Lamaism.
I must here give a brief description of the Tibetan religion, for
without it any intelligent explanation of the political system is
impossible, while some notice, however cursory, of the administrative
organisation must precede an account of Tibetan diplomacy, upon which
I also wish to touch briefly.
In describing the Tibetan national religion, I must confine myself
only to a popular exposition of the subject, and must leave out of
consideration as much as possible other matters that are ulterior and
technical.
With that premise I must first of all state that Lamaism is divided
into two main branches, one older and the other more modern, the
former being popularly known as the ‘Red Cap Sect’ and the latter as
the ‘Yellow Cap.’ The older Sect is subdivided into a large number of
sub-sects, such as Sakya, Karmapa, Dukpa, Zokchenpa, and others, but
they all agree upon cardinal points and in the formula for attaining
perfection.
The founder of the Old Sect was a Ṭānṭric priest named Lobon Padma
Chungne in Tibetan. That name was derived from a popular tradition
that he was born into this world out of a lotus flower in the Pond of
Ḍanakosha, in a Royal garden of the Kingdom of Urken, now in Cabul.
His career is full of myths far more fantastic than any of those in
the Japanese mythology, and there is very little that is tangible
and rational about it. One thing seems to be certain--that, although
a priest, he strictly enjoined on his disciples the practices of
flesh-eating, marriage and drinking. He ingeniously grafted carnal
practices on to Buḍḍhist doctrines, and declared that the only secret
of perfection for priests consisted in leading a jovial life, and that
by this means alone a man born into this world of ‘five impurities’ can
hope to attain quickly to Buḍḍhahood and salvation.
[Illustration: LOBON PADMA CHUNGNE.]
The doctrine that it is necessary to satisfy carnal desires is based
on the theory that great desires partake of the nature of Mahāboḍhi;
that as the greatest of human desires is sensuality, therefore man
can attain Mahāboḍhi by indulging this passion, for by it he can best
realise the first essential of the reality of Āṭman, that is oblivion
of self. The eating of animal flesh, another craving of men, conforms
to the principle of mercy, because the soul of the animal can be
brought under the beneficial influence of the Boḍhi in the eater, and
is thus enabled indirectly to attain this supreme state. Liquors give
pleasure to men, so that to enjoy ourselves by drinking them and to
live a pleasant life is an ideal state obtained by an intelligent act.
In short, according to the doctrines of the Old Sect, men can attain
Buḍḍhahood by holy contemplation accompanied by drinking liquors,
eating flesh, and indulgence in carnal desires. Such are, in the main,
the fundamental tenets of this particular Sect, the details of which I
could not give here even if I had ample space at my disposal, for they
are too full of obscenity. I may say, however, that this Sect tries to
justify the indulgence of human desires under the sanction of Buḍḍhism.
In Japan also there once existed the Tatekawa school of the Shingon
Sect, which did much to corrupt social order and morals by preaching
similar pernicious theories, though it is not possible to speak
authoritatively on this subject, as very few fragments of the texts and
canonical writings of that suppressed school are now extant. However,
the scope and plan of that quasi-religion must have been extremely
limited.
The Old Sect of Tibet is, on the other hand, on a large scale and its
doctrine has obtained a wide credence throughout the country.
The texts of this sect are still extant in Tibet and the Samskṛṭ texts
prepared in India with Tibetan translations are fairly numerous.
The Old Sect has undergone considerable modifications since its
introduction into Tibet, for the Lama priests have freely modified the
original according to their own views and opinions. In fact the Tibetan
texts of this particular Sect are far from preserving the original
forms of teaching and expression.
I have brought home, among other Lamaistic writings, quite a large
number of volumes treating on the esoteric side of the doctrines of the
Old Sect, which are credited as being most authentic, but I have to
keep them in a closed box, for they are too full of obscene passages to
allow of their being read by the many.
These degenerate doctrines were widely spread throughout Tibet until,
about five hundred years ago, they proved to be too pernicious even for
such a corrupt country as Tibet. A reaction arose against the Old Sect,
which took the shape of the so-called New Sect.
This was founded by Paldan Aṭīsha, a priest from India, in the eleventh
century A. D., and was after three centuries further perfected by Je
Tsong-kha-pa, who was born in a house “amidst onion plots” in Amdo,
a Chinese part of Tibet, situated to the north of Tibet proper. This
priest, perceiving the fearful state of corruption into which the
Tibetan religion had fallen, assigned to himself the Herculean task of
purging that Augean stable.
He took his ground on the fundamental proposition that priesthood
must stand on asceticism, that priesthood devoid of asceticism was
also void, and that of all the conditions of asceticism abstinence
from carnal desires was the most important, for a priest indulging in
these had nothing to distinguish him from a layman. Je Tsong-kha-pa
set an example of following his own precepts, but first he declared
for the necessity of enforcing rules of moral discipline for priests.
But there were not a sufficient number of priests qualified to
receive ordination. At last a number of his first convents and of the
supporters of his precepts were collected to form the nucleus of the
new movement, and they raised the standard of a spiritual campaign at
Ganden, a place about forty miles from Lhasa.
[Illustration: JE TSONG-KHA-PA.]
But the New Sect, in superseding the degenerated national religion, had
to conform itself to the national partiality for esoterism, which
is more or less present in every form of religion or cult prevailing
in Tibet, and it therefore included in its system certain esoteric
forms as distinct from the esoterism of the Old Sect. The New Sect did
not denounce the images worshipped by the followers of the Old Sect,
although they all consisted of dual figures of men and women, often
represented in offensive postures; it had, however, to give to them a
new interpretation of an abstract nature. Thus men were explained as
representing ‘proper means’ and women as representing ‘transcendental
knowledge,’ and it was said that the proper combination of the two
elements gave birth to Buḍḍhas. Therefore the birth of Buḍḍhas,
according to this interpretation, did not come from carnal indulgence.
Animal flesh, again, was interpreted as representing mercy, and
therefore not intended for eating, while liquors were considered as
embodying human intelligence, and as giving an object-lesson to teach
men how to exercise their inborn intelligence.
In that symbolic way the New Sect explained the precepts inculcated by
its older rival. The images that had been used by the latter were also
adopted, only with a new interpretation, so that externally the two
sects do not differ much from each other. Strange as it may appear, it
is highly probable that worldly circumstances obliged the New Sect to
assume this anomalous position. I have to stop here in my description
of the doctrinal side of the Tibetan religion, for to go further would
lead me into technical and abstruse points.
I shall describe next that peculiar practice or belief of the Tibetan
religion which is called incarnation.
The idea embodied in the doctrine of incarnation is that the Buḍḍhas,
or saints whose bodies are invisible to man, are reincarnated in the
shape of priests of pious virtue for the salvation of the people.
The scope of this incarnation is rather comprehensive in Tibet, for
almost every lama with any pretensions above the common level believes
that he is destined to be reborn into the world to work for salvation.
This idea seems to have undergone considerable modifications since it
was first conceived, so that such incarnations as are accepted to-day
appear quite different from those of older days, as I shall describe
further on.