THOMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA
Vasco da Gama set sail from Lisbon in July 1497 with a small fleet to
try and make his way to India by sea, and he arrived at Calicut on the
Malabar coast nearly a year later, in May 1598. He and his men were well
received by the zamorim or ruler of the town--then the most important
trade centre in India--and were much helped in their intercourse by a
renegade native of Seville who acted as interpreter. After a stay of
about two months he started for home with his ships laden with spices,
and with a letter to Dom Manoel in which the zamorim said:--
'Vasco da Gama, a nobleman of thy household, has visited my kingdom, and
has given me great pleasure. In my kingdom is abundance of cinnamon,
cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones; what I seek from thy
country is gold, silver, coral and scarlet.'[108]
Arriving at Lisbon in July 1499, Vasco da Gama met with a splendid
reception from king and people; was given 20,000 gold cruzados, a
pension of 500 cruzados a year, and the title of Dom; while provision
was also made for the families of those who had perished during the
voyage; for out of one hundred and forty-eight who started two years
earlier only ninety-six lived to see Lisbon again.
So valuable were spices in those days that the profit to the king on
this expedition, after all expenses had been paid and all losses
deducted, was reckoned as being in the proportion of sixty to one.
No wonder then that another expedition was immediately organised by Dom
Manoel. This armada--in which the largest ship was of no more than four
hundred tons--sailed from Lisbon under the command of Pedro Alvares
Cabral on March 9, 1500. Being driven out of his course, Cabral after
many days saw a high mountain which he took to be an island, but sailing
on found that it was part of a great continent. He landed, erected a
cross, and took possession of it in the name of his king, thus securing
Brazil for Portugal. One ship was sent back to Lisbon with the news, and
the rest turned eastwards to make for the Cape of Good Hope. Four were
sunk by a great gale, but the rest arrived at Calicut on September 13th.
Here he too was well received by the zamorim and built a factory, but
this excited the anger of the Arab traders, who burned it, killing fifty
Portuguese. Cabral retorted by burning part of the town and sailed south
to Cochin, whose ruler, a vassal of the zamorim, was glad to receive the
strangers and to accept their help against his superior. Thence he soon
sailed homewards with the three ships which remained out of his fleet of
thirteen.
In 1502 Dom Manoel received from the Pope Alexander VI. the title of
'Lord of Navigation, conquests and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia,
and India,' and sent out another great expedition under Vasco da Gama,
who, however, with his lieutenant, Vicente Sodre, found legitimate trade
less profitable than the capture of pilgrim ships going to and from
Mecca, which they rifled and sank with all on board. From the first thus
treated they took 12,000 ducats in money and 10,000 ducats' worth in
goods, and then blew up the ship with 240 men besides women and
children.
Reaching Calicut, the town was again bombarded and sacked, since the
zamorim would not or could not expel all the Arab merchants, the richest
of his people.
Other expeditions followed every year till in 1509 a great Mohammedan
fleet led by the 'Mirocem, the Grand Captain of the Sultan of Grand
Cairo and of Babylon,' was defeated off the island of Diu, and next year
the second viceroy, Affonso de Albuquerque, moved the seat of the
government from Cochin to Goa, which, captured and held with some
difficulty, soon became one of the richest and most splendid cities of
the East.
Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf and the great depot of Persian
trade had been captured in 1509, and it was not long before the
Portuguese had penetrated to the Straits of Malacca and even to China
and Japan.
So within twelve years from the time of Vasco da Gama's voyage the
foundations of the Portuguese empire in the East had been firmly
laid--an empire which, however, existed merely as a great trading
concern in which Dom Manoel was practically sole partner and so soon
became the richest sovereign of his time.
Seeing therefore how close the intercourse was between Lisbon and
India,[109] it is perhaps no wonder that, in his very interesting book
on the Renaissance Architecture of Portugal, Albrecht Haupt, struck by
the very strange forms used at Thomar and to a lesser degree in the
later additions to Batalha, propounded a theory that this strangeness
was directly due to the importation of Indian details. That the
discovery of a sea route to India had a great influence on the
architecture of Portugal cannot be denied, for the direct result of this
discovery was to fill the coffers of a splendour-loving king with what
was, for the time, untold wealth, and so to enable him to cover the
country with innumerable buildings; but tempting as it would be to
accept Haupt's theory, it is surely more reasonable to look nearer home
for the origin of these peculiar features, and to see in them only the
culmination of the Manoelino style and the product of an even more
exuberant fancy than that possessed by any other contemporary builder.
Of course, when looking for parallels with such a special object in view
it is easy enough to find them, and to see resemblances between the
cloister windows at Batalha and various screens or panels at Ahmedabad;
and when we find that a certain Thomas Fernandes[110] had been sent to
India in 1506 as military engineer and architect; that another
Fernandes, Diogo of Beja, had in 1513 formed part of an embassy sent to
Gujerat and so probably to the capital Ahmedabad; and that Fernandes was
also the name of the architects of Batalha, it becomes difficult not to
connect these separate facts together and to jump to the quite
unwarrantable conclusion that the four men of the same name may have
been related and that one of them, probably Diogo, had given his
kinsmen sketches or descriptions on which they founded their
designs.[111]
With regard to Thomar, where the detail is even more curious and
Indian-looking, the temptation to look for Indian models is still
stronger, owing to the peculiar position which the Order of Christ at
Thomar now held, for the knights of that order had for some time
possessed complete spiritual jurisdiction over India and all other
foreign conquests.
This being so, it might have seemed appropriate enough for Dom Manoel to
decorate the additions he made to the old church with actual Indian
detail, as his builder did with corals and other symbols of the strange
discoveries then made. The fact also that on the stalls at Santa Cruz in
Coimbra are carved imaginary scenes from India and from Brazil might
seem to be in favour of the Indian theory, but the towns and forests
there depicted are exactly what a mediaeval artist would invent for
himself, and are not at all like what they were supposed to represent,
and so, if they are to be used in the argument at all, would rather go
to show how little was actually known of what India was like.
There seems also not to be even a tradition that anything of the sort
was done, and if a tradition has survived about the stalls at Coimbra,
surely, had there been one, it might have survived at Thomar as well.
At the same time it must be admitted that the bases of the jambs inside
the west window in the chapter-house are very unlike anything else, and
are to a Western eye like Indian work. However, a most diligent search
in the Victoria and Albert Museum through endless photographs of Indian
buildings failed to find anything which was really at all like them, and
this helped to confirm the belief that this resemblance is more fancied
than real; besides, the other strange features, the west window outside,
and the south window, now a door, are surely nothing more than Manoelino
realism gone a little mad.
Thomar has already been seen in the twelfth century when Dom Gualdim
Paes built the sixteen-sided church and the castle, and when he and his
Templars withstood the Moorish invaders with such success.
As time went on the Templars in other lands became rich and powerful,
and in the fourteenth century Philippe le Bel of France determined to
put an end to them as an order and to confiscate their goods. So in 1307
the grand master was imprisoned, and five years later the Council of
Vienne, presided over by Clement V.--a Frenchman, Bertrand de
Goth--suppressed the order. Philippe seized their property, and in 1314
the grand master was burned.
In Portugal their services against the Moors were still remembered, and
although by this time no part of Portugal was under Mohammedan rule,
Granada was not far off, and Morocco was still to some extent a danger.
Dom Diniz therefore determined not to exterminate the Templars, but to
change them into a new military order, so in 1319 he obtained a bull
from John XXII. from Avignon constituting the Order of Christ. At first
their headquarters were at Castro-Marim at the mouth of the Guadiana,
but soon they returned to their old Templar stronghold at Thomar and
were re-granted most of their old possessions.
The Order of Christ soon increased in power, and under the
administration of Prince Henry, 1417 to 1460, took a great part in the
discoveries and explorations which were to bring such wealth and glory
to their country. In 1442, Eugenius IV. confirmed the spiritual
jurisdiction of the order over all conquests in Africa, and Nicholas V.
and Calixtus III. soon extended this to all other conquests made, or to
be made anywhere, so that the knights had spiritual authority over them
'as if they were in Thomar itself.' This boon was obtained by Dom
Affonso V. at his uncle Prince Henry's wish.
When Prince Henry died he was succeeded as duke of Vizeu and as governor
of the order by his nephew Fernando, the second son of Dom Duarte.
Fernando died ten years later and was succeeded by his elder son Diogo,
who was murdered fifteen years later by Dom Joao II. in 1485. Then the
title passed to his brother Dom Manoel, and with it the administration
of the order, a position which he retained when he ascended the throne,
and which has since belonged to all his successors.
Prince Henry finding that the old Templar church with its central altar
was unsuited to the religious services of the order, built a chapel or
small chancel out from one of the eastern sides and dedicated it to St.
Thomas of Canterbury. But as the order advanced in wealth and in power
this addition was found to be far too small, and in a general chapter
held by Dom Manoel in 1492 it was determined to build a new Coro large
enough to hold all the knights and leaving the high altar in its old
place in the centre of the round church.
In all the Templar churches in England, when more room was wanted, a
chancel was built on to the east, so that the round part, instead of
containing the altar, has now become merely a nave or a vestibule. At
Thomar, however, probably because it was already common to put the
stalls in a gallery over the west door, it was determined to build the
new Coro to the west, and this was done by breaking through the two
westernmost sides of the sixteen-sided building and inserting a large
pointed arch.
Although it was decided to build in 1492, little or nothing can have
been done for long, if it is true that Joao de Castilho who did the work
was only born about the year 1490; and that he did it is certain, as he
says himself that he 'built the Coro, the chapter-house--under the
Coro--the great arch of the church, and the principal door.'
Two stone carvers, Alvaro Rodrigues and Diogo de Arruda, were working
there in 1512 and 1513, and the stalls were begun in July 1511, so that
some progress must have been made by them. If then Joao de Castilho did
the work he must have been born some time before 1490, as he could
hardly have been entrusted with such a work when a boy of scarcely
twenty.
Joao de Castilho, who is said to have been by birth a Biscayan, soon
became the most famous architect of his time. He not only was employed
on this Coro, but was afterwards summoned to superintend the great
Jeronymite monastery of Belem, which he finished. Meanwhile he was
charged by Joao III. with the building of the vast additions made
necessary at Thomar when in 1523 the military order was turned into a
body of monks. He lived long enough to become a complete convert to the
renaissance, for at Belem the Gothic framework is all overlaid with
renaissance detail, while in his latest additions at Thomar no trace of
Gothic has been left. He died shortly before 1553, as we learn from a
document dated January 1st of that year, which states that his daughter
Maria de Castilho then began, on the death of her father, to receive a
pension of 20,000 reis.
The new Coro is about eighty-five feet long inside by thirty wide, and
is of three bays. Standing, as does the Templars' church, on the highest
point of the hill, it was, till the erection of the surrounding
cloisters, clear of any buildings. Originally the round church, being
part of the fortifications, could only be entered from the north, but
the first thing done by Dom Manoel was to build on the south side a
large platform or terrace reached from the garden on the east by a great
staircase. This terrace is now bounded on the west by the Cloister dos
Filippes, on the south by a high wall and by the chapter-house, begun by
Dom Manoel but never finished, and on the north by the round church and
by one bay of the Coro; and in this bay is now the chief entrance to the
church. The lower part of the two western bays is occupied by the
chapter-house, with one window looking west over the cloister of Santa
Barbara, and one south, now hidden by the upper Cloister dos Filippes
and used as a door. [See plan p. 225.]
Inside, the part over the chapter-house is raised to form the choir, and
there, till they were burned in 1810 by the French for firewood, stood
the splendid stalls begun in July 1511 by Olivel of Ghent who had
already made stalls for Sao Francisco at Evora.[112] The stalls had
large figures carved on their backs, a continuous canopy, and a high and
elaborate cresting, while in the centre on the west side the Master's
stall ended in a spire which ran up with numberless pinnacles, ribs and
finials to a large armillary sphere just under the vaulting.[113] Now
the inside is rather bare, with no ornament beyond the intricacy of the
finely moulded ribs and the elaborate corbels from which they spring.
These are a mass of carving, armillary spheres, acanthus leaves, shields
upheld by well-carved figures, crosses, and at the top small cherubs
holding the royal crown.
The inner side of the door has a segmental head and on either jamb are
tall twisted shafts. A moulded string course running round just above
the level once reached by the top of the stalls turns up over the window
as a hood-mould.
At the same time much was done to enrich the old Templars' church. All
the shafts were covered with gilt diaper and the capitals with gold;
crockets were fixed to the outer sides of the pointed arches of the
central octagon, and inside it were placed figures of saints standing on
Gothic corbels under canopies of beautiful tabernacle work. Similar
statues stand on the vaulting shafts of the outer polygon and between
them, filling in the spaces below the round-headed windows, are large
paintings in the Flemish style common to all Portuguese pictures of that
time--of the Nativity, of the Visit of the Magi, of the Annunciation,
and of the Virgin and Child.
To-day the only part of the south side visible down to the ground level
is the eastern bay in which opens the great door. This is one of the
works which Joao de Castilho claims as his, and on one of the jambs
there is carved a strap, held by two lion's paws on which are some
letters supposed to be his signature, and some figures which have been
read as 1515, probably wrongly, for there seems to have been no
renaissance work done in Portugal except by Sansovino till the coming of
Master Nicolas to Belem in 1517 or later.[114] If it is 1515 and gives
the date, it must mean the year when the mere building was finished, not
the carving, for the renaissance band can hardly have been done till
after his return from Belem.
The doorway is one of great beauty, indeed is one of the most beautiful
pieces of work in the kingdom. The opening itself is round-headed with
three bands of carving running all round it, separated by slender shafts
of which the outermost up to the springing of the arch is a beautiful
spiral with four-leaved flowers in the hollows. Of the carved bands the
innermost is purely renaissance, with candelabra, medallions, griffins
and leaves all most beautifully cut in the warm yellow limestone. On the
next band are large curly leaves still Gothic in style and much
undercut; and in the last, four-leaved flowers set some distance one
from the other.
At the top, the drip-mould grows into a large trefoil with crockets
outside and an armillary sphere within. At the sides tall thin
buttresses end high above the door in sharp carved pinnacles and bear
under elaborate canopies many figures of saints.[115] Two other
pinnacles rise from the top of the arch, and between them are more
saints. In the middle stands Our Lady, and from her canopy a curious
broken and curving moulding runs across the other pinnacles and canopies
to the sides.
But that which gives to the whole design its chief beauty is the deep
shadow cast by the large arch thrown across from one main buttress to
the other just under the parapet. This arch, moulded and enriched with
four-leaved flowers, is fringed with elaborate cusps, irregular in size,
which with rounded mouldings are given a trefoil shape by small
beautifully carved crockets. (Fig. 55.)
Except the two round buttresses at the west end and one on the north
side which has Manoelino pinnacles, all are the same, breaking into a
cluster of Gothic pinnacles rather more than half-way up and ending in
one large square crocketed pinnacle very like those at Batalha. The roof
being flat and paved there is no gable at the west end; there is a band
of carving for cornice, then a moulding, and above it a parapet of
flattened quatrefoils, in each of which is an armillary sphere, and at
the top a cresting, alternately of cusped openings and crosses of the
Order of Christ, most of which, however, have been broken away. Of the
windows all are wide and pointed, without tracery and deeply splayed.
The one in the central bay next the porch has niches and canopies at the
side for statues and jambs not unlike those designed some years after at
Belem. There is also a certain resemblance between the door here and the
great south entrance to Belem, though this one is of far greater beauty,
being more free from over-elaboration and greatly helped by the shadow
of the high arch.
So far the design has shown nothing very abnormal; but for one or two
renaissance details it is all of good late Gothic, with scarcely any
Manoelino features. It is also more pleasing than any other contemporary
building in Portugal, and the detail, though very rich, is more
restrained. This may be due to the nationality of Joao de Castilho, for
some of the work is almost Spanish, for example the buttresses, the
pinnacles, and the door with its trefoiled drip-mould.
If, however, the two eastern bays are good late Gothic, what can be said
of the western? Here the fancy of the designer seems to have run quite
wild, and here it is that what have been considered to be Indian
features are found.
It is hard to believe that Joao de Castilho, who nowhere, except perhaps
in the sacristy door at Alcobaca, shows any love of what is abnormal and
outlandish, should have designed these extraordinary details, and so
perhaps the local tradition may be so far true, according to which the
architect was not Joao but one Ayres do Quintal. Nothing else seems to
be known of Ayres--though a head carved under the west window of the
chapter-house is said to be his--but in a country so long illiterate as
Portugal, where unwritten stories have been handed down from quite
distant times, it is possible that oral tradition may be as true as
written records.
Now it is known that Joao de Castilho was working at Alcobaca in 1519.
In 1522 he was busy at Belem, where he may have been since 1517, when
for the first time some progress seems to have been made with the
building there. What really happened, therefore, may be that when he
left Thomar, the Coro was indeed built, and the eastern buttresses
finished, but that the carving of the western part was still uncut and
so may have been the work of Ayres after Joao was himself gone.[116]
This is, of course, only a conjecture, for Ayres seems to be mentioned
in no document, but whoever it was who carved these buttresses and
windows was a man of extraordinary originality, and almost mad fancy.
To turn now from the question of the builder to the building itself. The
large round buttresses at the west end are fluted at the bottom; at
about half their height comes a band of carving about six feet deep
seeming to represent a mass of large ropes ending in tasselled fringes
or possibly of roots. On one buttress a large chain binds these
together, on the others a strap and buckle--probably the Order of the
Garter given to Dom Manoel by Henry VII. Above this five large knotty
tree-trunks or branches of coral grow up the buttresses uniting in rough
trefoiled heads at the top, and having statues between them--Dom Affonso
Henriques,
[Illustration: FIG. 55.
THOMAR. CONVENT OF CHRIST. S. DOOR.]
[Illustration: FIG. 56.
THOMAR. OUTSIDE OF W. WINDOW OF CHAPTER HOUSE UNDER HIGH CHOIR IN
NAVE.]
Dom Gualdim Paes, Dom Diniz and Dom Manoel--two on each buttress. Then
the buttress becomes eight-sided and smaller, and, surrounded by five
thick growths, of which not a square inch is unworked and whose
pinnacles are covered with carving, rises with many a strange moulding
to a high round pinnacle bearing the cross of the order--a sign, if one
may take the coral and the trees to be symbolical of the distant seas
crossed and of the new lands visited, of the supreme control exercised
by the order over all missions.
Coral-like mouldings too run round the western windows on both north and
south sides, and at the bottom these are bound together with basket
work.
Strange as are the details of these buttresses, still more strange are
the windows of the chapter-house. Since about 1560 the upper cloister of
the Filippes has covered the south side of the church so that the south
chapter-house window, which now serves as a door, is hidden away in the
dark. Still there is light enough to see that in naturalism and in
originality it far surpasses anything elsewhere, except the west window
of the same chapter-house. Up the jambs grow branches bound round by a
broad ribbon. From the spaces between the ribbons there sprout out on
either side thick shoots ending in large thistle heads. The top of the
opening is low, of complicated curves and fine mouldings, on the
outermost of which are cut small curly leaves, but higher up the
branches of the jambs with their thistle heads and ribbons with knotted
ropes and leaves form a mass of inextricable intricacy, of which little
can be seen in the dark except the royal arms.
Inside the vault is Gothic and segmental, but the west window is even
more strange than the southern; its inner arch is segmental and there
are window seats in the thickness of the wall. The jambs have large
round complicated bases of many mouldings, some enriched with leaves,
some with thistle heads, some with ribbons, and one with curious
projections like small elephants' trunks--in short very much what a
Western mind might imagine some Hindu capital, reversed, to be like. On
the jamb itself and round the head are three upright mouldings held
together by carved basket work of cords, and bearing at intervals
thistle heads in threes; beyond is another band of leaf-covered carving,
and beyond it an upright strip of wavy lines.[117] The opening has a
head like that of the other window and is filled with a bronze grille.
Still more elaborate and extraordinary is the outside of this window,
nor would it be possible to find words to describe it.
The jambs are of coral branches, with large round shafts beyond,
entirely leaf-covered and budding into thistle heads. Ropes bind them
round at the bottom and half-way up great branches are fastened on by
chains. At the top are long finials with more chains holding corals on
which rest armillary spheres. The head of the window is formed of
twisted masses, from which project downwards three large thistle heads.
Above this is a great wreath of leaves, hung with two large loops of
rope, and twisting up as a sort of cusped ogee trefoil to the royal arms
and a large cross of the Order of Christ. A square frame with flamelike
border rises to the top of the side finials to enclose a field cut into
squares by narrow grooves. Below the window more branches, coral, and
ropes knot each other round the head of Ayres just below the rope
moulding which runs across from buttress to buttress. Above the top of
the opening and about half-way up the whole composition there is an
offset, and on it rests a series of disks, set diagonally and strung on
another rope. (Fig. 56.)
Although, were the royal arms and the cross removed, the window might
not look out of place in some wild Indian temple, yet it is much more
likely not to be Indian, but that the shafts at the sides are but the
shafts seen in many Manoelino doors, that the window head is an
elaboration of other heads,[118] that the coral jambs are another form
of common naturalism, and that the great wreath is only the hood-mould
rendered more extravagant. In no other work in Portugal or anywhere in
the West are these features carved and treated with such wild
elaboration, nor anywhere else is there seen a base like that of the
jambs inside, but surely there is nothing which a man of imagination
could not have evolved from details already existing in the country.
Above the window the details are less strange. A little higher than the
cross a string course traverses the front from north to south, crested
with pointed cusps. Higher up still, a round window, set far back in a
deep splay, lights the church above. Outside the sharp projecting outer
moulding of this window are rich curling leaves, inside a rope, while
other ropes run spirally across the splay, which seems to swell like a
sail, and was perhaps meant to remind all who saw it that it was the sea
that had brought the order and its master such riches and power. At the
top are the royal arms crowned, and above the spheres of the parapet and
the crosses of the cresting another larger cross dominates the whole
front.
Such is Dom Manoel's addition to the Templars' church, and outlandish
and strange as some of it is, the beautiful rich yellow of the stone
under the blue sky and the dark shadows thrown by the brilliant sun make
the whole a building of real beauty. Even the wild west window is helped
by the compactness of its outline and by the plainness of the wall in
which it is set, and only the great coral branches of the round
buttresses are actually unpleasing. The size too of the windows and the
great thickness of the wall give the Coro a strength and a solidity
which agree well with the old church, despite the richness of the one
and the severe plainness of the other. There is perhaps no building in
Portugal which so well tells of the great increase of wealth which began
under Dom Manoel, or which so well recalls the deeds of his heroic
captains--their long and terrible voyages, and their successful
conquests and discoveries. Well may the emblem of Hope,[119] the
armillary sphere, whereby they found their way across the ocean, be
carved all round the parapet, over the door, and beside the west window
with its wealth of knots and wreaths.
Whether or not Ayres or Joao de Castilho meant the branches of coral to
tell of the distant oceans, the trees of the forests of Brazil, and the
ropes of the small ships which underwent such dangers, is of little
consequence. To the present generation which knows that all these
discoveries were only possible because Prince Henry and his Order of
Christ had devoted their time and their wealth to the one object of
finding the way to the East, Thomar will always be a fitting memorial of
these great deeds, and of the great men, Bartholomeu Diaz, Vasco da
Gama, Affonso de Albuquerque, Pedro Cabral, and Tristao da Cunha, by
whom Prince Henry's great schemes were brought to a successful issue.