applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated
there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.
AN'AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history
for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was
Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the
tribe of Judah.
ANAKOLU'THON. See _Anacoluthon_.
ANALEP'TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.
AN'ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having
the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or
group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for
flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure,
development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such
as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_.
ANAL'OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we
find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse,
and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption
arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these
or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a
unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general
inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is
resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly
inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is
always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application
in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.
ANAL'YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the
intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in
the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a
compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more
distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is
opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and
contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several
divisions, classes, and relations.
Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and
development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower
sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the
ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical
assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns,
which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the
mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher,
the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of
functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher
comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of
variations.
In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance
with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains
(_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present
(_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is
a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of
one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of
testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it
has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.
ANAM. See _Annam_.
ANAMOR'PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to
present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed
from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a
polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.
AN'[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_.
ANAPA', a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles
south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly
fortified. Pop. about 7000.
AN'APAEST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long
syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.
) ) ___ ) ) __ ) ) __ ) ) __
The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold.
--(Byron's _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.)
AN'APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up
for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue.
Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.
ANARAJAPOO'RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of
Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq.
miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in
tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred
Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in
the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.
AN'ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal
the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is
injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now
existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system.
According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_.
Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote
his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maitres. Je ne veux ni
donner ni recevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may
be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists
as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his
followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872,
since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal
journals have been _La Revolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York),
_Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers
of anarchism are Elisee Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.
ANARTHROP'ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the
other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no
articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms,
&c.
A'NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.
ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_.
ANASTA'SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of
sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation
to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of
her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between
men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building
the fortifications of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical
Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.
ANASTAT'ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho
(_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_.
ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of
type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the
manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in
diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face
downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The
zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting
on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while
rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the
zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that
those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is
then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi,
_Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_.
ANASTOMO'SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the
opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a
vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is
arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis
that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when
the vessel is tied.
ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to
lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually
came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church
pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all
who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The
subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the
faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of
his body and soul is foretold.
ANAT'IDAE, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese,
&c.
ANATO'LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name
of Asia Minor (q.v.).
ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.
ANATOMY
[Illustration]
ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now
generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating
the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view
to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science
which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the
dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the
knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional
operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which
compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of
man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an
animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the
succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult
form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the
general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general
anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of
organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_
or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or
purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological
anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different
divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the
description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the
ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs,
in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver,
spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels
through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the
blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic
vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are
distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and
carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the
nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among
anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and
preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be
preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the
skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol,
formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.
Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned
Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53
B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of
all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival
of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its
progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed
dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the
schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of
Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and
many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth
century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered
the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the
circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the
Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only
mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel,
Bichat, Rosenmueller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh.
Mueller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.
Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for
enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for
dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a
criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons
the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was
far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high
prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice
of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the
notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a
statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the
wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by
permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of
persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also
appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and
required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives
may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though
the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J.
Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M.
Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.
ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at
Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years
of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and
gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles,
Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with
impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual
banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428.
Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held
that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms,
and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state
of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual,
elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was
produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a
great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed
spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials;
the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was
flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun;
the comets wandering stars.
ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in
611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that
the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity.
The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The
sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference
twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from
which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen
times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is
placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His
philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the
conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of
water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied
himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the
invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or
style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.
ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic)
philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things.
Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and
rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold
resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He
flourished about 550 B.C.
ANBURY (an'be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease
in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is
then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury
proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct
disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a
bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.
ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch'), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the
Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.
ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most
characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was
based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images
or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as
burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom
to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for
their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of
the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was
sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an
endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen,
ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor
or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were
identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by
many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is
accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set
apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of
forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G.
Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.
ANCHISES (an-k[=i]'s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who
carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the
companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in
the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Aeneid_. He died at
Drepanum, in Sicily.
[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)]
AN'CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the
water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily
weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of
iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the
_crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or
_flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the
other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane
of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached.
The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of
the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a
stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_
and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the
_stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other
sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many
improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have
been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with
those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the
_hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without
adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by
pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the
anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the
cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention;
and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so
as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30deg either
way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the
ground.
[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.]
AN'CHORITES, or AN'CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have
withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of
religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which
they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely
separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of
wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these
individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they
always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars,
civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era
must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of
quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical
excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains,
and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing
thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and
finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended
with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions
of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were
comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic
system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.
ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]'vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the
species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis
encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species),
inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy,
so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the
middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and
frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and
pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled
fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper,
and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.
ANCHO'VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceae, a
native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and
large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg,
which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in
taste.
ANCHU'SA. See _Alkanet_.
ANCHYLO'SIS. See _Ankylosis_.
ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been
in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed
the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established
against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.