content, acid being sometimes increased and sometimes decreased by the
cooking process. Kelhofer showed that when gooseberries were cooked
with sugar, the acid content was not materially changed, these results
being in accord with his conclusions reached in earlier studies with
other fruits. The sweeter taste of the cooked product he believed to be
simply due to the fact that sugar masks the flavor of the acid.
“It is often noted that cooked fruits, such as plums, seem much sourer
than the raw fruit, and it has been suggested that either the acid
was increased or the sugar was decreased by the cooking process. This
problem was studied by Sutherst, and, in his opinion, the increased
acid flavor is due to the fact that cooked fruit (gooseberries,
currants, plums, etc.) usually contains the skin, which is commonly
rejected if the fruit is eaten raw. The skin is more acid than the
simpler carbohydrates united to form a complex carbohydrate. In
some fruits, like the apple, where the jelly-yielding material must
be extracted with hot water, the pectin is apparently united with
cellulose as a part of the solid pulp. As shown by the investigations
of Bigelow and Gore at the Bureau of Chemistry, 40 per cent of the
solid material of apple pulp may be thus extracted with hot water, and
consists of two carbohydrates, one of which is closely related to gum
arabic. That such carbohydrates as these should yield a jelly is not
surprising when we remember that they are similar to starch in their
chemical nature, and, as every one knows, starch, though insoluble in
cold water, yields when cooked with hot water a large proportion of
paste, which jellies on cooling.
“When fruits are used for making pies, puddings, etc., the nutritive
value of the dish is, of course, increased by the addition of flour,
sugar, etc., and the dish as a whole may constitute a better balanced
food than the fruit alone.”[8]
FOOTNOTES:
[8] C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D.—In charge of Nutritive Investigations of
the United States Experiment Station.
DIETS
As previously stated, the object of foods is to supply the needs of
the body in building new tissue in the growing child; in repairing
tissue which the catabolic activity of the body is constantly tearing
down and eliminating; and in supplying heat and energy. This heat and
energy is not alone for muscular activity in exercise or movement; it
must be borne in mind that the body is a busy work-shop, or chemical
laboratory, and heat and energy are needed in the constant metabolism
of tearing down and rebuilding tissue and in the work of digestion and
elimination.
In this chapter, a few points given in the preceding pages are repeated
for emphasis. The proteins, represented in purest form in lean meat,
build tissue and the carbonaceous foods, starches, sugars and fats,
supply the heat and energy. An excess of proteins, that is more than
is needed for building and repair, is also used for heat and energy;
the waste products of the nitrogenous foods are broken down into
carbon dioxid, sulphates, phosphates, and other nitrogenous compounds
and excreted through the kidneys, skin, and the bile, while the waste
product of carbonaceous foods is carbon dioxid alone and is excreted
mostly through the lungs.
Since the foods richest in protein are the most expensive, those who
wish to keep down the cost of living, should provide, at most, no more
protein than the system requires. The expensive meat may be eliminated
and proteins be supplied by eggs, milk, legumes, nuts and cereals.
The most fundamental thing is to decide upon the amount of protein—two
to four ounces, nearly a quarter of a pound a day—and then select
a dietary which shall provide this and also supply heat and energy
sufficient for the day. If the diet is to include meat, a goodly
proportion of protein will be furnished in the lean meat. This will
vary greatly with the different cuts of meat as shown on Table IV,
page 128. If, as often happens, one does not care for fats, then the
starches and sugars must provide the heat. If one craves sweets, less
starches and fats are needed.
The normally healthy individual is more liable to supply too much
protein than too little, even though he abstain from meat. Yet, as will
be shown later, our strongest races, who have lent most to the progress
of the world, live upon a mixed diet.
If the diet is to include meat, it will consist of less bulk, because
the protein is more condensed; for the same reason, if it includes
animal products of eggs and milk and a fair proportion of legumes,
it will be less bulky than a vegetable diet. This point is important
for busy people, who eat their meals in a hurry and proceed at once
to active, mental work. Those who engage in physical labor are much
more likely to take a complete rest for a half hour, to an hour, after
eating. The _thinkers_ seldom rest, at least after a midday meal, and
those who worry seldom relax the mental force during any waking hours.
Where the system shows an excess of uric acid, the chances are that the
individual has not been living on a diet with too large a proportion of
protein, but that he has been eating more than he requires of all kinds
of foodstuffs. His system thus becomes weakened and he does not breathe
deeply nor exercise sufficiently to oxidize and throw off the waste.
Let it be recalled here that the theory that rheumatism is caused by
an excess of uric acid is disputed by the highest authorities. It is
_accompanied_ by uric acid, but not supposed to be caused by it.
Every housewife, to intelligently select the daily menus for her
family, needs a thorough knowledge of dietetics. She must understand
the chemistry of food that she may know food values. The difficulty
which confronts the housewife, is to provide one meal suited to
the needs, tastes, or idiosyncracies of various members of her
household. Peculiarities of taste, unless these peculiarities have
been intelligently acquired, may result in digestive disturbances. As
an illustration: one may cultivate a dislike for meat, milk, or eggs,
as is often the case, and the proteins for the family being largely
supplied by these, the individual is eating too much of starches and
sugars and not sufficient protein,—legumes, nuts, etc., not being
provided for one member. Such an one’s blood becomes impoverished and
she becomes anaemic.
The relief lies in _cultivating a taste_ for blood building foods.
Foods which are forced down, with a mind arrayed against them, do not
digest as readily, because the displeasure does not incite the flow of
gastric juices. One fortunate provision of nature lies in the ability
to cultivate a taste for _any_ food. Likes and dislikes are largely
mental. There are certain foods which continuously disagree and they
should be avoided; but many abstain from wholesome food because it has
disagreed a _few_ times. It may be that it was not the particular food
but the weakness of the stomach at this time. Any food fails of prompt
digestion when the nerves controlling the stomach are weak.
Many foods disagree at certain times because of the particular
conditions regulating the secretion of digestive juices. Where this
condition has continued for some time it becomes chronic and a special
diet is required, together with special exercises to bring a better
blood supply to stomach and intestines and to regulate the nerves
controlling them.
Dr. W. S. Hall estimates that the average man at light work requires,
each day,
106.8 grams of protein[9]
57.97 grams of fat
398.84 grams of carbohydrates
These elements, in proper proportions, may be gained through many food
combinations. He gives the following:
Bread 1 lb.
Lean Meat ½ lb.
Oysters ½ lb.
Cocoa 1 oz.
Milk 4 oz.
Sugar 1 oz.
Butter ½ oz.
A medium sized man at out of door work, fully oxidizes all waste of
the system and he requires a higher protein diet,—125 grams. In such
event he does not require so much starch and sugar. If on the other
hand he were to take but 106.8 grams of protein, as above, he would
require more carbohydrates. One working, or exercising in the fresh
air, breathes more deeply and oxidizes and eliminates more waste, hence
he has a better appetite, which is simply the call of nature for a
re-supply of the waste.
In active work, one also liberates more heat, thus more fat, starches,
and sugar are required for the re-supply. If one has an excess of
starch (glycogen) stored in the liver, or an excess of fat about the
tissues, this excess is called upon to supply the heat and energy when
the fats and carbohydrates daily consumed are not sufficient for the
day’s demand. This is the principle of reduction of flesh.
It is interesting to note that habits of combining foods are
unconsciously based upon dietetic principles. Meats rich in protein are
served with potatoes, or with rice, both of which are rich in starch.
Bread, containing little fat, is served with butter. Beans, containing
little fat, are cooked with pork. Starchy foods of all kinds are served
with butter or cream. Macaroni, which is rich in starch, makes a well
balanced food cooked with cheese.
Pork and beans,
bread and butter,
bread and milk,
chicken and rice,
macaroni and cheese,
poached eggs on toast, and
custards, form balanced dishes.
A knowledge of such combinations is important when one must eat a hasty
luncheon and wishes to supply the demands of the body in the least
time, giving the least thought to the selection; but hasty luncheons,
with the mind concentrated upon other things, are to be strongly
condemned. The mind must be relaxed and directed to pleasant themes
during a meal or the nerves to the vital organs will be held too tense
to permit a free secretion of digestive juices. Chronic indigestion is
sure to result from this practice. Dinner, or the hearty meal at night,
rather than at noon, is preferable for the business or professional man
or woman, because the cares of the day are over and the brain force
relaxes. The vital forces are not detracted from the work of digestion.
Experiments in the quantity of food actually required for body needs,
made by Prof. R. H. Chittenden of the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale
University, have established, beyond doubt, the fact that the average
individual consumes very much more food than the system requires. In
fact, most tables of food requirements, in previous books on dietetics,
have been heavy.
Prof. Chittenden especially established the fact that the average
person consumes more protein than is necessary to maintain a
nitrogenous balance. It was formerly held that the average daily
metabolism and excretion of nitrogen through the kidneys was 16 grams,
or about 100 grams of protein or albuminoid food. Prof. Chittenden’s
tests, covering a period of six months, show an average daily excretion
of 5.86 grams of nitrogen, or a little less than one-third of that
formerly accepted as necessary; 5.86 grams of nitrogen corresponds to
36.62 grams of protein or albuminoid food.
Prof. Chittenden’s experiments of the foodstuffs actually required by
three groups of men, one group of United States soldiers, a group from
the Yale College athletic team, and a group of college professors, all
showed that the men retained full strength, with a higher degree of
physical and mental efficiency, when the body was not supplied with
more protein than was liberated by metabolic activity, and when the
quantity of carbonaceous food was regulated to the actual requirement
to retain body heat and furnish energy.
It may be well to call attention here to the fact that the food
elements, called upon for work, are not from those foods just consumed
or digested, but from those eaten a day or two previous, which have
been assimilated in the muscular tissues.
In selecting a diet, the individual must be considered as to age, sex
and physical condition, also whether active in indoor or outdoor work,
and whether he or she breathes deeply, so as to take plenty of fresh
air into the lungs.
The following tables, published through the courtesy of Dr. W. S. Hall,
give the rations for different conditions.
TABLE XI.
_Rations for Different Conditions._
———————————————————————————+—————————+————+—————————————+—————————
|Proteins | |Carbohydrates|Energy in
Conditions +————+————|Fats|—————+———————+ Calories
|Low |High| | Low | High |
———————————————————————————+—————————+————+—————————————+—————————
Man at light indoor work | 60| 100| 60| 390 | 450 | 2764
Man at light outdoor work | 60| 100| 100| 400 | 460 | 2940
Man at moderate outdoor | | | | | |
work | 75| 125| 125| 450 | 500 | 3475
Man at hard outdoor work | 100| 150| 150| 500 | 550 | 4000
Man at very hard outdoor | | | | | |
winter work | 125| 180| 200| 600 | 650 | 4592
U. S. Army rations | 64| 106| 280| 460 | 540 | 4896-5032
U. S. Navy rations | | 143| 292| 557 | | 5545
Football team (old regime) | | 181| 292| 557 | | 5697
College football team (new)| 125| 125| 125| 500 | | 3675
———————————————————————————+—————————+————+—————————————+—————————
TABLE XII.
_Rations Varied for Sex and Age._
———————————————————————————+—————————+————+—————————————+—————————
|Proteins | |Carbohydrates|Energy in
Variations +————+————|Fats|—————+———————+ Calories
of Sex and Age |Low |High| | Low | High |
———————————————————————————+—————————+————+—————————————+—————————
Children, two to six | 36 | 70 | 40 | 250 | 325 |1520-1956
Children, six to fifteen | 50 | 75 | 45 | 325 | 350 |1923-2123
Women, with light exercise | 50 | 80 | 80 | 300 | 330 |2272
Women, at moderate work | 60 | 92 | 80 | 400 | 432 |2720
Aged women | 50 | 80 | 50 | 270 | 300 |1870
Aged men | 50 |100 |400 | 300 | 350 |2258
———————————————————————————+—————————+————+—————————————+—————————
The unit of measurement for the calories of energy is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of energy to 1°
centigrade.
In estimating the number of calories of energy given off by the
different foods, Dr. Hall represents
1 gram of carbohydrates as 4.0 calories
” ” ” fats ” 9.4 ”
” ” ” proteins ” 4.0 ”
To determine the relative energy which a food represents, it is only
necessary to multiply the number of grams of protein in that food by 4,
the fat by 9.4 and the carbohydrates by 4, and add the results.
Thus according to the food required for the average man at light work
given on page 211.
106.8 grams of proteins × 4 = 427.20 calories of energy
57.97 ” ” fat × 9.4 = 544.94 ” ” ”
398.84 ” ” carbohydrates × 4 = 1595.36 ” ” ”
———————
2567.51 = the calories of
energy required for the average man at light work.
Dr. Chittenden’s experiments show that a man leading a very active
life, and above the average in body weight, can maintain his body
in equilibrium indefinitely with a daily intake of 36 to 40 grams
of protein, or albuminoid food, and with a total fuel value of 1600
calories. Authorities, however differ upon the amount of food required.
Dr. Hall suggests 106 grams of protein
Ranke suggests 100 grams of protein
Hultgren and Landergren suggests 134 grams of protein
Schmidt suggests 105 grams of protein
Forster and Moleschott suggests 130 grams of protein
Atwater suggests 125 grams of protein
In order to bring oneself to as limited a diet as Prof. Chittenden’s
men followed, however, it would be necessary to have all food weighed
so as to be sure of the correct proportions; otherwise the actual needs
would not be supplied and the body would suffer. A wise provision
of nature enables the body to throw off an excess of food above the
body needs without injury, within limitations; but, as stated, there
is no doubt that the average person exceeds these limits, exhausting
the digestive organs and loading the system with more than it can
eliminate; the capacity for mental work is restricted, and the whole
system suffers.
Prof. Chittenden’s experiments have been a wonderful revelation to
dietitians and scientists. They have demonstrated beyond doubt that
the average person eats much more than the system requires and thus
overworks the digestive organs.
[Sidenote: Mixed Diet versus a Vegetable Diet]
From the fact that only from two to four ounces of nitrogenous food
is required to rebuild daily tissue waste, it is apparent that this
amount can readily be supplied from the vegetable kingdom, since
nuts, legumes, and cereals are rich in proteins; yet there is a
question whether a purely vegetable diet is productive of the highest
physical and mental development. Natives of tropical climates live
upon vegetables, fruits, and nuts, and it may be purely accidental or
be due to climatic or other conditions, that these nations have not
been those who have made the greatest progress in the world. Neither
have the Eskimos, who live almost entirely upon meat, attained the
highest development. The greatest progress and development, both as
nations and as individuals, have been made by inhabitants of temperate
climates, who have lived upon a mixed diet of meat, eggs, milk, grains,
vegetables, fruits, and nuts. They have shown more creative force,
which means reserve strength.
The Eskimo has demonstrated, however, that an entire meat diet supplies
all physical needs; the meat tissue providing growth and repair and the
fat supplying all of the carbonaceous elements. The fat, as previously
stated, yields more heat than starches and sugars, and Nature provides
this heat for climates where most warmth is required. It may be the
natural reason why natives of warm climates have formed the habit of
using vegetables and grains for their heat and energy rather than meat.
It is also a natural reason why man, in temperate climates, eats more
meat in winter than in summer.
An unperverted, natural instinct will always be found to have a sound
physiological basis. For example,—if, by reason of some digestive
disturbance, one has become emaciated, all of the fat having been
consumed, and the cause of the disturbance is removed by an operation
or otherwise, one is seized with an almost insatiable desire for fat,
often eating large chunks of the fat of meat or large quantities of
butter or cream at a meal. When obstructions are removed, Nature makes
immediate effort to adjust her forces.
Those who object to eating meat should study carefully and know that
the proper proportion of protein is supplied with each day’s rations.
The legumes—peas, beans, nuts, and grains—must be supplied with the
vegetables. While the wheat kernel contains twelve per cent of protein,
the white flour does not contain as large a percentage and it will be
noted by reference to Tables II and III, that the majority of fruits
and vegetables contain little nitrogenous substance.
Unless the whole of the grain and the legumes form a goodly proportion
of the diet the danger is in consuming too large a bulk of waste and
too much starch in a purely vegetable diet. In a vegetarian diet, one
is liable to eat too freely of cereals; as a result, the liver becomes
clogged and torpid and the stomach and intestines are deranged and
rendered incapable of full digestion and absorption. The clogged system
refuses to assimilate more food.
It follows, therefore, that, unless one is a thorough student of
dietetics, the mixed diet is by far the safest to follow. One can
better run short of starch or fat in one day’s rations than to be short
of protein, because if the two to four ounces daily requirement is not
provided the tissues are consumed and the blood is impoverished. It is
a rare condition in which a reserve of glycogen and fat is not stored
in the system. On the other hand an excess of nitrogenous foods calls
for a very active circulation and plenty of oxygen in the system.
It has been held that the vegetarian has a clearer brain, and, if this
be true, it may be due to the fact that he is not eating too much and
thus his system is not overloaded.
Experience, however, does not prove that he has greater mental,
physical, and moral power and efficiency. One’s brain, in fasting, is
at first clear and forceful, but the reason is unbalanced if the fast
be too prolonged.
_A complete diet may be selected without animal flesh, but including
animal products of eggs, milk, cream, and butter, together with
vegetables, fruits, cereals, and nuts, yet if the vegetable diet be
selected the legumes, the whole of the grains, and nuts must be given
their share in each day’s rations._
FOOTNOTES:
[9] For table of weights see Appendix.
MENUS
_Before giving any menus, let me first of all impress upon the reader
the importance of eating slowly, of good cheer, of light conversation
during a meal, and of thoroughly masticating the food. Remember it is
the food_ ASSIMILATED, _which nourishes_.
The following menus allow sufficient food for average conditions, when
the vital organs are normal.
Fruit, as previously stated, contains a very small quantity of
nutrition. It is more valuable for its diuretic effect; and to
stimulate the appetite; for this reason it may well be eaten before a
meal.
The citrous fruits tend to neutralize too strong acids of the blood,
increasing its alkalinity. For this reason, also, they are best before
a meal, particularly before breakfast; they have a more laxative and
cleansing effect if eaten before the other food. The custom has been,
however, to eat fruits after dinner for dessert and they are so given
on the following menus.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: Sedentary Occupation]
The following diet is for one who has attained full growth and who
walks a few blocks a day. The diet may seem light, but where one is
sitting indoor most of the time, and has little outdoor exercise, less
waste protein is oxidized and less starch, fat and sugar are required
for heat and energy. If too much carbonaceous food is consumed, one
will store up too much and become too large. If more protein is
consumed than is oxidized and eliminated one is liable to neuralgic or
rheumatic difficulties.
Every person at sedentary employment should, without fail, exercise
each day as suggested on pages 104 to 107.
In nearly all of the following menus coffee and tea have been omitted
because, as before stated, they are not foods, but _stimulants_ and
the caffein and thein may overstimulate the nerves and the heart.
They retard digestion. Some other warm drink should be substituted
where there is digestive disturbance, or where the digestion is weak.
They should never at any time be used strong. They are used for their
pleasing flavor and where one has difficulty in governing the desire
for them, sufficient may be used to flavor the water.
The following is a suggestive diet for one who is not active:
BREAKFAST
Fruit,
Cereal or Toast Coffee,
Dry toast (two slices), or two muffins or two gems.
If one has taken brisk exercise, as suggested above, or is to take a
brisk walk of a mile or two, a dish of oatmeal or some other cereal
with cream and sugar, may be added.
LUNCH
Creamed soup, or pureé with crackers or dry toast.
Sandwich and fruit, or two slices of bread and butter with fruit.
Cup of custard or one piece of cake and milk or two cookies.
A glass of milk or buttermilk.
If pureé of peas or beans is used the sandwich may be omitted and one
slice of bread is sufficient.
DINNER
Meat, gravy, potatoes or rice.
One vegetable, green peas, green beans, cauliflower, greens, corn. (Do
not use dried baked beans or dried peas with lean meat.)
Salad or fruit.
Pudding, easily digested, such as bread, rice, tapioca, cornstarch or
chocolate.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: The Young Child]
After one year, the child should be given solid food _very gradually_
to develop his digestive functions as well as his teeth. The ferment,
which enables him to digest starches is beginning to form, and he
needs some cereal. A piece of dry toast or a dry cracker will do. The
year old child may also begin to drink cow’s milk. One or two glasses
a day may be given, until the child is at least thirteen or fourteen
years old.