I have already said, that the womb is the field of generation; and if

this field be corrupted, it is vain to expect any fruit, although it be

ever so well sown. It is, therefore, not without reason that I intend in

this chapter to set down the several distempers to which the womb is

obnoxious, with proper and safe remedies against them.

SECTION I.--_Of the Hot Distemper of the Womb._

The distemper consists in excess of heat; for as heat of the womb is

necessary for conception, so if it be too much, it nourisheth not the

seed, but it disperseth its heat, and hinders the conception. This

preternatural heat is sometimes from the birth, and causeth barrenness,

but if it be accidental, it is from hot causes, that bring the heat and

the blood to the womb; it arises also from internal and external

medicines, and from too much hot meat, drink and exercise. Those that

are troubled with this distemper have but few courses, and those are

yellow, black, burnt or sharp, have hair betimes on their privities, are

very prone to lust, subject to headache, and abound with choler, and

when the distemper is strong upon them, they have but few terms, which

are out of order, being bad and hard to flow, and in time they become

hypochondriacal, and for the most part barren, having sometimes a

phrenzy of the womb.

_Cure_. The remedy is to use coolers, so that they offend not the

vessels that most open for the flux of the terms. Therefore, take the

following inwardly; succory, endive, violets, water lilies, sorrel,

lettuce, saunders and syrups and conserve made thereof. Also take a

conserve of succory, violets, water-lilies, burrage, each an ounce;

conserve of roses, half an ounce, diamargation frigid, diatriascantal,

each half a drachm; and with syrup of violets, or juice of citrons, make

an electuary. For outward applications, make use of ointment of roses,

violets, water-lilies, gourd, Venus navel, applied to the back and

loins.

Let the air be cool, her garments thin, and her food endive, lettuce,

succory and barley. Give her no hot meats, nor strong wine, unless mixed

with water. Rest is good for her, but she must abstain from copulation,

though she may sleep as long as she pleases.

SECT. II.--_Of the Cold Distempers of the Womb._

This distemper is the reverse of the foregoing, and equally an enemy to

generation, being caused by a cold quality abounding to excess, and

proceeds from a too cold air, rest, idleness and cooling medicines. It

may be known by an aversion to venery, and taking no pleasure in the act

of copulation when the seed is spent; the terms are phlegmatic, thick

and slimy, and do not flow as they should; the womb is windy and the

seed crude and waterish. It is the cause of obstructions and barrenness,

and is hard to be cured.

_Cure_. Take galengal, cinnamon, nutmeg mace, cloves, ginger, cububs,

cardamom, grains of paradise, each an ounce and a half, galengal, six

drachms, long pepper, half an ounce, Zedoary five drachms; bruise them

and add six quarts of wine, put them into a cellar nine days, daily

stirring them; then add of mint two handfuls, and let them stand

fourteen days, pour off the wine and bruise them, and then pour on the

wine again, and distil them. Also anoint with oil of lilies, rue,

angelica, cinnamon, cloves, mace and nutmeg. Let her diet and air be

warm, her meat of easy concoction, seasoned with ant-seed, fennel and

thyme; and let her avoid raw fruits and milk diets.

SECT. III.--_Of the Inflation of the Womb._

The inflation of the womb is a stretching of it by wind, called by some

a windy mole; the wind proceeds from a cold matter, whether thick or

thin, contained in the veins of the womb, by which the heat thereof is

overcome, and which either flows thither from other parts, or is

gathered there by cold meats and drinks. Cold air may be a producing

cause of it also, as women that lie in are exposed to it. The wind is

contained either in the cavity of the vessels of the womb, or between

the tumicle, and may be known by a swelling in the region of the womb,

which sometimes reaches to the navel, loins and diaphragm, and rises and

abates as the wind increaseth or decreaseth. It differs from the dropsy,

in that it never swells so high. That neither physician nor midwife may

take it for dropsy, let them observe the signs of the woman with the

child laid down in a former part of this work; and if any sign be

wanting, they may suspect it to be an inflation; of which it is a

further sign, that in conception the swelling is invariable; also if you

strike upon the belly, in an inflation, there will be noise, but not so

in case there be a conception. It also differs from a mole, because in

that there is a weight and hardness of the belly, and when the patient

moves from one side to the other she feels a great weight which moveth,

but not so in this. If the inflation continue without the cavity of the

womb, the pain is greater and more extensive, nor is there any noise,

because the wind is more pent up.

_Cure_. This distemper is neither of a long continuance nor dangerous,

if looked after in time; and if it be in the cavity of the womb it is

more easily expelled. To which purpose give her diaphnicon, with a

little castor and sharp clysters that expel the wind. If this distemper

happen to a woman in travail let her not purge after delivery, nor

bleed, because it is from a cold matter; but if it come after

child-bearing, and her terms come down sufficiently, and she has

fullness of blood, let the saphoena vein be opened, after which, let her

take the following electuary: take conserve of betony and rosemary, of

each an ounce and a half; candied eringoes, citron peel candied, each

half an ounce; diacimium, diagenel, each a drachm; oil of aniseed, six

drops, and with syrup of citrons make an electuary. For outward

application make a cataplasm of rue, mugwort, camomile, dill, calamint,

new pennyroyal, thyme, with oil of rue, keir and camomile. And let the

following clyster to expel the wind be put into the womb: Take agnus

castus, cinnamon, each two drachms, boil them in wine to half a pint.

She may likewise use sulphur, Bath and Spa waters, both inward and

outward, because they expel the wind.

SECT. IV.--_Of the Straitness of the Womb and its Vessels._

This is another effect of the womb, which is a very great obstruction to

the bearing of children, hindering both the flow of the menses and

conception, and is seated in the vessel of the womb, and the neck

thereof. The causes of this straitness are thick and rough humours, that

stop the mouths of the veins and arteries. These humours are bred either

by gross or too much nourishment, when the heat of the womb is so weak

that it cannot attenuate the humours, which by reason thereof, either

flow from the whole body, or are gathered into the womb. Now the vessels

are made straiter or closer several ways; sometimes by inflammation,

scirrhous or other tumours; sometimes by compressions, scars, or by

flesh or membranes that grow after a wound. The signs by which this is

known are, the stoppage of the terms, not conceiving, and condities

abounding in the body which are all shown by particular signs, for if

there is a wound, or the secundine be pulled out by force phlegm comes

from the wound; if stoppage of the terms be from an old obstruction of

humours, it is hard to be cured; if it be only from the disorderly use

of astringents, it is more curable; if it be from a scirrhous, or other

tumours that compress or close the vessel, the disease is incurable.

_Cure_. For the cure of that which is curable, obstructions must be

taken away, phlegm must be purged, and she must be let blood, as will be

hereafter directed in the stoppage of the terms. Then use the following

medicines: Take of aniseed and fennel seed, each a drachm; rosemary,

pennyroyal, calamint, betony flowers, each an ounce; castus, cinnamon,

galengal, each half an ounce; saffron half a drachm, with wine. Or take

asparagus roots, parsley roots, each an ounce; pennyroyal, calamint,

each a handful; wallflowers, gilly-flowers, each two handfuls; boil,

strain and add syrup of mugwort, an ounce and a half. For a fomentation,

take pennyroyal, mercury, calamint, marjoram, mugwort, each two

handfuls, sage, rosemary bays, camomile-flowers, each a handful, boil

them in water and foment the groin and the bottom of the belly; or let

her sit up to the navel in a bath, and then anoint about the groin with

oil of rue, lilies, dill, etc.

SECT. V.--_Of the falling of the Womb._

This is another evil effect of the womb which is both very troublesome,

and also a hindrance to conception. Sometimes the womb falleth to the

middle of the thighs, nay, almost to the knees, and may be known then by

its hanging out. Now, that which causeth the womb to change its place

is, that the ligaments by which it is bound to the other parts, are not

in order; for there are four ligaments, two above, broad and membranous,

round and hollow; it is also bound to the great vessels by veins and

arteries, and to the back by nerves; but the place is changed when it is

drawn another way, or when the ligaments are loose, and it falls down by

its own weight. It is drawn on one side when the menses are hindered

from flowing, and the veins and arteries are full, namely, those that go

to the womb. If it be a mole on one side, the liver and spleen cause it;

by the liver vein on the right side, and the spleen on the left, as they

are more or less filled. Others are of opinion, it comes from the

solution of the connexion of the fibrous neck and the parts adjacent;

and that it is from the weight of the womb descending; this we deny not,

but the ligaments must be loose or broken. But women with a dropsy could

not be said to have the womb fallen down, if it came only from

looseness; but in them it is caused by the saltness of the water, which

dries more than it moistens. Now, if there be a little tumour, within or

without the privities, it is nothing else but a descent of the womb, but

if there be a tumour like a goose's egg and a hole at the bottom and

there is at first a great pain in the parts to which the womb is

fastened, as the loins, the bottom of the belly, and the os sacrum, it

proceeds from the breaking or stretching of the ligaments; and a little

after the pain is abated, and there is an impediment in walking, and

sometimes blood comes from the breach of the vessels, and the excrements

and urine are stopped, and then a fever and convulsion ensueth,

oftentimes proving mortal, especially if it happen to women with child.

_Cure_. For the cure of this distemper, first put up the womb before the

air alter it, or it be swollen or inflamed; and for this purpose give a

clyster to remove the excrements, and lay her upon her back, with her

legs abroad, and her thighs lifted up and her head down; then take the

tumour in your hand and thrust it in without violence; if it be swelled

by alteration and cold, foment it with the decoction of mallows,

althoea, lime, fenugreek, camomile flowers, bay-berries, and anoint it

with oil of lilies, and hen's grease. If there be an inflammation, do

not put it up, but fright it in, by putting a red-hot iron before it

and making a show as if you intended to burn it; but first sprinkle upon

it the powder of mastich, frankincense and the like; thus, take

frankincense, mastich, each two drachms; sarcocol steeped in milk,

drachm; mummy, pomegranate flowers, sanguisdraconis, each half a drachm.

When it is put up, let her lie with her legs stretched, and one upon the

other, for eight or ten days, and make a pessary in the form of a pear,

with cork or sponge, and put it into the womb, dipped in sharp wine, or

juice of acacia, with powder of sanguis, with galbanum and bdellium.

Apply also a cupping-glass, with a great flame, under the navel or paps,

or both kidneys, and lay this plaster to the back; take opopanax, two

ounces, storax liquid, half an ounce; mastich, frankincense, pitch,

bole, each two drachms; then with wax make a plaster; or take laudanum,

a drachm and a half; mastich, and frankincense, each half a drachm, wood

aloes, cloves, spike, each a drachm; ash-coloured ambergris, four

grains: musk, half a scruple; make two round plasters to be laid on each

side of the navel; make a fume of snails' skins salted, or of garlic,

and let it be taken in by the funnel. Use also astringent fomentations

of bramble leaves, plantain, horse-tails, myrtles, each two handfuls;

wormseed, two handfuls; pomegranate flowers, half an ounce; boil them in

wine and water. For an injection take comfrey root, an ounce;

rupturewort, two drachms; yarrow, mugwort, each half an ounce; boil them

in red wine, and inject with a syringe. To strengthen the womb, take

hartshorn, bays, of each half a drachm; myrrh half a drachm; make a

powder of two doses, and give it with sharp wine. Or you may take

Zedoary, parsnip seed, crabs' eyes prepared, each a drachm, nutmeg, half

a drachm; and give a drachm, in powder; but astringents must be used

with great caution, lest by stopping the courses a worse mischief

follow. To keep in its place, make rollers and ligatures as for a

rupture; and put pessaries into the bottom of the womb, that may force

it to remain. Let the diet be such as has drying, astringent and glueing

qualities, as rice, starch, quinces, pears and green cheese; but let the

summer fruits be avoided; and let her wine be astringent and red.

* * * * *

CHAPTER III

_Of Diseases Relating to Women's Monthly Courses._

SECTION I.--_Of Women's Monthly Courses in General._

That divine Providence, which, with a wisdom peculiar to itself, has

appointed woman to conceive by coition with man, and to bear and bring

forth children, has provided for nourishment of children during their

recess in the womb of their mother, by that redundancy of the blood

which is natural to all women; and which, flowing out at certain periods

of time (when they are not pregnant) are from thence called _terms_ and

_menses_, from their monthly flux of excrementitious and unprofitable

blood. Now, that the matter flowing forth is excrementitious, is to be

understood only with respect to the redundancy and overplus thereof,

being an excrement only with respect to its quantity; for as to its

quality, it is as pure and incorrupt as any blood in the veins; and this

appears from the final cause of it, which is the propagation and

conservation of mankind, and also from the generation of it, being

superfluity of the last aliment of the fleshy parts. If any ask, if the

menses be not of hurtful quality, how can they cause such venomous

effects; if they fall upon trees and herbs, they make the one barren

and mortify the other: I answer, this malignity is contracted in the

womb, for the woman, wanting native heat to digest the superfluity,

sends it to the matrix, where seating itself till the mouth of the womb

be dilated, it becomes corrupt and mortified; which may easily be,

considering the heat and moistness of the place; and so this blood being

out of its proper vessels, offends in quality.

SECT. II.--_Of the Terms coming out of order, either before or after the

usual Time._

Having, in the former part of this work, treated, of the suppression and

overflowing of the monthly terms, I shall content myself with referring

the reader thereto, and proceed to speak of their coming out of order,

either before or after the usual time.

Both these proceed from an ill constitution of body. Everything is

beautiful in its order, in nature as well as in morality; and if the

order of nature be broken, it shows the body to be out of order. Of each

of these effects briefly.

When the monthly courses come before their time, showing a depraved

excretion, and flowing sometimes twice a month, the cause is in the

blood, which stirs up the expulsive faculty of the womb, or else in the

whole body, and is frequently occasioned by the person's diet, which

increases the blood too much, making it too sharp or too hot. If the

retentive faculty of the womb be weak, and the expulsive faculty strong,

and of a quick sense, it brings them forth the sooner. Sometimes they

flow sooner by reason of a fall, stroke or some violent passion, which

the parties themselves can best relate. If it be from heat, thin and

sharp humours, it is known by the distemper of the whole body. The

looseness of the vessels and the weakness of the retentive faculty, is

known from a moist and loose habit of the body. It is more troublesome

than dangerous, but hinders conception, and therefore the cure is

necessary for all, but especially such as desire children. If it

proceeds from a sharp blood, let her temper it by a good diet and

medicines. To which purpose, let her use baths of iron water, that

correct the distemper of the bowels, and then evacuate. If it proceeds

from the retentive faculty, and looseness of the vessels, it is to be

corrected with gentle astringents.

As to the courses flowing after the usual time, the causes are,

thickness of the blood, and the smallness of its quantity, with the

stoutness of the passage, and weakness of the expulsive faculties.

Either of these singly may stop the courses, but if they all concur,

they render the distemper worse. If the blood abounds not in such a

quantity as may stir up nature to expel it, its purging must necessarily

be deferred, till there be enough. And if the blood be thick, the

passage stopped, and the expulsive faculty weak, the menses must needs

be out of order and the purging of them retarded.

For the cure of this, if the quantity of blood be small, let her use a

larger diet, and a very little exercise. If the blood be thick and foul,

let it be made thin, and the humours mixed therewith, evacuated. It is

good to purge, after the courses have done flowing, and to use calamint,

and, indeed, the oftener she purges, the better. She may also use fumes

and pessaries, apply cupping glasses without scarification to the inside

of the thighs, and rub the legs and scarify the ankles, and hold the

feet in warm water four or five days before the courses come down. Let

her also anoint the bottom of her belly with things proper to provoke

the terms.

_Remedies for Diseases in Women's Paps._

Make a cataplasm of bean meal and salad oil, and lay it to the place

afflicted. Or anoint with the juice of papilaris. This must be done when

the papa are very sore.

If the paps be hard and swollen, take a handful of rue, colewort roots,

horehound and mint; if you cannot get all these conveniently, any two

will do; pound the handful in honey, and apply it once every day till

healed.

If the nipples be stiff and sore, anoint twice a day with Florence oil,

till healed. If the paps be flabby and hanging, bruise a little hemlock,

and apply it to the breast for three days; but let it not stand above

seven hours. Or, which is safer, rusae juice, well boiled, with a little

sinapios added thereto, and anoint.

If the paps be hard and dead, make a plate of lead pretty thin, to

answer the breasts; let this stand nine hours each day, for three days.

Or sassafras bruised, and used in like manner.

_Receipt for Procuring Milk._

Drink arpleui, drawn as tea, for twenty-one days. Or eat of aniseeds.

Also the juice of arbor vitae, a glassful once a day for eleven days, is

very good, for it quickens the memory, strengthens the body, and causeth

milk to flow in abundance.

_Directions for Drawing of Blood._

Drawing of blood was first invented for good and salutary purposes,

although often abused and misapplied. To bleed in the left arm removes

long continued pains and headaches. It is also good for those who have

got falls and bruises.

Bleeding is good for many disorders, and generally proves a cure, except

in some extraordinary cases, and in those cases bleeding is hurtful. If

a woman be pregnant, to draw a little blood will give her ease, good

health, and a lusty child.

Bleeding is a most certain cure for no less than twenty-one disorders,

without any outward or inward applications; and for many more with

application of drugs, herbs and flowers.

When the moon is on the increase, you may let blood at any time day or

night; but when she is on the decline, you must bleed only in the

morning.

Bleeding may be performed from the month of March to November. No

bleeding in December, January or February, unless an occasion require

it. The months of March, April and November, are the three chief months

of the year for bleeding in; but it may be performed with safety from

the ninth of March to the nineteenth of November.

To prevent the dangers that may arise from she unskilful drawing of

blood, let none open a but a person of experience and practice.

There are three sorts of people you must not let draw blood; first

ignorant and inexperienced persons. Secondly, those who have bad sight

and trembling hands, whether skilful or unskilled. For when the hand

trembles, the lance is apt to start from the vein, and the flesh be

thereby damaged, which may hurt, canker, and very much torment the

patient. Thirdly, let no woman bleed, but such as have gone through a

course of midwifery at college, for those who are unskilful may cut an

artery, to the great damage of the patient. Besides, what is still

worse, those pretended bleeders, who take it up at their own hand,

generally keep unedged and rusty lancets, which prove hurtful, even in a

skilful hand. Accordingly you ought to be cautious in choosing your

physician; a man of learning knows what vein to open for each disorder;

he knows how much blood to take as soon as he sees the patient, and he

can give you suitable advice concerning your disorder.

* * * * *

PART III

ARISTOTLE'S BOOK OF PROBLEMS

WITH OTHER

ASTROMER, ASTROLOGERS AND

PHYSICIANS,

CONCERNING

THE STATE OF MAN'S BODY.

Q. Among all living creatures, why hath man only his countenance lifted

up towards Heaven. A. 1. From the will of the Creator. But although this

answer be true, yet it seemeth not to be of force, because that so all

questions might be easily resolved. Therefore, 2. I answer that, for the

most part, every workman doth make his first work worse, and then his

second better! so God creating all other animals before man gave them

their face looking down to the earth; and then secondly he created man,

unto whom he gave an upright shape, lifted unto heaven, because it is

drawn from divinity, and it is derived from the goodness of God, who

maketh all his works both perfect and good. 3. Man only, among all

living creatures, is ordained to the kingdom of heaven, and therefore

hath his face elevated and lifted up to heaven, because that despising

earthly and worldly things, he ought often to contemplate on heavenly

things. 4. That the reasonable man is like unto angels, and finally

ordained towards God; and therefore he hath a figure looking upward. 5.

Man is a microcosm, that is, a little world, and therefore he doth

command all other living creatures and they obey him. 6. Naturally there

is unto everything and every work, that form and figure given which is

fit and proper for its motion; as unto the heavens, roundness, to the

fire a pyramidical form, that is, broad beneath and sharp towards the

top, which form is most apt to ascend; and so man has his face towards

heaven to behold the wonders of God's works.

Q. Why are the heads of men hairy? A. The hair is the ornament of the

head, and the brain is purged of gross humours by the growing of the

hair, from the highest to the lowest, which pass through the pores of

the exterior flesh, become dry, and are converted into hair. This

appears to be the case, from the circumstance that in all man's body

there is nothing drier than the hair, for it is drier than the bones;

and it is well known that some beasts are nourished with bones, as dogs,

but they cannot digest feathers or hair, but void them undigested, being

too hot for nourishment. 2. It is answered, that the brain is purged in

three different ways; of superfluous watery humours by the eyes, of

choler by the nose, and of phlegm by the hair, which is the opinion of

the best physicians.

Q. Why have men longer hair on their heads than any other living

creature? A. Arist. de Generat. Anim. says, that men have the moistest

brain of all living creatures from which the seed proceedeth which is

converted into the long hair of the head. 2. The humours of men are fat,

and do not become dry easily; and therefore the hair groweth long on

them. In beasts, the humours easily dry, and therefore the hair groweth

not so long.

Q. Why doth the hair take deeper root in man's skin than in that of any

other living creatures? A. Because it has greater store of nourishment

in man, and therefore grows more in the inward parts of man. And this is

the reason why in other creatures the hair doth alter and change with

the skin, and not in man, unless by a scar or wound.

Q. Why have women longer hair than men? A. Because women are moister and

more phlegmatic than men, and therefore there is more matter for hair to

them, and, by consequence, the length also of their hair. And,

furthermore, this matter is more increased in women than men from their

interior parts, and especially in the time of their monthly terms,

because the matter doth then ascend, whereby the humour that breedeth

the hair, doth increase. 2. Because women want beards; so the matter of

the beard doth go into that of the hair.

Q. Why have some women soft hair and some hard? A. 1. The hair hath

proportion with the skin; of which some is hard, some thick, some subtle

and soft, some gross; therefore, the hair which grows out of thick,

gross skin, is thick and gross; that which groweth out of a subtle and

fine skin, is fine and soft; when the pores are open, then cometh forth

much humour, and therefore hard hair is engendered; and when the pores

are strait, then there doth grow soft and fine hair. This doth evidently

appear in men, because women have softer hair than they; for in women

the pores are shut and strait, by reason of their coldness. 2. Because

for the most part, choleric men have harder and thicker hair than

others, by reason of their heat, and because their pores are always

open, and therefore they have beards sooner than others. For this reason

also, beasts that have hard hair are boldest, because such have

proceeded from heat and choler, examples of which we have in the bear

and the boar; and contrariwise, those beasts that have soft hair are

fearful, because they are cold, as the hare and the hart. 3. From the

climate where a man is born; because in hot regions hard and gross hair

is engendered, as appears in the Ethiopians, and the contrary is the

case is cold countries toward the north.

Q. Why have some men curled hair, and some smooth? A. From the superior

degree of heat in some men, which makes the hair curl and grow upward;

this is proved by a man's having smooth hair when he goes into a hot

bath, and it afterwards becomes curled. Therefore keepers of baths have

often curled hair, as also Ethiopians and choleric men. But the cause of

this smoothness, is the abundance of moist humours.

Q. Why do women show ripeness by hair in their privy parts, and not

elsewhere, but men in their breasts? A. Because in men and women there

is abundance of humidity in that place, but most in women, as men have

the mouth of the bladder in that place, where the urine is contained, of

which the hair in the breast is engendered, and especially that about

the navel. But of women in general, it is said, that the humidity of the

bladder of the matrix, or womb, is joined and meeteth in that lower

secret place, and therefore is dissolved and separated in that place

into vapours and fumes, which are the cause of hair. And the like doth

happen in other places, as in the hair under the arms.

Q. Why have not women beards? A. Because they want heat; which is the

case with some effeminate men, who are beardless from the same cause, to

have complexions like women.

Q. Why doth the hair grow on those that are hanged? A. Because their

bodies are exposed to the sun, which, by its heat doth dissolve all

moisture into the fume or vapour of which the hair doth grow.

Q. Why is the hair of the beard thicker and grosser than elsewhere; and

the more men are shaven, the harder and thicker it groweth? A. Because

by so much as the humours or vapours of a liquid are dissolved and taken

away, so much the more doth the humour remaining draw to the same; and

therefore the more the hair is shaven, the thicker the humours gather

which engender the hair, and cause it to wax hard.

Q. Why are women smooth and fairer than men? A. Because in women much of

the humidity and superfluity, which are the matter and cause of the hair

of the body, is expelled with their monthly terms; which superfluity,

remaining in men, through vapours passes into hair.

Q. Why doth man, above all other creatures, wax hoary and gray? A.

Because man hath the hottest heart of all living creatures; and

therefore, nature being most wise, lest a man should be suffocated

through the heat of his heart, hath placed the heart, which is most hot,

under the brain, which is most cold; to the end that the heat of the

heart may be tempered by the coldness of the brain; and contrariwise,

that the coldness of the brain may be qualified by the heat of the

heart; and thereby there might be a temperature in both. A proof of this

is, that of all living creatures man hath the worst breath when he comes

to full age. Furthermore, man doth consume nearly half his time in

sleep, which doth proceed from the great excess of coldness and moisture

in the brain, and from his wanting natural heat to digest and consume

that moisture, which heat he hath in his youth, and therefore, in that

age is not gray, but in old age, when heat faileth; because then the

vapours ascending from the stomach remain undigested and unconsumed for

want of natural heat, and thus putrefy, on which putrefaction of humours

that the whiteness doth follow, which is called grayness or hoariness.

Whereby it doth appear, that hoariness is nothing but a whiteness of

hair, caused by a putrefaction of the humours about the roots of the

hair, through the want of natural heat in old age. Sometimes all

grayness is caused by the naughtiness of the complexion, which may

happen in youth: sometimes through over great fear and care as appeareth

in merchants, sailors and thieves.

Q. Why doth red hair grow white sooner than hair of any other colour? A.

Because redness is an infirmity of the hair; for it is engendered of a

weak and infirm matter, that is, of matter corrupted with the flowers of

the woman; and therefore it waxes white sooner than any other colour.

Q. Why do wolves grow grisly? A. To understand this question, note the

difference between grayness and grisliness; grayness is caused through

defect of natural heat, but grisliness through devouring and heat. The

wolf being a devouring beast, he eateth gluttonously without chewing,

and enough at once for three days; in consequence of which, gross

vapours engendered in the wolf's body, which cause grisliness. Grayness

and grisliness have this difference; grayness is only in the head, but

grisliness all over the body.

Q. Why do horses grow grisly and gray? A. Because they are for the most

part in the sun, and heat naturally causes putrefaction; therefore the

matter of hair doth putrefy, and in consequence they are quickly peeled.

Q. Why do men get bald, and trees let fall their leaves in winter? A.

The want of moisture is the cause in both, which is proved by a man's

becoming bald through venery, because by that he lets forth his natural

humidity and heat; and by that excess in carnal pleasure the moisture is

consumed which is the nutriment of the hair. Thus, eunuchs and women do

not grow bald, because they do not part from this moisture; and

therefore eunuchs are of the complexion of women.

Q. Why are not women bald? A. Because they are cold and moist, which are

the causes that the hair remaineth; for moistness doth give nutriment to

the hair, and coldness doth bind the pores.

Q. Why are not blind men naturally bald? A. Because the eye hath

moisture in it, and that moisture which should pass through by the

substance of the eyes, doth become a sufficient nutriment for the hair

and therefore they are seldom bald.

Q. Why doth the hair stand on end when men are afraid? A. Because in

time of fear the heat doth go from the outward parts of the body into

the inward to help the heart, and so the pores in which the hair is

fastened are shut up, after which stopping and shutting up of the pores,

the standing up of the hair doth follow.

_Of the Head._

Q. Why is a man's head round? A. Because it contains in it the moistest

parts of the living creature: and also that the brain may be defended

thereby, as with a shield.

Q. Why is the head not absolutely long but somewhat round? A. To the end

that the three creeks and cells of the brain might the better be

distinguished; that is, the fancy in the forehead, the discoursing or

reasonable part in the middle, and memory in the hinder-most part.

Q. Why doth a man lift up his head towards the heavens when he doth

imagine? A. Because the imagination is in the fore part of the head or

brain, and therefore it lifteth up itself, that the creeks or cells of

the imagination may be opened, and that the spirits which help the

imagination, and are fit for that purpose, having their concourse

thither, may help the imagination.

Q. Why doth a man, when he museth or thinketh of things past, look

towards the earth? A. Because the cell or creek which is behind, is the

creek or chamber of the memory; and therefore, that looketh towards

heaven when the head is bowed down, and so the cell is open, to the end

that the spirits which perfect the memory should enter it.

Q. Why is not the head fleshy, like other parts of the body? A. Because

the head would be too heavy, and would not stand steadily. Also, a head

loaded with flesh, betokens an evil complexion.

Q. Why is the head subject to aches and griefs? A. By reason that evil

humours, which proceed from the stomach, ascend up to the head and

disturb the brain, and so cause pain in the head; sometimes it proceeds

from overmuch filling the stomach, because two great sinews pass from

the brain to the mouth of the stomach, and therefore these two parts do

always suffer grief together.

Q. Why have women the headache oftener than men? A. By reason of their

monthly terms, which men are not troubled with, and by which a moist,

unclean and venomous fume is produced, that seeks passage upwards, and

so causes the headache.

Q. Why is the brain white? A. 1. Because it is cold, and coldness is the

mother of white. 2. Because it may receive the similitude and likeness

of all colours, which the white colour can best do, because it is most

simple.

Q. Why are all the senses in the head? A. Because the brain is there, on

which all the senses depend, and are directed by it; and, consequently,

it maketh all the spirits to feel, and governeth all the membranes.

Q. Why cannot a person escape death if the brain or heart be hurt? A.

Because the brain and heart are the two principal parts which concern

life; and, therefore, if they be hurt, there is no remedy left for cure.

Q. Why is the brain moist? A. Because it may easily receive an

impression, which moisture can best do, as it appeareth in wax, which

doth easily receive the print of the seal when soft.

Q. Why is the brain cold? A. 1. Because that by this coldness it may

clear the understanding of man and make it subtle. 2. That by the

coldness of the brain, the heat of the heart may be tempered.

_Of the Eyes._

Q. Why have you one nose and two eyes? A. Because light is more

necessary to us than smelling; and therefore it doth proceed from the

goodness of Nature, that if we receive any hurt or loss of one eye, the

other should remain.

Q. Why have children great eyes in their youth, which become small as

they grow up? A. It proceeds from the want of fire, and from the

assemblage and meeting together of the light and humour; the eyes, being

lightened by the sun, which doth lighten the easy humour thereof and

purge them: and, in the absence of the sun, those humours become dark

and black, and the sight not so good.

Q. Why does the blueish grey eye see badly in the day-time and well in

the night? A. Because greyness is light and shining in itself, and the

spirits with which we see are weakened in the day-time and strengthened

in the night.

Q. Why are men's eyes of diverse colours? A. By reason of diversity of

humours. The eye hath four coverings and three humours. The first

covering is called consolidative, which is the outermost, strong and

fat. The second is called a horny skin or covering, of the likeness of

a horn; which is a clear covering. The third, uvea, of the likeness of a

black grape. The fourth is called a cobweb. The first humour is called

_albuginous_, from its likeness unto the white of an egg. The second

glarial; that is, clear, like unto crystalline. The third vitreous, that

is, clear as glass. And the diversity of humours causeth the diversity

of the eyes.

Q. Why are men that have but one eye, good archers? and why do good

archers commonly shut one? And why do such as behold the stars look

through a trunk with one eye? A. This matter is handled in the

perspective arts; and the reason is, as it doth appear in _The Book of

Causes_, because that every virtue and strength united and knit

together, is stronger than when dispersed and scattered. Therefore, all

the force of seeing dispersed in two eyes, the one being shut, is

gathered into the other, and so the light is fortified in him; and by

consequence he doth see better and more certainly with one eye being

shut, than when both are open.

Q. Why do those that drink and laugh much, shed most tears? A. Because

that while they drink and laugh without measure the air which is drawn

in doth not pass out through the windpipe, and so with force is

directed and sent to the eyes, and by their pores passing out, doth

expel the humours of the eyes; which humour being expelled, brings

tears.

Q. Why do such as weep much, urine but little? A. Because the radical

humidity of a tear and of urine are of one and the same nature, and,

therefore, where weeping doth increase, urine diminishes. And that they

are of one nature is plain to the taste, because they are both salt.

Q. Why do some that have clear eyes see nothing? A. By reason of the

oppilation and naughtiness of the sinews with which we see; for the

temples being destroyed, the strength of the light cannot be carried

from the brain to the eye.

Q. Why is the eye clear and smooth like glass? A. 1. Because the things

which may be seen are better beaten back from a smooth thing than

otherwise, that thereby the sight should strengthen. 2. Because the eye

is moist above all parts of the body, and of a waterish nature; and as

the water is clear and smooth, so likewise is the eye.

Q. Why do men and beasts who have their eyes deep in their head best see

far off? A. Because the force and power by which we see is dispersed in

them, and both go directly to the thing which is seen. Thus, when a man

doth stand in a deep ditch or well, he doth see in the daytime the stars

of the firmament; because then the power of the night and of the beams

are not scattered.

Q. Wherefore do those men who have eyes far out in their head not see

far distant? A. Because the beams of the sight which pass from the eye,

are scattered on every side, and go not directly unto the thing that is

seen, and therefore the sight is weakened.

Q. Why are so many beasts born blind, as lions' whelps and dogs' whelps.

A. Because such beasts are not yet of perfect ripeness and maturity, and

the course of nutriment doth not work in them. Thus the swallow, whose

eyes, if they were taken out when they are young in their nest, would

grow in again. And this is the case in many beasts who are brought forth

before their time as it were dead, as bear's whelps.

Q. Why do the eyes of a woman that hath her flowers, stain new glass?

And why doth a basilisk kill a man with his sight? A. When the flowers

do run from a woman, then a most venomous air is distilled from them,

which doth ascend into a woman's head; and she, having pain in her head,

doth wrap it up with a cloth or handkerchief; and because the eyes are

full of insensible holes, which are called pores, there the air seeketh

a passage, and infects the eyes, which are full of blood. The eyes also

appear dropping and full of tears, by reason of the evil vapour that is

in them; and these vapours are incorporated and multiplied till they

come to the glass before them; and by reason that such a glass is round,

clear and smooth, it doth easily receive that which is unclean. 2. The

basilisk is a very venomous and infectious animal, and there pass from

his eyes vapours which are multiplied upon the thing which is seen by

him, and even unto the eye of man; the which venomous vapours or humours

entering into the body, do infect him, and so in the end the man dieth.

And this is also the reason why the basilisk, looking upon a shield

perfectly well made with fast clammy pitch, or any hard smooth thing,

doth kill itself, because the humours are beaten back from the hard

smooth thing unto the basilisk, by which beating back he is killed.

Q. Why is the sparkling in cats' eyes and wolves' eyes seen in the dark

and not in the light? A. Because that the greater light doth darken the

lesser; and therefore, in a greater light the sparkling cannot be seen;

but the greater the darkness, the easier it is seen, and is more strong

and shining.

Q. Why is the sight recreated and refreshed by a green colour? A.

Because green doth merely move the sight, and therefore doth comfort it;

but this doth not, in black or white colours, because these colours do

vehemently stir and alter the organ and instrument of the sight, and

therefore make the greater violence; and by how much the more violent

the thing is which is felt or seen the more it doth destroy and weaken

the sense.

_Of the Nose._

Q. Why doth the nose stand out further than any other part of the body.

A. 1. Because the nose is, as it were, the sink of the brain, by which

the phlegm of the brain is purged; and therefore it doth stand forth,

lest the other parts should be defiled. 2. Because the nose is the

beauty of the face, and doth smell.

Q. Why hath a man the worst smell of all creatures? A. Because man hath

most brains of all creatures; and, therefore, by exceeding coldness and

moisture, the brain wanteth a good disposition, and by consequence, the

smelling instrument is not good, yea, some men have no smell.

Q. Why have vultures and cormorants a keen smell? A. Because they have a

very dry brain; and, therefore, the air carrying the smell, is not

hindered by the humidity of the brain, but doth presently touch its

instrument; and, therefore, vultures, tigers and other ravenous beasts,

have been known to come five hundred miles after dead bodies.

Q. Why did nature make the nostrils? A. 1. Because the mouth being shut

we draw breath in by the nostrils, to refresh the heart. 2. Because the

air which proceedeth from the mouth doth savour badly, because of the

vapours which rise from the stomach, but that which we breathe from the

nose is not noisome. 3. Because the phlegm which doth proceed from the

brain is purged by them.

Q. Why do men sneeze? A. That the expulsive virtue and power of the

sight should thereby be purged, and the brain also from superfluities;

because, as the lungs are purged by coughing, so is the sight and brain

by sneezing; and therefore physicians give sneezing medicaments to purge

the brain; and thus it is, such sick persons as cannot sneeze, die

quickly, because it is a sign their brain is wholly stuffed with evil

humours, which cannot be purged.

Q. Why do such as are apoplectic sneeze, that is, such as are subject

easily to bleed? A. Because the passages, or ventricles of the brain are

stopped, and if they could sneeze, their apoplexy would be loosed.

Q. Why does the heat of the sun provoke sneezing, and not the heat of

the fire? A. Because the heat of the sun doth dissolve, but not consume,

and therefore the vapour dissolved is expelled by sneezing; but the heat

of the fire doth dissolve and consume, and therefore doth rather hinder

sneezing than provoke it.

_Of the Ears._

Q. Why do beasts move their ears, and not men? A. Because there is a

certain muscle near the under jaw which doth cause motion in the ear;

and therefore, that muscle being extended and stretched, men do not move

their ears, as it hath been seen in divers men; but all beasts do use

that muscle or fleshy sinew, and therefore do move their ears.

Q. Why is rain prognosticated by the pricking up of asses' ears? A.

Because the ass is of a melancholic constitution, and the approach of

rain produceth that effect on such a constitution. In the time of rain

all beasts prick up their ears, but the ass before it comes.

Q. Why have some animals no ears? A. Nature giveth unto everything that

which is fit for it, but if she had given birds ears, their flying would

have been hindered by them. Likewise fish want ears, because they would

hinder their swimming, and have only certain little holes through which

they hear.

Q. Why have bats ears, although of the bird kind? A. Because they are

partly birds in nature, in that they fly, by reason whereof they have

wings; and partly they are hairy and seem to be of the nature of mice,

therefore nature hath given them ears.

Q. Why have men only round ears? A. Because the shape of the whole and

of the parts should be proportionable, and especially in all things of

one nature; for as a drop of water is round, so the whole water: and so,

because a man's head is round, the ears incline towards the same figure;

but the heads of beasts are somewhat long, and so the ears are drawn

into length likewise.

Q. Why hath nature given all living creatures ears? A. 1. Because with

them they should hear. 2. Because by the ear choleric superfluity is

purged; for as the head is purged of phlegmatic superfluity by the nose,

so from choleric, by the ears.

_Of the Mouth._

Q. Why hath the mouth lips to compass it? A. Because the lips cover and

defend the teeth; for it would be unseemly if the teeth were always

seen. Also, the teeth being of a cold nature, would be soon hurt if they

were not covered with lips.

Q. Why has a man two eyes and but one mouth? A. Because a man should

speak but little, and hear and see much. And by hearing and the light we

see difference of things.

Q. Why hath a man a mouth? A. 1. Because the mouth is the gate and door

of the stomach. 2. Because the meat is chewed in the mouth, and prepared

and made ready for the first digestion. 3. Because the air drawn into

the hollow of the mouth for the refreshing of the heart, is made pure

and subtle.

Q. Why are the lips moveable? A. For the purpose of forming the voice

and words which cannot be perfectly done without them. For as without

_a, b, c_, there is no writing, so without the lips no voice can well be

formed.

Q. What causes men to yawn or gape? A. It proceeds from the thick fume

and vapours that fill the jaws; by the expulsion of which is caused the

stretching out and expansion of the jaws, and opening of the mouth.

Q. Why doth a man gape when he seeth another do the same? A. It proceeds

from the imagination. And this is proved by the similitude of the ass,

who by reason of his melancholy, doth retain his superfluity for a long

time, and would neither eat nor piss unless he should hear another

doing the like.

_Of the Teeth._

Q. Why do the teeth only, amongst all ether bones, experience the sense

of feeling? A. That they may discern heat and cold, that hurt them,

which other bones need not.

Q. Why have men more teeth than women? A. By reason of the abundance of

heat and cold which is more in men than in women.

Q. Why do the teeth grow to the end of our life, and not the other

bones? A. Because otherwise they would be consumed with chewing and

grinding.

Q. Why do the teeth only come again when they fall, or be taken out, and

other bones being taken away, grow no more? A. Because other bones are

engendered of the humidity which is called radical, and so they breed in

the womb of the mother, but the teeth are engendered of nutritive

humidity, which is renewed and increased from day to day.

Q. Why do the fore-teeth fall in youth, and grow again, and not the

cheek teeth? A. From the defect of matter, and from the figure; because

the fore-teeth are sharp, and the others broad. Also, it is the office

of the fore-teeth to cut the meat, and therefore they are sharp; and

the office of the others to chew the meat, and therefore they are broad

in fashion, which is fittest for that purpose.

Q. Why do the fore-teeth grow soonest? A. Because we want them sooner in

cutting than the others in chewing.

Q. Why do the teeth grow black in human creatures in their old age? A.

It is occasioned by the corruption of the meat, and the corruption of

phlegm with a choleric humour.

Q. Why are colts' teeth yellow, and of the colour of saffron, when they

are young, and become white when they grow up? A. Because horses have

abundance of watery humours in them, which in their youth are digested

and converted into grossness; but in old age heat diminishes, and the

watery humours remain, whose proper colour is white.

Q. Why did nature give living creatures teeth? A. To some to fight with,

and for defence of their lives, as unto wolves and bears, unto some to

eat with, as unto horses, unto some for the forming of the voices, as

unto men.

Q. Why do horned beasts want their upper teeth? A. Horns and teeth are

caused by the same matter, that is, nutrimental humidity, and therefore

the matter which passeth into the horns turneth not into teeth,

consequently they want the upper teeth. And such beasts cannot chew

well; therefore, to supply the want of teeth, they have two stomachs,

from whence it returns and they chew it again, then it goes into the

other to be digested.

Q. Why are some creatures brought forth with teeth, as kids and lambs;

and some without, as men? A. Nature doth not want in necessary things,

nor abound in things superfluous; and therefore, because these beasts,

not long after they are fallen, do need teeth, they are fallen with

teeth; but men, being nourished by their mother, for a long time do not

stand in need of teeth.

_Of the Tongue._

Q. Why is the tongue full of pores? A. Because the tongue is the means

whereby which we taste; and through the mouth, in the pores of the

tongue, doth proceed the sense of tasting. Again, it is observed, that

frothy spittle is sent into the mouth by the tongue from the lungs,

moistening the meat and making it ready for digestion.

Q. Why do the tongues of such as are sick of agues judge all things

bitter? A. Because the stomachs of such persons are filled with

choleric humours; and choler is very bitter, as appeareth by the gall;

therefore this bitter fume doth infect their tongues; and so the tongue,

being full of these tastes, doth judge everything bitter.

Q. Why doth the tongue water when we hear sour and sharp things spoken

of? A. Because the imaginative virtue or power is of greater force than

the power or faculty of tasting; and when we imagine a taste, we

conceive the power of tasting as a swan; there is nothing felt by the

taste, but by means of the spittle the tongue doth water.

Q. Why do some persons stammer and lisp? A. Sometimes through the

moistness of the tongue and brain, as in children, who cannot speak

plainly nor pronounce many letters. Sometimes it happeneth by reason of

the shrinking of certain sinews which go to the tongue, which are

corrupted with phlegm.

Q. Why are the tongues of serpents and mad dogs venomous? A. Because of

the malignity and tumosity of the venomous humour which predominates in

them.

Q. Why is a dog's tongue good for medicine, and a horse's tongue

pestiferous? A. By reason of some secret property, or that the tongue of

a dog is full of pores, and so doth draw and take away the viscosity of

the wound. It is observed that a dog hath some humour in his tongue,

with which, by licking he doth heal; but the contrary effect is the lick

of a horse's tongue.

Q. Why is spittle white? A. By reason of the continual moving of the

tongue, whereof heat is engendered, which doth make this superfluity

white; as seen in the froth of water.

Q. Why is spittle unsavoury and without taste? A. If it had a certain

determinate taste, then the tongue would not taste at all, but only have

the taste of spittle, and could not distinguish others.

Q. Why doth the spittle of one that is fasting heal an imposthume? A.

Because it is well digested and made subtle.

Q. Why do some abound in spittle more than others? A. This doth proceed

of a phlegmatic complexion, which doth predominate in them; and such are

liable to a quotidian ague, which ariseth from the predominance of

phlegm; the contrary in those that spit little, because heat abounds in

them, which consumes the humidity of the spittle; and so the defect of

spittle is a sign of fever.

Q. Why is the spittle of a man that is fasting more subtle than of one

that is full? A. Because the spittle is without the viscosity of meat,

which is wont to make the spittle of one who is full, gross and thick.

Q. From whence proceeds the spittle of a man? A. From the froth of the

lungs, which according to the physicians, is the seat of the phlegm.

Q. Why are beasts when going together for generation very full of froth

and foam? A. Because then the lights and heart are in greater motion of

lust; therefore there is engendered in them much frothy matter.

Q. Why have not birds spittle? A. Because they have very dry lungs.

Q. Why doth the tongue sometimes lose the use of speaking? A. It is

occasioned by a palsy or apoplexy, which is a sudden effusion of blood,

and by gross humours; and sometimes also by infection of _spiritus

animates_ in the middle cell of the brain which hinders the spirits from

being carried to the tongue.

_Of the Roof of the Mouth._

Q. Why are fruits, before they are ripe, of a bitter and sour relish,

and afterward sweet? A. A sour relish or taste proceeds from coldness

and want of heat in gross and thick humidity; but a sweet taste is

produced by sufficient heat; therefore in the ripe fruit humidity is

subtle through the heat of the sun, and such fruit is commonly sweet;

but before it is ripe, as humidity is gross or subtle for want of heat,

the fruit is bitter or sour.

Q. Why are we better delighted with sweet tastes than with bitter or any

other? A. Because a sweet thing is hot and moist, and through its heat

dissolves and consumes superfluous humidities, and by this humidity

immundicity is washed away; but a sharp, eager taste, by reason of the

cold which predominates in it, doth bind overmuch, and prick and offend

the parts of the body in purging, and therefore we do not delight in

that taste.

Q. Why doth a sharp taste, as that of vinegar, provoke appetite rather

than any other? A. Because it is cold, and doth cool. For it is the

nature of cold to desire to draw, and therefore it is the cause of

appetite.

Q. Why do we draw in more air than we breathe out? A. Because much air

is drawn in that is converted into nutriment, and with the vital spirits

is contained in the lungs. Therefore a beast is not suffocated as long

as it receives air with its lungs, in which some part of the air

remaineth also.

Q. Why doth the air seem to be expelled and put forth, seeing the air is

invisible, by reason of its variety and thinness? A. Because the air

which is received in us, is mingled with vapours and fumes from the

heart, by reason whereof it is made thick, and so is seen. And this is

proved by experience, because that in winter, we see our breath, for the

coldness of the air doth bind the air mixed with fume, and so it is

thickened and made gross, and by consequence is seen.

Q. Why have some persons stinking breath? A. Because of the evil fumes

that arise from the stomach. And sometimes it doth proceed from the

corruption of the airy parts of the body, as the lungs. The breath of

lepers is so infected that it would poison birds if near them, because

the inward parts are very corrupt.

Q. Why are lepers hoarse? A. Because the vocal instruments are

corrupted, that is, the lights.

Q. Why do persons become hoarse? A. Because of the rheum descending from

the brain, filling the conduit of the lights; and sometimes through

imposthumes of the throat, or rheum gathering in the neck.

Q. Why have the females of all living creatures the shrillest voices,

the crow only excepted, and a woman a shriller and smaller voice than a

man? A. By reason of the composition of the veins and vocal arteries the

voice is formed, as appears by this similitude, that a small pipe

sounds shriller than a great. Also in women, because the passage where

the voice is formed is made narrow and strait, by reason of cold, it

being the nature of cold to bind; but in men, the passage is open and

wider through heat, because it is the property of heat to open and

dissolve. It proceedeth in women through the moistness of the lungs, and

weakness of the heat. Young and diseased men have sharp and shrill

voices from the same cause.

Q. Why doth the voice change in men at fourteen, and in women at twelve;

in men they begin to yield seed, in women when their breasts begin to

grow? A. Because then the beginning of the voice is slackened and

loosened; and this is proved by the similitude of the string of an

instrument let down or loosened, which gives a great sound, and also

because creatures that are gelded, as eunuchs, capons., etc., have

softer and slenderer voices than others, by the want of their stones.

Q. Why do small birds sing more and louder than great ones, as appears

in the lark and nightingale? A. Because the spirits of small birds are

subtle and soft, and the organ conduit strait, as appeareth in a pipe;

therefore their notes following easily at desire, they sing very soft.

Q. Why do bees, wasps, locusts and many other such like insects, make a

noise, seeing they have no lungs, nor instruments of music? A. Because

in them there is a certain small skin, which, when struck by the air,

causeth a sound.

Q. Why do not fish make a sound? A. Because they have no lungs, but only

gills, nor yet a heart, and therefore they need not the drawing in of

the air, and by consequence they make no noise, because a voice is a

percussion of the air which is drawing.

_Of the Neck._

Q. Why hath a living creature a neck? A. Because the neck is the

supporter of the head, and therefore the neck is in the middle between

the head and the body, to the intent that by it, and by its sinews,

motion and sense of the body might be conveyed through all the body; and

that by means of the neck, the heart, which is very hot, might be

separated from the brain.

Q. Why do some creatures want necks, as serpents and fishes? A. Because

they want hearts, and therefore want that assistance which we have

spoken of; or else they have a neck in some inward part of them, which

is not distinguished outwardly.

Q. Why is the neck full of bones and joints? A. That it may bear and

sustain the head the better. Also, because the back bone is joined to

the brain in the neck, and from thence it receives marrow, which is of

the substance of the brain.

Q. Why have some creatures long necks, as cranes, storks and such like?

A. Because such birds seek their food at the bottom of waters. And some

creatures have short necks, as sparrows, hawks, etc., because such are

ravenous, and therefore for strength have short necks, as appeareth in

the ox, who has a short neck and strong.

Q. Why is the neck hollow, and especially before, about the tongue? A.

Because there are two passages, whereof the one doth carry the meat to

the nutritive instrument, or stomach and liver, which is called by the

Greeks _Aesophagus_; and the other is the windpipe.

Q. Why is the artery made with rings and circle? A. The better to bow

and give a good sounding.

_Of the Shoulders and Arms._

Q. Why hath a man shoulders and arms? A. To lift and carry burdens.

Q. Why are the arms round? A. For the swifter and speedier work.

Q. Why are the arms thick? A. That they may be strong to lift and bear

burdens, and thrust and give a strong blow; so their bones are thick,

because they contain much marrow, or they would be easily corrupted and

injured.

Q. Why do the arms become small and slender in some diseases, as in mad

men, and such as are sick of the dropsy? A. Because all the parts of the

body do suffer the one with the other; and therefore one member being in

grief, all the humours do concur and run thicker to give succour and

help to the aforesaid grief.

Q. Why have brute beasts no arms? A. Their fore feet are instead of

arms, and in their place.

_Of the Hands._

Q. For what use hath a man hands, and an ape also, like unto a man? A.

The hand is an instrument a man doth especially make use of, because

many things are done by the hands, and not by any other part.

Q. Why are some men ambo-dexter, that is, they use the left hand as the

right? A. By reason of the great heat of the heart, and for the hot

bowing of the same, for it is that which makes a man as nimble of the

left hand as of the right.

Q. Why are the fingers full of joints? A. To be more fit and apt to

receive and keep what is put in them.

Q. Why hath every finger three joints, and the thumb but two? A. The

thumb hath three, but the third is joined to the arm, therefore is

stronger than the other fingers; and is called pollex or polico, that

is, to excel in strength.

Q. Why are the fingers of the right hand nimbler than the fingers of the

left? A. It proceedeth from the heat that predominates in those parts,

and causeth great agility.

_Of the Nails._

Q. From whence do nails proceed? A. Of the tumosity and humours, which

are resolved and go into the extremities of the fingers; and they are

dried through the power of the external air, and brought to the hardness

of horn.

Q. Why do the nails of old men grow black and pale? A. Because the heat

of the heart decaying causeth their beauty to decay also.

Q. Why are men judged to be good or evil complexioned by the colour of

the nails? A. Because they give witness of the goodness or badness of

their heart, and therefore of the complexion, for if they be somewhat

red, they betoken choler well tempered; but if they be yellowish or

black, they signify melancholy.

Q. Why do white spots appear in the nails? A. Through mixture of phlegm

with nutriment.

_Of the Paps and Dugs._

Q. Why are the paps placed upon the breasts? A. Because the breast is

the seat of the heart, which is most hot; and therefore the paps grow

there, to the end that the menses being conveyed thither as being near

the heat of the heart, should the sooner be digested, perfected and

converted with the matter and substance of the milk.

Q. Why are the paps below the breasts in beasts, and above the breast in

women? A. Because woman goes upright, and has two legs only; and

therefore if her paps were below her breasts, they would hinder her

going; but beasts having four feet prevents that inconveniency.

Q. Whether are great, small or middle-sized paps best for children to

suck? A. In great ones the heat is dispersed, there is no good

digestion of the milk; but in small ones the power and force is strong,

because a virtue united is strongest; and by consequence there is a good

digestion for the milk.

Q. Why have not men as great paps and breasts as women? A. Because men

have not monthly terms, and therefore have no vessel deputed for them.

Q. Why do the paps of young women begin to grow about thirteen or

fifteen years of age? A. Because then the flowers have no course to the

teats, by which the young one is nourished, but follow their ordinary

course and therefore wax soft.

Q. Why hath a woman who is with child of a boy, the right pap harder

than the left? A. Because the male child is conceived in the right side

of the mother; and therefore the flowers do run to the right pap, and

make it hard.

Q. Why doth it show weakness of the child, when the milk doth drop out

of the paps before the woman is delivered? A. Because the milk is the

proper nutriment of the child in the womb of its mother, therefore if

the milk run out, it is a token that the child is not nourished, and

consequently is weak.

Q. Why do the hardness of the paps betoken the health of the child in

the womb? A. Because the flowers are converted into milk, and thereby

strength is signified.

Q. Why are women's paps hard when they be with child, and soft at other

times? A. Because they swell then, and are puffed, and the great

moisture which proceeds from the flowers doth run into the paps, which

at other seasons remaineth in the matrix and womb, and is expelled by

the place deputed for that end.

Q. By what means doth the milk of the paps come to the matrix or womb?

A. There is a certain knitting and coupling of the paps with the womb,

and there are certain veins which the midwives do cut in the time of the

birth of the child, and by those veins the milk flows in at the navel of

the child, and so it receives nourishment by the navel.

Q. Why is it a sign of a male child in the womb when the milk that

runneth out of a woman's breast is thick, and not much, and of a female

when it is thin? A. Because a woman that goeth with a boy hath a great

heat in her, which doth perfect the milk and make it thick; but she who

goes with a girl hath not so much heat, and therefore the milk is

undigested, imperfect, watery and thin, and will swim above the water if

it be put into it.

Q. Why is the milk white, seeing the flowers are red, of which it is

engendered? A. Because blood which is well purged and concocted becomes

white, as appeareth in flesh whose proper colour is white, and being

boiled, is white. Also, because every humour which is engendered of the

body, is made like unto that part in colour where it is engendered as

near as it can be; but because the flesh of the paps is white, therefore

the colour of the milk is white.

Q. Why doth a cow give milk more abundantly than other beasts? A.

Because she is a great eating beast, where there is much monthly

superfluity engendered, there is much milk; because it is nothing else

but the blood purged and tried.

Q. Why is not milk wholesome? A. 1. Because it curdeth in the stomach,

whereof an evil breath is bred. 2. Because the milk doth grow sour in

the stomach, where evil humours are bred, and infect the breath.

Q. Why is milk bad for such as have the headache? A. Because it is

easily turned into great fumosities, and hath much terrestrial substance

in it, the which ascending, doth cause the headache.

Q. Why is milk fit nutriment for infants? A. Because it is a natural and

usual food, and they were nourished by the same in the womb.

Q. Why are the white-meats made of a newly milked cow good? A. Because

milk at that time is very springy, expels fumosities, and, as it were,

purges at that time.

Q. Why is the milk naught for the child, if the woman giving suck uses

carnal copulation? A. Because in time of carnal copulation, the best

part of the milk goes to the seed vessels, and to the womb, and the

worst remain in the paps, which hurts the child.

Q. Why do physicians forbid the eating of fish and milk at the same

time? A. Because they produce a leprosy, and because they are

phlegmatic.

Q. Why have not birds and fish milk and paps? A. Because paps would

hinder the flight of birds. And although fish have neither paps nor

milk, the females cast much spawn, which the male touches with a small

gut, and causes their kind to continue in succession.

_Of the Back._

Q. Why have beasts a back? A. 1. Because the back is the way and mien of

the body from which are extended and spread throughout, all the sinews

of the backbone. 2. Because it should be a guard and defence for the

soft parts of the body, as for the stomach, liver, lights and such like.

3. Because it is the foundation of all the bones, as the ribs, fastened

to the back bone.

Q. Why hath the back bone so many joints or knots, called _spondyli_? A.

Because the moving and bending it, without such joints, could not be

done; and therefore they are wrong who say that elephants have no such

joints, for without them they could not move.

Q. Why do fish die after their back bones are broken? A. Because in fish

the back bone is instead of the heart; now the heart is the first thing

that lives and the last that dies; and when that bone is broken, fish

can live no longer.

Q. Why doth a man die soon after the marrow is hurt or perished? A.

Because the marrow proceeds from the brain, which is the principal part

of a man.

Q. Why have some men the piles? A. Those men are cold and melancholy,

which melancholy first passes to the spleen, its proper seat, but there

cannot be retained, for the abundancy of blood; for which reason it is

conveyed to the back bone, where there are certain veins which terminate

in the back, and receive the blood. When those veins are full of the

melancholy blood, then the conduits of nature are opened, and the blood

issues out once a month, like women's terms. Those men who have this

course of blood, are kept from many infirmities, such as dropsy, plague,

etc.

Q. Why are the Jews much subject to this disease? A. Because they eat

much phlegmatic and cold meats, which breed melancholy blood, which is

purged with the flux. Another reason is, motion causes heat and heat

digestion; but strict Jews neither move, labour nor converse much, which

breeds a coldness in them, and hinders digestion, causing melancholic

blood, which is by this means purged out.

_Of the Heart._

Q. Why are the lungs light, spongy and full of holes? A. That the air

may be received into them for cooling the heart, and expelling humours,

because the lungs are the fan of the heart; and as a pair of bellows is

raised up by taking in the air, and shrunk by blowing it out, so

likewise the lungs draw the air to cool the heart, and cast it out, lest

through too much air drawn in, the heart should be suffocated.

Q. Why is the flesh of the lungs white? A. Because they are in continual

motion.

Q. Why have those beasts only lungs that have hearts? A. Because the

lungs be no part for themselves, but for the heart, and therefore, it

were superfluous for those creatures to have lungs that have no hearts.

Q. Why do such creatures as have no lungs want a bladder? A. Because

such drink no water to make their meat digest and need no bladder for

urine; as appears in such birds as do not drink at all, viz., the falcon

and sparrow hawk.

Q. Why is the heart in the midst of the body? A. That it may import life

to all, parts of the body, and therefore it is compared to the sun,

which is placed in the midst of the planets, to give light to them all.

Q. Why only in men is the heart on the left side? A. To the end that the

heat of the heart may mitigate the coldness of the spleen; for the

spleen is the seat of melancholy, which is on the left side also.

Q. Why is the heart first engendered; for the heart doth live first and

die last? A. Because the heart is the beginning and original of life,

and without it no part can live. For of the seed retained in the matrix,

there is first engendered a little small skin, which compasses the seed;

whereof first the heart is made of the purest blood; then of blood not

so pure, the liver; and of thick and cold blood the marrow and brain.

Q. Why are beasts bold that have little hearts? A. Because in a little

heart the heat is well united and vehement, and the blood touching it,

doth quickly heat it and is speedily carried to the other parts of the

body, which give courage and boldness.

Q. Why are creatures with a large heart timorous, as the hare? A. The

heart is dispersed in such a one, and not able to heat the blood which

cometh to it; by which means fear is bred.

Q. How is it that the heart is continually moving? A. Because in it

there is a certain spirit which is more subtle than air, and by reason

of its thickness and rarefaction, seeks a larger space, filling the

hollow room of the heart; hence the dilating and opening of the heart,

and because the heart is earthly the thrusting and moving ceasing, its

parts are at rest, tending downwards. As a proof of this, take an acorn,

which, if put into the fire, the heat doth dissolve its humidity,

therefore occupies a greater space, so that the rind cannot contain it,

but puffs up, and throws it into the fire. The like of the heart.

Therefore the heart of a living creature is triangular, having its least

part towards its left side, and the greater towards the right; and doth

also open and shut in the least part, by which means it is in continual

motion; the first motion is called _diastole_, that is extending the

heart or breast; the other _systole_, that is, shutting of the heart;

and from these all the motions of the body proceed, and that of the

pulse which the physicians feel.

Q. How comes it that the flesh of the heart is so compact and knit

together? A. Because in thick compacted substances heat is commonly

received and united. And because the heart with its heat should moderate

the coldness of the brain, it is made of that fat flesh apt to keep a

strong heat.

Q. How comes the heart to be the hottest part of all living creatures?

A. It is so compacted as to receive the heat best, and because it should

mitigate the coldness of the brain.

Q. Why is the heart the beginning of life? A. It is plain that in it the

vital spirit is bred, which is the heat of life; and therefore the heart

having two receptacles, viz., the right and the left the right hath more

blood than spirits; which spirit is engendered to give life and vivify

the body.

Q. Why is the heart long and sharp like a pyramid? A. The round figure

hath an angle, therefore the heart is round, for fear any poison or

hurtful matter should be retained in it; and because that figure is

fittest for motion.

Q. How comes the blood chiefly to be in the heart? A. The blood in the

heart has its proper or efficient place, which some attribute to the

liver; and therefore the heart doth not receive blood from any other

parts but all other parts of it.

Q. How happens it that some creatures want a heart? A. Although they

have no heart, yet they have somewhat that answers for it, as appears in

eels and fish that have the back bone instead of the heart.

Q. Why does the heart beat in some creatures after the head is cut off,

as in birds and hens? A. Because the heart lives first and dies last,

and therefore beats longer than other parts.

Q. Why doth the heat of the heart sometimes fail of a sudden, and in

those who have the falling sickness? A. This proceeds from the defect of

the heart itself, and of certain small skins with which it is covered,

which, being infected and corrupted, the heart faileth on a sudden;

sometimes only by reason of the parts adjoining; and therefore, when any

venomous humour goes out of the stomach that turns the heart and parts

adjoining, that causeth this fainting.

_Of the Stomach._

Q. For what reason is the stomach large and wide? A. Because in it the

food is first concocted or digested as it were in a pot, to the end that

which is pure should be separated from that which is not; and therefore,

according to the quantity of food, the stomach is enlarged.

Q. How comes it that the stomach is round? A. Because if it had angles

and corners, food would remain in them and breed ill-humours, so that a

man would never want agues, which humours are evacuated and consumed,

and not hid in any such corners, by the roundness of the stomach.

Q. How comes the stomach to be full of sinews? A. Because the sinews can

be extended and enlarged, and so is the stomach when it is full; but

when empty it is drawn together, and therefore nature provides the

sinews.

Q. How comes the stomach to digest? A. Because of the heat which is in

it, and comes from the parts adjoining, that is, the liver and the

heart. For as we see in metals the heat of the fire takes away the rust

and dross from iron, the silver from tin, and gold from copper; so also

by digestion the pure is separated from the impure.

Q. For what reason doth the stomach join the liver? A. Because the liver

is very hot, and with its heat helps digestion, and provokes appetite.

Q. Why are we commonly cold after dinner? A. Because then the heat goes

to the stomach to further digestion, and so the other parts grow cold.

Q. Why is it hurtful to study soon after dinner? A. Because when the

heat labours to help the imagination in study, it ceases from digesting

the food, which remains undigested; therefore people should walk

sometimes after meals.

Q. How cometh the stomach slowly to digest meat? A. Because it swims in

the stomach. Now, the best digestion is in the bottom of the stomach,

because the fat descends not there; such as eat fat meat are very sleepy

by reason that digestion is hindered.

Q. Why is all the body wrong when the stomach is uneasy? A. Because the

stomach is knit with the brain, heart and liver, which are the principal

parts in man; and when it is not well, the others are indisposed.

Again, if the first digestion be hindered, the others are also

hindered; for in the first digestion is the beginning of the infirmity

in the stomach.

Q. Why are young men sooner hungry than old men? A. Young men do digest

for three causes; 1. For growing; 2. For restoring life; and 3. For

conservation of life. Also, young men are hot and dry, and therefore the

heat doth digest more, and by consequence they desire more.

Q. Why do physicians prescribe that men should eat when they have an

appetite? A. Because much hunger and emptiness will fill the stomach

with naughty rotten humours, which are drawn in instead of meat; for, if

we fast over night we have an appetite to meat, but none in the morning;

as then the stomach is filled with naughty humours, and especially its

mouth, which is no true filling, but a deceitful one. And, therefore,

after we have eaten a little, our stomach comes to us again; for the

first morsel, having made clean the mouth of the stomach, doth provoke

the appetite.

Q. Why do physicians prescribe that we should not eat too much at a

time, but little by little? A. Because when the stomach is full, the

meat doth swim in it, which is a dangerous thing. Another reason is,

that as very green wood doth put out the fire, so much meat chokes the

natural heat and puts it out; and therefore the best physic is to use

temperance in eating and drinking.

Q. Why do we desire change of meals according to the change of times; as

in winter, beef, mutton; in summer light meats, as veal, lamb, etc.? A.

Because the complexion of the body is altered and changed according to

the time of year. Another reason is, that this proceeds from the quality

of the season: because the cold in winter doth cause a better digestion.

Q. Why should not the meat we eat be as hot as pepper and ginger? A.

Because as hot meat doth inflame the blood, and dispose it to a leprosy,

so, on the contrary, meat too cold doth mortify and chill the blood. Our

meat should not be over sharp, because it wastes the constitution; too

much sauce doth burn the entrails, and inclineth to too often drinking;

raw meat doth the same; and over sweet meats to constipate and cling the

veins together.

Q. Why is it a good custom to eat cheese after dinner, and pears after

all meat? A. Because, by reason of its earthliness and thickness it

tendeth down towards the bottom of the stomach, and so put down the

meat; and the like of pears. Note, that new cheese is better than old,

and that old soft cheese is very bad, and causeth the headache and

stopping of the liver; and the older the worse. Whereof it is said that

cheese digesteth all things but itself.

Q. Why are nuts good after cheese, as the proverb is, "After fish nuts,

and after flesh cheese?" A. Because fish is of hard digestion, and doth

easily putrefy and corrupt; and nuts are a remedy against poison.

Q. Why is it unwholesome to wait long for one dish after another, and to

eat of divers kinds of meat? A. Because the first begins to digest when

the last is eaten, and so digestion is not equally made. But yet this

rule is to be noted; dishes light of digestion, as chickens, kids, veal,

soft eggs and such like, should be first eaten; because, if they should

be first served and eaten and were digested, they would hinder the

digestion of the others; and the light meats not digested would be

corrupted in the stomach and kept in the stomach violently, whereof

would follow belching, loathing, headache, bellyache and great thirst.

It is very hurtful too, at the same meal to drink wine and milk, because

they are productive of leprosy.

Q. Whether is meat or drink best for the stomach? A. Drink is sooner

digested than meat, because meat is of greater substance, and more

material than drink, and therefore meat is harder to digest.

Q. Why is it good to drink after dinner? A. Because the drink will make

the meat readier to digest. The stomach is like unto a pot which doth

boil meat, and therefore physicians do counsel to drink at meals.

Q. Why is it good to forbear a late supper? A. Because there is little

moving or stirring after supper, and so the meat is not sent down to the

bottom of the stomach, but remaineth undigested, and so breeds hurts;

therefore a light supper is best.

_Of the Blood._

Q. Why is it necessary that every living creature that hath blood have

also a liver? A. Because the blood is first made in the liver, its seat,

being drawn from the stomach by certain principal veins, and so

engendered.

Q. Why is the blood red? A. 1. It is like the part in which it is made,

viz., the liver, which is red. 2. It is likewise sweet, because it is

well digested and concocted; but if it hath a little earthly matter

mixed with it, that makes it somewhat salt.

Q. How is women's blood thicker than men's? Their coldness thickens,

binds, congeals, and joins together.

Q. How comes the blood to all parts of the body through the liver, and

by what means? A. Through the principal veins, as the veins of the head,

liver, etc., to nourish the body.

_Of the Urine._

Q. How doth the urine come into the bladder, seeing the bladder is shut?

A. Some say sweatings; others, by a small skin in the bladder, which

opens and lets in the urine. Urine is a certain and not deceitful

messenger of the health or infirmity of man. Men make white urine in the

morning, and before dinner red, but after dinner pale, and also after

supper.

Q. Why is it hurtful to drink much cold water? A. Because one contrary

doth hinder and expel another; water is very cold, and lying so in the

stomach, doth hinder digestion.

Q. Why is it unwholesome to drink new wine? A. 1. It cannot be digested;

therefore it causeth the belly to swell, and a kind of bloody flux. 2.

It hinders making water.

Q. Why do physicians forbid us to labour presently after dinner? A. 1.

Because the motion hinders the virtue and power of digestion. 2.

Because stirring immediately after dinner causes the different parts of

the body to draw the meat to them, which often breeds sickness. 3.

Because motion makes the food descend before it is digested. And after

supper it is good to walk a little, that the food may go to the bottom

of the stomach.

Q. Why is it good to walk after dinner? A. Because it makes a man well

disposed, and fortifies and strengthens the natural heat, causing the

superfluity of the stomach to descend.

Q. Why is it wholesome to vomit? A. It purges the stomach of all naughty

humours, expelling them, which would breed again if they should remain

in it; and purges the eyes and head, clearing the brain.

Q. How comes sleep to strengthen the stomach and the digestive faculty?

A. Because in sleep the heat draws inwards, and helps digestion; but

when we awake, the heat returns, and is dispersed through the body.

_Of the Gall and Spleen._

Q. How come living creatures to have a gall? A. Because choleric humours

are received into it, which through their acidity helps the guts to

expel superfluities; also it helps digestion.

Q. How comes the jaundice to proceed from the gall? A. The humour of the

gall is bluish and yellow; therefore when its pores are stopped the

humour cannot go into the sack thereof, but are mingled with the blood,

wandering throughout all the body and infecting the skin.

Q. Why hath a horse, mule, ass or cow a gall? A. Though these creatures

have no gall in one place, as in a purse or vessel, yet they have one

dispersed in small veins.

Q. How comes the spleen to be black? A. It is occasioned by terrestrial

and earthy matter of a black colour. According to physicians, the spleen

is the receptacle of melancholy, and that is black.

Q. Why is he lean who hath a large spleen? A. Because the spleen draws

much water to itself, which would turn to fat; therefore, men that have

a small spleen are fat.

Q. Why does the spleen cause men to laugh, as says Isidorus; "We laugh

with the spleen, we are angry with the gall, we are wise with the heart,

we love with the liver, we feel with the brain, and speak with the

lungs"? A. The reason is, the spleen draws much melancholy to it, being

its proper seat, the which melancholy proceeds from sadness, and is

there consumed; and the cause failing, the effect doth so likewise. And

by the same reason the gall causes anger, for choleric men are often

angry, because they have much gall.

_Of Carnal Copulation._

Q. Why do living creatures use carnal copulation? A. Because it is most

natural in them to get their like.

Q. What is carnal copulation? A. It is a mutual action of male and

female, with instruments ordained for that purpose to propagate their

kind.

Q. Why is this action good in those that use it lawfully and moderately?

A. Because it eases and lightens the body, clears the mind, comforts the

head and senses, and expels melancholy.

Q. Why is immoderate carnal copulation hurtful? A. Because it destroys

the sight, dries the body, and impairs the brain, often causes fevers

and shortens life also.

Q. Why doth carnal copulation injure melancholic or choleric men,

especially thin men? A. Because it dries the bones much which are

naturally so. On the contrary, it is good for the phlegmatic and

sanguine, because they abound with that substance which by nature, is

necessarily expelled.

Q. Why should not the act be used when the body is full? A. Because it

hinders digestion; and it is not good for a hungry belly, because it

weakens.

Q. Why is it not good soon after a bath? A. Because then the pores are

open, and the heat dispersed through the body: for after bathing, it

cools the body too much.

Q. Why is it not proper after vomiting or looseness? A. Because it is

dangerous to purge twice a day; for in this act the veins are purged,

and the guts by the vomit.

Q. Why is there such delight in the act of venery? A. Because this act

is such a contemptible thing in itself, that all creatures would

naturally abhor it were there no pleasure in it; and therefore nature

readily uses it, that all kinds of living things should be maintained

and kept up.

Q. Why do such as use it often take less delight in it than those who

come to it seldom? A. 1. The passages of the seed are over large and

wide; and therefore it makes no stay there, which would cause the

delight. 2. Through often evacuation there is little seed left, and

therefore no delight. 3. Because such, instead of seed there is cast out

blood, undigested and raw, or some other watery substance, which is not

hot, and therefore affords no delight.

_Of the Seed of Man and Beasts._

Q. How, and of what cometh the seed of man? A. Some philosophers and

physicians say, it is superfluous humours; others say, that the seed is

pure blood, flowing from the brain, concocted and whitened in the

testicles; but sweat, urine, spittle, phlegm, choler, and the like, and

blood dispersed throughout the whole body, come chiefly from the heart,

liver and brain, because those parts are greatly weakened by casting

seed; and therefore it appears that frequent carnal copulation is not

good.

Q. Why is a man's seed white, and a woman's red? A. It is white in men

by reason of great heat and quick digestion, because it is rarefied in

the testicles; but a woman's is red, because her terms corrupt the

undigested blood, and it hath its colour.

Q. How come females to have monthly courses? A. Because they are cold in

respect of men, and because all their nourishment cannot be converted

into blood, a great part of which turns to menses, which are monthly

expelled.

Q. For what reason do the menses not come down in females before the age

of thirteen? A. Because young women are hot, and digest all their

nourishment.

Q. For what reason do they leave off at about fifty? A. Because nature

is then so exhausted, they cannot expel them by reason of weakness.

Q. Why have not breeding women the menses? A. Because that then they

turn into milk, and into the nourishment of the child: for if a woman

with child have them, it is a sign that she will miscarry.

Q. Why are they termed _menstrua_, from the word _mensis_, a month? A.

Because it is a space of time that measures the moon, as she ends her

course in twenty-nine days, and fourteen hours.

Q. Why do they continue longer with some than others, as with some six

or seven, but commonly with all three days? A. The first are cold,

therefore they increase most in them, and consequently are longer

expelling; other women are hot, and therefore have fewer and are sooner

expelled.

Q. Are the menses which are expelled, and those by which the child is

engendered, all one? A. No, because the one are unclean, and unfit for

that purpose; but the other very pure and clear, therefore the fittest

for generation.

Q. Why have not women their menses all one and the same time, but some

in the new moon, some in the full, and others at the wane? A. From their

several complexions, and though all women (in respect of men) are

phlegmatic, yet some are more sanguine than others, some more choleric;

and as the moon hath her quarters, so have women their complexions; the

first sanguine, the second choleric.

Q. Why do women easily conceive after their menses? A. Because the womb

being cleansed, they are better prepared for conception.

Q. Why do women look pale when they first have their menses upon them?

A. Because the heat goes from the outward parts of the body to the

inward, to help nature to expel their terms, which deprivation of heat

doth cause a paleness in the face. Or, because that flux is caused of

raw humours, which, when they run, make the face colourless.

Q. Why do they at that time abhor their meat? A. Because nature labours

more to expel their terms than digest; and, therefore, if they should

eat, their food would remain raw in the stomach.

Q. Why are some women barren and do not conceive? A. 1. It proceeds

sometimes from the man who may be of a cold nature, so that his seed is

unfit for generation. 2. Because it is waterish, and so doth not stay in

the womb. 3. By reason that the seed of them both hath not a like

proportion, as if the man be melancholy and the woman sanguine, or the

man choleric and the woman phlegmatic.

Q. Why do fat women seldom conceive? A. Because they have a slippery

womb, and the seed will not stay in it. Or, because the mouth of the

matrix is very strait, and the seed cannot enter it, or, if it does, it

is so very slowly that it grows cold and unfit for generation.

Q. Why do those of a hot constitution seldom conceive? A. Because the

seed in them is extinguished or put out, as water cast into fire;

whereof we find that women who vehemently desire the flesh seldom

conceive.

Q. Why are whores never with child? A. By reason of divers seeds, which

corrupt and spoil the instruments of conception, for it makes them so

slippery, that they cannot retain seed. Or, else, it is because one

man's seed destroys another's, so neither is good for generation.

Q. Why do women conceive twins? A. Because there are seven cells or

receptacles in the womb; wherefore they may naturally have so many

children at once as there falls seed into these cells.

Q. Why are twins but half men, and not so strong as others? A. The seed

that should have been for one, is divided into two and therefore they

are weakly and seldom live long.