarium_; the cullender, with
small holes perforated, Pliny calls _colum_, and more modern
writers _verna_; spoons, in Latin, _cochlear_ or _cochleare_; forks
and hooks, to draw the meat out of the stockpots, they named
_creagra_ and _fuscina_; the dishes were called _lances_, _disci_,
_patina_, _patella_, or _catini_; and distinguished from plates by
the size, and sometimes the shape.
=No. 1.= Stockpot, with a large ladle and cullender attached, with
small holes; appeared on the column of Trajan, together with the
stewpan of Silenus.
=No. 2.= Broken stewpan, in bronze.
=No. 3.= Smaller one. These three articles of kitchen utensils are
from the cabinet of M. l’Abbé Charlet.--“_Antiquités de
Montfaucon._”
the light delicacies destined for the dessert, and the fire is
underneath.[XXII-65]
The diploma, or double-vase, which has sometimes been confounded with
the authepsa, does not in the least resemble the latter. It is thus they
named the vessel called by us a “_bain-marie_;”[XXII-66] the ancients
made great use of this mild and gentle process of cooking, which is
often mentioned in the treatise of Apicius.[XXII-67]
These brass boilers, which boil on the hearth, supported by three feet,
are precisely like those used by the French at the present day.[XXII-68]
Boilers also of a rather different kind are sometimes used, in which the
operation of ebullition takes place sooner than in the first mentioned;
they are closed with a cover in the form of a dome, and a large hollow
cylinder, fixed beneath, hastens and keeps up the action of the
caloric.[XXII-69]
The saucepans, around which a host of cooks are busily engaged, are for
the greater part made of brass or earthenware,[XXII-70] tolerably wide
and deep, which they place on the stoves, and in which are concocted the
delicate and scientific preparations. Some are of silver.[XXII-71] The
caprices of luxury have led them to suppose that certain expensive
viands acquire greater perfection when cooked in this precious metal.
A confidential slave, charged with the care of the plate, is cleaning
and polishing near a dresser a large number of bronze chafing-dishes,
which are to be used at table to prevent the plates from becoming cold.
It is in speaking of this useful invention that Seneca, the philosopher,
says, “Daintiness gave birth to this invention, in order that no viand
should be chilled, and that everything should be hot enough to please
the most pampered palate. The kitchen follows the supper.”[XXII-72] Each
of these elegant utensils is supported by three geese. It measures about
seven inches from the extremity of one of the bird’s heads to the
opposite edge of the circumference. This kind of tray is fifteen lines,
or an inch and a-quarter deep, and the feet raise it about two inches
above the plane. The three geese have their wings spread, and terminate
by
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE No. XIII.
No. 1. This boiler is made of bronze; the lower part was filled
with water, and made to boil by means of the cylinder, covered with
a lid, in which lighted charcoal was introduced; the ashes escaped
through holes perforated at the bottom, and the basin has a tap to
let the water out.
No. 2. A flat saucepan, or sauté pan, with a fluted handle, and a
ram’s head at the end.
No. 3. A kettle similar to our teapots.
No. 4. A gridiron, and a dripping-pan.
No. 5. A trivet, a cleaver, and a butcher’s knife.--ST. NON,
“_Cabinet of Herculaneum_.”
[Illustration: _Pl. 13._]
[Illustration: _Pl. 14_]
neats’ feet. The heads, raised on the breasts, form graceful
handles.[XXII-73] These chafing-dishes, arranged systematically on the
sigma, produce a delightful effect.
Dishes of massive silver occupy another compartment of the vast
cupboard. An opulent family could not possibly do without this luxury.
Sylla had some which weighed 200 marks, and Rome would produce more than
five hundred of the same weight.[XXII-74] It was in fact a perfect
_furore_, which afterwards greatly augmented. In the time of the Emperor
Claudius, one of his slaves, named Drusillanus Rotundus, possessed a
silver dish weighing 1,000 marks, which was served in the midst of eight
smaller ones weighing 100 marks each. These nine dishes were arranged at
table on a machine which supported and placed them prominently in view.
The _patinæ_ such was the name of these magnificent pieces of plate,
served for _ragoûts_ and fish; the _catinus_, an immense vase of
earthenware among the poor[XXII-75] and of silver with the rich, is more
especially reserved for liquid dishes, with much gravy, and what we call
pottage.[XXII-76]
Those silver cups and saucers, of the same shape and size as those we
employ for tea, have a destination very strange to our ideas. They are
used to drink hot water. They are worked in relief, with a taste and
delicacy which we cannot too much admire.[XXII-77]
The Roman spoons, rather different from our own, end on one side by a
point, to pick shell fish from their shell, and at the other by the bowl
of a spoon, with which eggs were eaten.[XXII-78]
Doubtless, forks were unknown to the Greeks, since Athenæus relates,
“that Pithyllus”--surnamed the Dainty--“did not content himself with
covering his tongue with a species of net, to appreciate the taste of
the various dishes, but cleaned and rubbed it with a fish. He also
enveloped his hands in a kind of glove, to eat everything burning
hot;”[XXII-79] a useless precaution if he had used a fork.
This indispensable addition to a modern table was, perhaps, not common
at Rome, but nevertheless, it was to be seen at the residence of some
wealthy families. The slave before-mentioned holds several in his hand.
These forks are remarkable for the beauty of their workmanship.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE No. XIV.
No. 1. Chafing-dish to keep everything hot.
No. 2. Silver cup, beautifully chased, to drink hot water.
The stags’ feet which terminate the handles, and the fillets with which
they are ornamented, bear witness by their execution to the rare talent
of the goldsmith. They are five inches and a half in length, and have
only two prongs.[XXII-80]
Other servants dispose the earthenware pails, in which the wine is to be
placed to cool,[XXII-81] and prepare the drinking cups and crystal
flagons.[XXII-82] One of them replenishes with vinegar, salt, and
pepper, little vases designated by the name of _acetabulum_, “vinegar
cruet.”[XXII-83] These are so many models of the most exquisite
elegance, in bronze, silver, and, sometimes, gold. They are manufactured
simply of earthenware, for the use of the middle classes of
people.[XXII-84]
The knives, destined to serve at table, are of brilliant steel, and
carefully sharpened; they bear each on the handle some whimsical
ornament, and seem to have served as models for those which were so much
in fashion towards the beginning of the 17th century, and which were
called Chinese knives.[XXII-85]
The most precious plate is arranged before the arrival of the guests on
the abacus, or sideboard, which decorates the dining room. This splendid
piece of furniture, which will be noticed hereafter, was introduced into
Rome 187 years B.C. It was also called the Delphic table.[XXII-86]
However, the _Archimagirus_ has drawn up a list of the repast, which
contains the bill of fare of the dishes, and which, both in Greece and
Rome, was always presented to the guests.[XXII-87] He descends from his
platform, and goes to cast an inspiring glance on the work of each
subordinate. Nothing escapes his learned investigation, from the
peacocks’ eggs of the first service, to the soft cheese commonly eaten
at the third.[XXII-88] Above all, he examines with minute attention the
ovens, at which preside those second cooks of whose talents he is not
certain, and who belong to that class of erratic artists who are to be
met with every day at the forum,
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE No. XV.
No. 1. Roman silver spoon, found at Autun, in France. Martial says
expressly that spoons were used by the ancients to eat eggs and
shell fish.
No. 2. Brass knife, from Herculaneum. The shape of the handle is
rather singular, being too small for the hand, but it was probably
covered with horn, wood, or ivory. However, it may have been, the
knife is thirteen inches in length, from the tip to the ring, which
was used to hang it up. The handle is three inches long, and the
blade in its largest width is one inch and a quarter. It was used
no doubt for sacrifices.
No. 3. A simpulum, or a sort of spoon for salt or eggs.
No. 4. A simpulum, or cup with a long handle, commonly ending with
a hook, which was used as a ladle to take wine or other liquids out
of large vessels.
No. 5. Fork mentioned in the text, and given as antique in the
“_Recueil d’Antiq.,_” III., Pl. 84.
[Illustration: _Pl. 15._]
[Illustration: _Pl. 16_]
where they wait till some one comes to request their services.[XXII-89]
His remarks, full of sense and precision, proclaim profound study and
consummate experience. “Never will this _depsiticius_ bread,”[XXII-90]
says he to one of them, “obtain the necessary lightness by baking; the
flour should have been passed through a Spanish sieve of linen
thread;[XXII-91] Use the Gallic sieve of horsehair for the
_artocreas_,[N][XXII-92] and one of papyrus, or Egyptian rush,[XXII-93]
for the coarser kinds of flour.” “The grasshoppers require great
precaution,” he exclaims, an instant after, approaching a young
Sicilian; “fry them so that they obtain only a light gold
colour.”[XXII-94] Then, passing to a third stove, he shows to one of his
favourite pupils how to season highly an excellent sauce of snails (this
_hors-d’œuvre_, dear to the Romans), and by what marks to distinguish
those fattened by art in particular inclosures, from those which feed in
gardens and are only fit for the common people.[XXII-95] He then stops
before a stewpan, where a cook is browning large worms of a whitish hue,
which breed in the hollows of trees, and are considered by the
Romans[XXII-96] as a most delicious dish: “The flour with which these
cossi were fed was heated,” says he; “they will present to the teeth
only a soft and insipid substance.”[XXII-97]
We will not accompany this great master any further: his instructions
are already known to us. An enthusiastic disciple of Apicius, he
practises the lessons of that illustrious professor; and we should only
hear from him precepts which we have already faithfully transmitted.
When the moment of supper is arrived, we shall find the _Archimagirus_
presiding at that gastronomic order of battle on which depends the
success of the day. May Vesta and Comus be propitious to him.
In the 14th century, the refectories and kitchens of the numerous
communities of Paris presented a curious scene. Immense coppers
contained the pottage and boiled meat, and monster gridirons, on four
wheels, covered vast braziers. All the utensils of these kitchens were
of remarkable dimensions.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE No. XVI.
No. 1. Roman silver knife handle.
No. 2. Roman silver spoons.
No. 3. A very deep dish of metal, either for sauces or some kind of
liquid.
XXIII.
SEASONINGS.
THE animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish us with an abundant and
wholesome food, whose flavour gastronomic caprice unceasingly modifies
by the aid of various substances which we denominate seasonings. It is,
above all, the perfect knowledge of these ingredients, the manner of
employing them, and their skilful mixture, which constitute the art of
the cook. Labour and custom, and a kind of routine which the palate
acquires easily, will suffice for those who content themselves with this
calling, and who, carefully preserving the timid traditions of the past,
view progress as ruin and devastation, and the fruitful boldness of
inspiration as ridiculous and fatal innovations.
Heresy, and even schism (pardon these expressions), should be allowed in
cookery, as soon as they receive the sanction of the doctors
_ès-banquets_--the sole judges competent in such matters. It is to the
art professed by Apicius that the celebrated line of Voltaire appears
more peculiarly to apply:--
“Tous les genres sont bons, excepté l’ennuyeux.”
Innovate, then, studious disciples of the illustrious Roman: consult
only the measures of your strength, the conscience of your genius, and
the infallible good taste of some chosen guests. Create for your
seasoning unheard-of combinations, the strangeness of which shall strike
and astonish; whose flavour shall subjugate and stifle criticism beneath
the sweet efforts of a voluptuous mastication.
Learn how to make your areopagitæ eat: this innocent seduction will
insure your triumph.
Treat not with too much disdain these Roman recipes; for although the
formidable list may excite a smile from the reader, and, perhaps, the
scorn of the cook, a great and prolific idea slumbers beneath the cold
ashes of the ovens of Apicius which a breath may rekindle; and, at the
same time, resuscitate some of those culinary wonders of a bygone
civilisation, and endow our modern age, so impatient of the future, so
curious concerning the past.
Two Phœnicians--whose names are never mentioned by forgetful
posterity--Selech and Misor, taught mankind the art of heightening the
flavour of their food by mixing with it a certain quantity of salt. The
science of seasoning has no other origin.[XXIII-1]
SALT.
The law of Moses commanded the Jews to mix salt with everything offered
in sacrifice.[XXIII-2] This prescription sufficiently testifies the use
of this condiment at an epoch which the uncertainty of profane writers
appears to invade on all sides, and which the great Hebrew legislator
alone enlightens with a ray invariably steady and pure.
The Asphaltite lake produced abundance of salt.[XXIII-3] It was sent
even to Rome, and was considered by Galen as the most desiccatory and
digestive of any kind.[XXIII-4]
The Greeks placed this substance in the list of things which ought to be
consecrated to the gods; and it is in this sense that Homer gives it the
epithet of divine. Pagan superstition, of which some traces may still be
remarked in the 19th century, threatened with some great misfortune any
one who spilt salt; and it was deemed a signal impiety to forget placing
salt-cellars on the table, or to dare go to sleep before removing them.
This strange superstition was common among the Greeks and
Romans.[XXIII-5] Those nations never failed consecrating their repasts
by filling salt-cellars, near to the vase in which they presented the
gods with the first portion of meat and fruit.[XXIII-6]
Certain nations, among others the Numidians, were not acquainted with
salt;[XXIII-7] and in the greater part of countries where it abounded,
cupidity almost invariably subjected it to a heavy tax, which rendered
its use less practicable.
The inhabitants of Troad provided themselves for a long time with salt
from Tragase without cost. King Lysimachus one day thought of exacting
a duty for every measure carried away. But, wonderful to relate, hardly
was the royal edict published, when the salt springs were found to be so
nearly dried up, that they hardly furnished wherewith to season a small
stew. Lysimachus comprehended the meaning of this prodigy, and abolished
the tax. The salt re-appeared.[XXIII-8]
At Rome, in the time of her Kings, every one was free to sell salt, and
its price became excessively high. The republican government withdrew
this right from private individuals, and from that time the common
people easily procured all the salt they required, and which they
willingly eat with bread.[XXIII-9]
Ancus Martius was the first Roman who established salt works near Ostia
towards the mouth of the Tiber.[XXIII-10] Afterwards, others were
formed, not only in Rome, but in the provinces. These were of two kinds,
public and private. The first belonged to the republic, and formed part
of the emperor’s domain; malefactors were condemned to labour in the
salt-works, and it was generally women on whom this punishment was
inflicted.[XXIII-11]
Ancus Martius was also the first who placed a duty on salt. It was
abolished after the expulsion of the Kings, but was afterwards again
established.
Down to the 14th century salt was a commodity of trade open to every one
in France. Philip the Long and Philip of Valois were the first to impose
a momentary tax on it; but after the fatal battle of Poictiers, in which
John was taken prisoner, Charles, his son, in order to pay the ransom of
that monarch, had recourse, among other extraordinary means, to the
establishment of the salt tax. The idea was found to be good, and it has
never since been given up.[XXIII-12]
There are four sorts of salt which are employed to season dishes,
obtained either from the evaporation of sea water, from certain lakes or
salt marshes, and also from saliferous sources drawn out of the bosom of
the earth in compact masses. Its particular savour is well known; it is
soluble in water, and easily becomes damp. In the scientific language,
this substance is called hydrochlorate of soda.
BRINE.
This was water in which bay salt had been dissolved. At Rome, it was
served at table to be mixed with the meat precisely in the same manner
as we serve salt in salt-cellars. The Romans plunged in this muria any
fish or meat they might wish to preserve.[XXIII-13]
Strong _muria dura_ was water so completely saturated with bay salt,
that no more could be dissolved in it.[XXIII-14] Olives were washed in
it.
The brine most sought after was that of Antibes, of Thurium, and of
Dalmatia.[XXIII-15] It was prepared with the blood and other juices
which, after death, escaped from the tunny fish,[XXIII-16] mixed with
garum, which rendered it more fluid and less expensive.
At the end of the repast, enigmas were often proposed to the guests.
Some delicious dish served as a reward to those who were fortunate
enough to guess them; the others were compelled to pour _muria_ into
their drink, and swallow a cup-full without taking breath.[XXIII-17]
DIGESTIVE SALTS.
The Romans were enormous eaters. Apicius, who was better aware of it
than any one, imagined providing against those accidents to which his
countrymen did not fear to expose themselves once every day, by offering
to them a preparation which our habits of sobriety would, doubtless,
render useless at the present day; but which the curious will not be
sorry to discover in these sketches of antique gastrophagy. Take a pound
of common salt, which torrefy and pulverize; mix it with three ounces of
white pepper, two ounces of ginger, an ounce of lamoni, an ounce and a
half of thyme, as much of celery seed, three ounces of wild marjoram, an
ounce and a-half of rocket seed, three ounces of black pepper, an ounce
and a-half of holy thistle, two ounces of hyssop, two ounces of
spikenard, two ounces of parsley, and two ounces of
anise-seed.[XXIII-18]
Take a small quantity of these salts after a too plentiful dinner; and
the stomach will immediately defy the most imminent indigestion.
GARUM.
When we have read all that has been written by the ancients on this
famous preparation, we become convinced, in spite of the obscurities
and continual contradictions of commentators, that if garum is no
longer manufactured in the present day, it is not on account of the
impossibility we find in discovering the recipe of the Greeks and
Latins, but solely because this rather strange brine has not the same
charm for us that it had for them. Let us, however, scan the
authorities.
The Greeks called the shrimp _garos_, the Romans _garus_: it may hence
be supposed that garum had originally for basis the flesh of shrimps, if
Pliny had not taken the trouble to inform us of the fact.[XXIII-19] It
was afterwards composed of other fish, but it always retained the name
which recalled its origin.[XXIII-20] In like manner the signification of
certain words is now applied to things quite different from the original
type: chicory, or succory, is received under the mask of coffee: a
certain pottage boldly usurps the honours due exclusively to turtle
soup. Nothing more easy than to multiply these examples of catachreses:
there are few figures which have become so common.
Well, then, they macerated the intestines of fish in water, saturated
with salt, until putrefaction began to show itself; they then added
parsley and vinegar.[XXIII-21]
A thick garum was also frequently obtained, by allowing the entrails and
other parts, generally thrown away, to liquefy in salt.[XXIII-22]
In the time of Pliny, mackerel[XXIII-23] was preferred, of which they
employed either the gills and intestines, or only the blood, directly
the fish left the water,[XXIII-24] and while yet living. They thus
obtained a precious liquid, and which the care necessary for its
production rendered so dear, that eight pints of it cost no less than
from fifteen to twenty pounds.[XXIII-25]
This expensive garum was especially esteemed when it came from Spain: it
was then called “garum of the allies”--_garum sociorum_--because it was
received from a nation allied with the Romans;[XXIII-26] or, again,
perhaps in allusion to the “band of gluttons,” of Rome, a sort of
fraternity of free-livers, who made great use of it.[XXIII-27]
The blood and entrails of the tunny fish, mixed with salt in a vase,
produced also a most elaborate garum. A hole was made in the vessel at
the expiration of two months, and the rich seasoning flowed from
it.[XXIII-28]
This brine became exquisite, and obtained an exorbitant price when made
from the liver of anchovies macerated in vinegar, pepper, salt, parsley,
garlic, white wine, and sweet herbs.[XXIII-29] But Apicius attained at
the first step the apogee of refinement of the most sensual gluttony, by
inventing garum made from the liver of red mullet.[XXIII-30] What we
have already said elsewhere with regard to this fish will enable the
reader to appreciate the value of this new preparation.
Amateurs who were more economical contented themselves with very little
saxatile fishes,[XXIII-31] of which only the intestines were taken, or
which were thrown whole into a vase with a great quantity of salt. These
were exposed to the sun, and the mixture long and often stirred. When
heat had caused fermentation, and the vessel contained only a kind of
pulp, or paste, almost liquid, a kind of willow basket was introduced,
into which the garum alone could penetrate. The thick part--the dregs
which remained at the bottom of the vase--was termed _alec_.[XXIII-32]
The following method was also frequently adopted:--
Mackerel, or small fish, were placed in a small vase with a large
quantity of salt; this was well stirred, and the mixture was then left
quiet all night. The next day it was transferred into an earthen pot,
which remained uncovered in the sun. At the end of two or three months,
it was hermetically closed, after having added a quantity of old wine
equal to one-third of the mixture.[XXIII-33]