descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in
the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies
of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine
Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known
as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its
present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required
to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were
binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_;
F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.
ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_)
baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to
this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned
several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient
Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a
tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the
year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of
Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a
treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana
Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's
inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief
appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods
are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are
lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the
preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own
manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily
taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end
to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of
elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that
length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being
necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The
_reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near
the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually
made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind
freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is
wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100
yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the
fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of
oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of
the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a
piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or
gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The
hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and
yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the
bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb
long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of
fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c.,
are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the
bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow
water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great
variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits
are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or
gentles (the larvae of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat),
insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so
much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and
wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured
together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c.
The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a
showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies
should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the
fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and
unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful
where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or
other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to
spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of
the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal
of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial
difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm
than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i),
_Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library);
H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey,
_Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The
Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The
Complete Fisherman_.
ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which
hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established
Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that
party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms
closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be
called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section
of the Church.
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.
[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton]
ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the
amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in
the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply
the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who
were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities
came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of
the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in
Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and
Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be
called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.
Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open
to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as
distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it
has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle
and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the
term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to
apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before
A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its
use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.
The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of
the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former
were the men of property and position, the latter were the small
landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the
protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hlaford_ or lord.
Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theowas_), who
might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by
their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this
position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates,
and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his
cattle.
The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the
highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as
ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented
by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was
not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the
royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office.
He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the
duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public
measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his
privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the
_witena-gemot_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in
rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan
or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered,
or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the
shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their
officers the _scir-gerefan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or
armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of
certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines
and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands.
The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical
association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little
more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by
a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close
ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they
possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an
ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of
the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-gerefa_
(shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at
the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their
absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines,
collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the
latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to
the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial
and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month.
The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemot_. Its
members, who were not elected, comprised the aethelings or princes of the
blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the
sheriffs, &c.
One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_,
which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind
or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his
rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was
settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly
every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his
domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king
to peasant was exempt.
[Illustration: Ploughing
From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.]
Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine,
was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are
frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties.
The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced
for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured.
Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and
clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the
principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as
far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was
made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In
embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There
was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans,
French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon
forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in
this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale,
mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher
classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were
rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine
tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly
of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long
and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the
Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent
by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and
thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church
long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of
the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century
that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon
ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the
Venerable Bede holds the first place.
_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the
earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish,
Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in
North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English).
The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of
which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the
first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was
supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the
latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon
alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that
some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters
either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_.
Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The
pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us
two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of
the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund
somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four
moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two
tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and
the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words
terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and
altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite
like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of
Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it
has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many
chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of
non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.
The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of
_Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian
prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural
perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its
scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain;
parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany,
though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains
include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes;
ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles;
psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c.
The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Caedmon's
(flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of
paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the
creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story
of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the
ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed
to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects
respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena,
and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry,
alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry
generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of
harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.
[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch
Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and
wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]
The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the
Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases,
charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of
these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the
Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations
in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by
Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the
_Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of
the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is
believed to have been the work of Aelfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and
lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty
homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c.
King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin
works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione
Philosophiae_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable
to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is
called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of
the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this
_Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes
down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large
number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed.
For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M.
Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet,
_Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from
the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_
(vols. i and ii).
ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among
Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by
Aethelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King
of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar,
Aethelred, and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and
regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of
laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a
considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing.
What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by
birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a
dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave.
The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship
between lord and man.
The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by
the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the
swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made
between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by
payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man.
The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and
punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure
the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations
of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the
kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry,
to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its
servants.
The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity.
The laws of Aethelberht are the earliest records in the English language,
though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of
the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der
Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and
Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon
Institutions_.
ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo,
extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6deg S. to lat.
17deg S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of
varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very
great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and
salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the
largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are
Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from
these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.
ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.
ANGO'NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern
half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in
Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name
being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make
murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the
missionaries and others.
ANGO'RA (ancient, ANCY'RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of
Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and
relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the
Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving
us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the
animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_),
sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric
called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins,
dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari.
Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora,
and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sevres. A treaty concluded with
France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.
ANGOSTU'RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province
of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's
residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade,
steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton,
indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines,
flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.
ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from
_Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the
northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceae. The bark is valuable
as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this
bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the
poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been
almost given up.