THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE.
As in every country there ate two classes, viz., the aristocracy and
the people, so in Turkey, there are the Kibars and the Nass.
Aristocracy may everywhere be sub-divided into the aristocracies of
birth, of letters, wealth and position.
In Turkey, all hereditary rank is vested solely in the person of
the sultan; titles are conferred at his sovereign will and pleasure,
and they do not descend from father to son.
There is not, therefore, a regular or systematic aristocracy, and
the spirit of democracy is there very evident.
Although the Osmanlis hold all learning in great respect, yet
Turkish literature having hitherto been confined to the Koran and
its commentaries, the aristocracy of letters has consequently been
constituted by the expounders of the faith, who arrogate to themselves
the modest appellative of Ulema, or savans. Nevertheless, the people
have the greatest reverence and consideration for Zadés, or those
who are the descendants of illustrious and enlightened parents.
L'argent fait tout is known and acknowledged by all the world; and
wealth is everywhere the great highway to power and distinction;
elevating its possessor above the common herd. But the love of
riches usually begets the love of power; for, N'est on que riche,
on veut être grand, this is most evident in a country where the great
tenure by which individual wealth is preserved and personal respect
commanded, is official authority. Hence no Osmanli is contented,
however great his wealth, without some civil function by which he can
avert the overbearing disposition of his rivals. Indeed, so great is
their ambition for supremacy, that wealth and everything else is but
secondary in their estimation.
Therefore the only aristocracy in Turkey is that of wealth combined
with position.
It is not generally merit that raises a man to power in any part
of the world, but still less in Turkey. No matter what his previous
avocations, or utter ignorance, it is supposed that when Allah, or
his proxy, the Padishah, gives the office, that within the turban of
distinction lie all the sense and wit needed for the post! Hence,
what if the cobbler become the pasha, or the shop-boy Grand Vezir,
Allah Kerim!
This a country where versatility of talent is very remarkable, if
not great depth of genius; for one day a man may be head cook to
his majesty, the next a captain pasha, or minister of finance! Thus
are often realized the tales of the Arabian Nights, and the humblest
subject may dream of greatness, and wake to find himself a Redjal,
or grandee of the realm.
Indeed the only real statesmen and true patriots may be reduced to
few individuals, all told, viz., Reshid, Aali, Fuad, Riza, Rifaat,
and Omer Pashas.
Besides, those who have been long employed as servants of the palace,
or have proved themselves cunning buffoons, or able intriguers, are
rewarded by some official post instead of a royal pension, provided
they are of the Faithful. For elevation to office is the privilege of
the Mussulmans only, who, considering themselves lords of the soil,
as they are the proprietors, are unwilling to consign their rights to
their rayas, on the principle that "to the victors belong the spoils."
The very existence of the rayas has rendered the Osmanlis proud and
arrogant in their peculiar right as Mussulmans; and, though holding
all high places themselves, they have been willing to call in the
assistance of their subjects in secondary employments. The rayas
thus employed, are, of course, but a small proportion of the whole;
to all the rest life dwindles into a tinkering, jobbing affair.
This mushroom aristocracy, which was formerly ephemeral, like Jonas'
gourd, springing suddenly into existence, coming to maturity in an
incredibly short space of time, then perishing ere the sun of its
glory arrived at meridian height, has now, by virtue of the Tanzimat,
which secures the enjoyment of life and property, attained a sort
of permanency.
These officials being originally of the people, it may be supposed,
would feel some sympathy for them; but the moment they come into power,
they become an exclusive class. Because in Turkey the patriarchal
idea that everything belongs to the sovereign, has led them to regard
the government as not made for the people, but the people for the
government; they think, therefore, that all advantages should accrue
not to the governed but to the governing, thus reducing the mass
into the state of individual nonentities, or mere conduits for the
resources of the empire. The persons in authority seek, therefore, only
the prosperity of the government, and constitute, as it were, a sort
of fiscal administration, rather than one mindful of the good of the
commonwealth. Hence, whenever a project of public utility is proposed,
the first idea that crosses the mind of a Turkish functionary, is what
direct advantage may accrue to the government? With such perverted
ideas, the aristocracy, who are termed par excellence the Kibars,
though few in numbers, are like leaven to the whole mass; domineering,
exciting, and often corrupting the best materials; and as men are
creatures of circumstances, their moral and temporal conditions
are but the results of the good or bad government under which they
live. The evils, corruptions, and miseries existing in a community,
are not therefore to be attributed to the mass indiscriminately,
but rather to the influences that surround them.
Baluk bashdan Kokar is a common proverb with the Osmanlis, or as is
the fountain so will be the streams which flow from it; therefore
a government which exercises its prerogatives to revenge, not to
punish; to remove the offender, not to benefit others by making an
example of him; to deal death-blows to all who stand in the way;
to encourage self-aggrandizement rather than study the wants of the
community; to prefer the intriguant before the patriot; to patronize
the buffoon rather than the statesman; such a government cannot fail
to stamp its sanguinary and arbitrary character upon its subjects.
A country where the insidious poison is ever at hand, and where
the innocent and new-born infant who may endanger the heirs to the
throne is forced to yield the life it has but just received; in such
a land the same scenes will be enacted in its darkest corners, and
the peasant will mimic the lord as far as he dares.
The selfish and corrupt principles of the government have naturally
had their pernicious effects upon all its agents, and through them,
upon the people.
The sultan is the great sun of the system--around whom the many lesser
orbs revolve. While the pashas and dignitaries are themselves planets
of no small lustre, attended by innumerable satellites of their own.
The grandee holds the cable of power upon which tremblingly cling a
numerous train, from its summit to its lowest extremity--all sustained,
as long as the rope is firm; all crushed, when it slips from the hand
of its supporter.
Indiscriminate patronage being a principle, favoritism and corruption
become of necessity a natural consequence. Indifferent men are
therefore raised to places of trust, to perform duties which can
never occupy their minds or engross their intellect, but the want of
money is their first and their keenest necessity; for "N'est on que
grand? On veut être riche. Est on et grand et riche? On veut être
plus grand et plus riche."
Thus all patriotism is subverted--and individual interest and position
are made the sine quâ non of existence.
Before they were enervated by conquest and the possession of vast
tributary states, which intoxicated them with sudden wealth, the
Turks were brave in battle, faithful to their friends, and generous
to their enemies. But being inured to war and excitement, peace and
tranquillity only reduced them to a state of sloth and idleness, and
inspired them with conceit and arrogance to all around them. Content
with being the lords of the realm, ignorant and unfitted for the arts
of peace, all their affairs were consigned to their rayas.
The titles of Vali, Pasha, Mussellim, etc., were enjoyed by them while
their provinces and Pashaliks were either farmed out to subordinates
or managed by their Armenian sarafs or bankers--who received and
disbursed their incomes; so that the Osmanli grandee had nothing to do
but lounge listlessly in his Keosk and puff his long chibouk--varying
his life by occasional official visits to the Porte, or in the softer
seclusion of his harem.
The enviable condition of indolence, and the desire to be surrounded
with the trappings of wealth, created a rivalry among them, not to
attain high and honorable posts as the champions of their country's
welfare, but to ensure the means of luxury and display--and to excel
each other in supremacy.
Hence they have arrived at the acme of perfection in the arts of
adulation, servility, deceit, and intrigue. Real virtue is of no
avail, where successful vice only is admired, and the most insidious
and faithless ever the favorites of fortune. Indeed, ingratitude
is stamped upon their character, for an Osmanli raised to power,
would turn the enemy even of his patron, should he dare to cross his
schemes. This is so proverbial that they have a saying--Bir Osmanli
bir piré itchin koss kodja yorgani yakar! an Osmanli would burn up an
entire coverlet to rid himself of a single flea! or in other words,
no consideration would deter him from any sacrifice that would promote
his own interests--examples of which are of daily occurrence in their
political machinations.
In such a malarious atmosphere, it would be supposed that every moral
virtue would perish, and only noisome weeds choke the soil--but such is
by no means the case. As the richest fruits and most fragrant flowers
often grow from the very putrefactions that lie on the surface of
the earth, so the people in Turkey, surrounded by such a depraved
and corrupted court, are themselves often specimens of nature's
best handiwork.
The native honesty of the Turks is proverbial, and in illustration
thereof the following story has been widely circulated.
An Englishman having landed a cargo of goods at one of the
custom-houses in the East, was unwilling to leave them at the wharf
unguarded; when he was told by the officer, that there was no need for
apprehension, as there was not another Englishman within fifty miles!
Whatever may be the truth of this statement, it may be observed,
that some of the Osmanlis of the present day have so far advanced in
civilization as to even excel in this respect their present honorable
Allies! For, the idea that to rob the treasury of the sultan is not
defrauding the people, has led the officials into all the wiles of
corruption and systematic cheating--so that cheating and bribery may
be considered as the corner stones of this vast edifice.
In the purchase of government supplies there is a display of honesty
on the part of the officials, and also of the European merchants, who
endeavor to underbid each other in prices, which may be considered by
an outsider as ruinous, but on the contrary, always proves profitable
to the co-partners in the speculation.
On a certain occasion 780 pieces of cotton cloth were palmed off upon
the government by a European merchant for 78,000 pieces! for which
amount the Treasury gave a note.
Such instances are not of rare occurrence, nor confined only to
officials--they pervade all classes. Hence the scullion cheats
the cook; the cook the steward; the steward the master; the master
the efendy; the efendy the pasha; and the pasha the sultan; and why
not? Where the strife for aggrandizement and power is so great, and the
battle not to the brave and good, but to the wealthy and intriguing,
there is little or no inducement to honesty and good faith.
Russia seems to understand our people better than any other Europeans,
owing perhaps to her natural proximity; also since "a fellow feeling
makes us wond'rous kind," she knew where to touch the sensitive
Osmanlis, when she provided Prince Menschikoff, on his late mission
to Constantinople, with a surplus fund of 300,000 Paul Imperials,
or over a million of dollars!
It is not, however, only in Turkey that bribery and corruption
prevail--even Europe, France and England, the very centres of
civilization, have furnished sad examples of personal aggrandizement,
under the garb of patriotism.
Nevertheless, it is eminently true, that those of the people who have
retained their primitive simplicity are truly honest and confiding;
while others have become contaminated by the corruption of the court,
and the grasping spirit of European adventurers.
Many of the peasants remove to the metropolis, with the hope of
bettering their condition. Some of them become hamals, or porters,
Tellaks, or attendants of the baths; cayikjys, or boatmen, common
laborers, venders in general, and others, domestics in private houses.
A certain Armenian, native of Van, immediately upon his arrival in
Constantinople, was engaged as a scullion.
In course of time, he complained to his companions that he was not
doing a good business on such a salary as he received, and he wondered
at their apparent prosperity.
His simplicity was, of course, ridiculed at first, and through
compassion, he was initiated into the tricks of the trade. He was told
that he must always add to his account the customary Khamin of 20 or
30 per cent., a technical term, expressing overcharge, or cheating,
not understood by novices.
So the next day, when this simple son of Armenia presented his account
to his master, at the foot of the bill there was an item, which seemed
not quite intelligible to him. He therefore called for an explanation;
when the servant, in all his native simplicity, informed him that,
that item was the Khamin, or the sum total of his cheating, which his
companions assured him was customary, and allowed to all servants in
their daily purchases! How fortunate and consoling it would be, if,
instead of being drugged in small doses, we could thus be informed
of the sum total of all the cheatings to which we are subjected!
The most unlimited confidence is stamped upon all their reciprocal
transactions, and they intrust each other with any amount of goods,
without demanding a receipt, check, or counter check. In the exercise
of their avocation as hamals, they are often intrusted with bags of
money untold; they are generally the watchmen or guardians to the
stores and mercantile houses of the Franks, and in any deficiency
or robbery, their character and integrity are never questioned or
suspected.
The Osmanlis possess the domestic virtues of kindness and affection
in a remarkable degree; their love of offspring is very great, and
their patient endurance of the whims and caprices of their women
quite exemplary.
Merhamet, or compassion, is an essential component in their character,
and induces them to extend a most unlimited patronage even to the
lower orders of creation. Hence the streets in Turkey swarm with dogs,
the roofs of the houses with cats, and the domes of the mosques with
venerated pigeons, which, one and all, are objects of special charity.
The thousands of cayiks that ply up and down the Bosphorus, acting as
aquatic omnibuses, besides their designated load of passengers, make
a point to carry one or more boys gratuitously, as an act of charity;
and how astonished would they be at the cry of "cut behind," which
so often greets the ears of beggars in more eminent Christian lands,
who mistaking wishes for horses might otherwise chance to ride.
Yet a Turk is a singular being, apparently composed of contrarieties,
of savage traits, as well as domestic virtues, and this contrariety
is to be attributed solely to his fanaticism. Social and humane until
you touch his religious prejudices, when he becomes implacable.
It has been the interest of the clergy to nurture a fanatical conceit,
by which the great principle of human nature, self-glorification, has
well sustained, and the Mussulmans been led to consider themselves
the very salt of the earth, and the rest of the human family as
contemptible Giavours.
Hence they will not honor a Christian with the Mohammedan salutation,
Selamin Aleküm, "Pax vobiscum," nor will they observe any one in the
company, until they have looked for a true believer, to whom, however
humble he may be, is offered the Arabic, or orthodox salutation; and
on the Christians present, however great in their own estimation,
will afterwards be bestowed as their due, a simple Sabahlar-Hayr
Olsoon, or good morning, in plain Turkish.
Though they have been subdued into a certain degree of external
deference by the progress of civilization, yet in the exchange of
social etiquettes, there is always a meaning slight cast upon their
unbelieving friends, which is well understood and appreciated among
themselves.
Even the humblest Mohammedan will appropriate to himself the best
position in a public conveyance, or in any promiscuous assembly,
considering himself as fully entitled to such privileges, by the
simple guarantee of his faith, which elevates him above all humanity.
In the medical school, where some of the scholars belong to the
families of the rayas, this Mussulman conceit is most evident, and
even tolerated and encouraged by the government at the present day;
for regardless of actual merit, it has hitherto been a principle with
the faculty always to place a Mussulman boy at the head of the class!
It may be a matter of wonder to see such bigoted characters adopting
the very garb of the contemptible giavours. But the change of costume
was effected by the invincible Mahmoud, who, to liberate his people
from the thraldom of the janissaries, and the superstitions of darker
ages, feared neither priest or Koran, and at all hazards resolved to
make a daring stride towards civilization and reform.
Therefore this change of costume was not effected through any
relaxation of religious bigotry, but by the force of the supreme power
of the sultan; and the Ulema themselves were obliged to compromise,
by wearing a fez, with a simple turban around it, with some other
slight modification of their flowing robes.
Reform in dress having become an essential principle of the government,
those connected with the court and all public officers, were obliged
to conform to the established style, and the young élégans of Stamboul
now vie with the Parisian exquisites in their recherchées toilettes.
But beyond the circle of court etiquette and fashion, the artisans
and peasants still preserve all the varieties of costumes identified
with Orientalism.
Religious fanaticism in the East, is not confined to the Mussulmans
alone. It seems to have a universal sway in this climate, pervading
every community.
The Mussulman would feel callous at the sight of the decapitation of
a Christian, and a Christian would experience a secret exultation at
the death of a Mussulman.
Some years ago, I had the misfortune to meet with an accident;
my carriage was lost in the Bosphorus, and my horse and hostler
were drowned. Near the spot of this occurrence, there was a Greek
coaster lying at anchor, and the sailors soon came to my call for
assistance; but perceiving that the drowning man was dressed in
Turkish costume, and taking him for a Mussulman, they instinctively
exclaimed, Tourkos eine, Tourkos eine, he is a Turk, he is a Turk,
left him to his sad fate. It was in vain that I proclaimed that he
was a Greek and co-religionist of their own.
The Mussulman is fanatical, because he has thereby been goaded on
to victory, and attributes all his successes to the banner of the
Prophet--and the Christian is bigoted, because his religion is the
only thing left him--his church is the cradle of his superstitions,
and the badge of his nationality.
Even a Turk designates his nationality by his religion; for if you
ask him, Of what nation are you? his answer will invariably be,
El-hamd-ullah Mussulmanem, or Thank God I am a Mussulman.
Indeed, religion in the East is so pre-eminent, that a declaration of
faith is equal to an allegiance of fealty, and the Mohammedan formula
of La-Illah-Illallah, etc., is the only oath of naturalization,
which, if once pronounced, fully entitles the individual to all the
privileges and immunities of Turkish citizenship.
Neither is there a community of sentiment among the Christians
themselves--who, all abhorring Islamism, hate none the less each
other through their religious differences.
An Armenian, native of Angora--whose inhabitants are reputed for their
religious bigotry--and a Roman Catholic by persuasion, had occasion to
visit Trieste on some commercial business. On his arrival there, he was
asked by the officer of the quarantine what nation he belonged to! His
unsophistical and prompt answer was "Catholic." The officer, somewhat
puzzled at this novel nationality, reminded him that they were also all
Catholics there, but called themselves Austrians or Italians--now, what
is your nation? thereupon our worthy friend unflinchingly reiterated
that he was a Catholic; nothing else but a Catholic; for they now
had, through the interference of the French Ambassador, a Patriarch
of their own, and were recognized as a nation! meaning a community.
If a Greek mendicant happen to call at your door, and you ask his
co-religionist who it is, his answer will surely be Christianos or
a Christian; but if the applicant for charity should chance to be of
any other creed, his only title would be ztiyanos, or beggar.
Apart from the religious fanaticism, which is universal, the people,
uncontaminated by a depraved and corrupted court--unlike the enervated
and luxurious Osmanlis of the metropolis, are simple-minded, brave,
robust, temperate, intelligent, active and industrious.
The Mussulmans formerly taught that apostasy should be punished with
death; but now a new system of instruction, on this and other points,
proceeding from supreme authority, is as readily received by the
credulous multitude.
Their bravery has been attested by the late massacre of Sinope,
when one and all preferred death to an ignominious surrender. The
events of the recent war have established the fact, that there are
no better soldiers than the Turks.
We have the testimony of a distinguished American who
"Stood
Among them, but not of them."
He says that "we had an agreeable conversation with General Omar
Pasha's staff surgeon.... Among other things, he said the Turks
had long been extremely anxious to unite with their Allies in a
direct assault upon Sebastopol. I was somewhat surprised at this
intimation, knowing their considerate nature, and general inclination
to conservative views." Yet, notwithstanding, they have been accused
of cowardice for the desertion of the batteries daring the battle
of Balaklava, which could not well have been avoided under the
circumstances. The triumphs of Silistria, Tchetate and Kars, afford
ample refutation of such calumnies.
The Orientals are strong and athletic men, capable of enduring the
greatest bodily fatigue.
The hamals or porters, both Mussulman and Armenian, have been known
to carry on their backs immense weights; and one of these Oriental
Hercules has been seen carrying, on a wager, a load of no less than
a thousand pounds to a distance of a quarter of a mile!
The heavier hardens are suspended from long poles, the number of
which increases in proportion to the weight. And when the contents
are of glassware, instead of being marked Fragile, a full size
representation of a bottle is painted upon the package. The ends of
these poles rest on the shoulders of the hamals, and they walk in a
steady and measured soldier-like step. One of them once accidentally
slipped and fell, and the end of the pole striking him on the chest,
he became senseless. His companions raised him up, whilst one of their
number stood back to back with the injured man, and locking his arms
within those of his comrade, repeatedly raised him from the ground,
thus expanding the chest, until he recovered his breath, when, to the
astonishment of the bystanders, the man, after taking one or two long
inspirations, smiling at the funny incident, shouldered his pole and
marched on as if nothing had happened!
These very men live habitually on the simplest diet, consisting of
the coarsest brown bread, in the middle of which they make a cavity,
and fill it with equal proportions of olive oil and molasses, and
it is really a pleasure to see them enjoy their simple meals with a
relish that would kill all dyspepsia doctors from sheer envy.
The native intelligence of the people is evinced by their aptitude
in acquiring the arts of civilized life; for after a residence of
a couple of years in the metropolis, the rudest peasants become
accomplished soldiers and skillful artisans.
The facility with which they have adapted themselves to the European
style of music is very remarkable, and certainly implies much talent
or cleverness.
Indeed, many of those who have risen to the higher ranks of society,
evince no signs, in their general deportment, of plebeian origin,
save the peculiar brogue of local rusticity.
Nothing is more erroneous and unjust than the idea that the Orientals
are indolent or inactive.
The tabys or garçons of the Kahvés even excel their Parisian
competitors in alertness and general ubiquity--serving scores of
customers at once with coffee, chibouk, and narghillés.
The boatmen, who transport the pashas and others to their homes,
after the adjourning of the Porte, and closing of the Bazaars,
delight to compete with each other in speed, and linger on their
course until they meet with an antagonist, when the race sometimes
extends the whole length of the Bosphorus.
Their sports and national games, consisting of horsemanship, wrestling,
chasing, cricket, etc, all tend to show their love of activity.
There is none of the bustle, or American go-a-headism, in the
Oriental character and habits; none of that nervous excitement
which has so much the air of great progress, too often, like the
whirlwind among the natural elements, creating prodigies of human
noise and commotion, which subside and leave no sign; or it may be,
only havoc and destruction. In all the machineries of Eastern life,
public or domestic, steady and quiet perseverance rules the motion,
the oil of gentleness falling drop by drop upon the rolling wheels,
suffices for the friction; while in the land of modern adventure, by
increasing the pressure to a tremendous degree, the whole structure
is often crushed to atoms. This giddy rushing to a certain point
is too apt to wear out human energy, and most surely annihilates
self-possession, which is the keystone to success. Leave then, we say,
the Oriental sometimes to sit amid the fumes of his favorite chibouk;
for while external things are beclouded, often a mighty scheme is
in conception, and the sunshine of matured judgment suddenly bursts
upon the dim atmosphere, in full power and glory, ready to fructify
and yield all manner of increase.
The apparent idleness which some persons have attributed to the natives
of this country, is more the effect of a spirit of resignation to
external circumstances, than of a desire to be unemployed.
Taking for a basis the idea that the interest of the people is but
secondary, and under the pretence of increasing the revenue of the
country, and thus benefiting the state as it were, but with the
secret hope of self-aggrandizement, all advantageous projects are
seized upon by the officials; thus an effectual check is thrown upon
all private and public enterprise.
The writer was the first to propose to the Turkish government the
establishment of a railroad from the capital to Adrianople. Not
succeeding in this, a line of post coaches was suggested, for which,
after great exertion, a Firman was granted. But no sooner were
the advantages of the project understood, than several persons in
authority began to intrigue, until they succeeded in appropriating
the Firman to themselves, which had been obtained at so much expense
and toil by another.
But as usual, it proved to them more ruinous than profitable, because
of the numerous contenders for the spoils.
No internal improvements are dreamt of, and no motive left for
speculation, and as there is no mutual confidence between the
government and the people, the formation of corporate companies,
which require united action, is out of the question, or, if attempted,
they are sure to fall through by official exactions. Thus, a country
teeming with mines and minerals, is left unexplored, and all other
internal resources lie dormant.
Some attempts have of late been made by the government at internal
improvements, such as the post-road from Trebizond to Erzuroum; but
the over-exertions of those intrusted with the work soon exhausted
the appropriations, and the road was but half completed.
The coal mines at Heraclea have shared a similar fate. Indeed, no
undertaking can be prosperous in the lands of the officials--and if
any such privilege be granted to private individuals, it is invariably
under the patronage of some grandee.
A permission was obtained from government by an individual to light the
streets of Pera. In the course of six months the lamps were demolished
by the citizens, because they were heavily taxed to fill the pockets
of the speculator, without any advantage to themselves--the streets
for the most part, being as dark as before.
All innovations are, therefore, in disrepute, not that they are not
appreciated, but because they invariably prove to be mere schemes
for individual advantage, and never pro bono publico.
Hence it is also that the streets, even in the metropolis, are ill
paved, filthy, and not lighted--each person carrying his own lantern,
and getting along as best he can.
Public enterprise being at so low an ebb, a spirit of indifference
pervades the country and if you once pass the aristocracy, the actual
necessities of the community are but few. They have no idea therefore
of bettering their condition. If you offer them any new invention,
they admire its ingenuity, and dryly tell you they have no need of
it--consequently there is no need of patent rights for new inventions.
This indifference is not to be construed into a love of inactivity--but
is rather the result of selfishness--each man's interests being
circumscribed by the sphere in which he moves. In case of any emergency
they are most indefatigable and persevering. It needs only to cite the
fact that Pera, one of the suburbs of the city, has, in the course of
twenty years, been destroyed by fire four times, and entirely rebuilt
by native industry. Indeed, inactivity is against the spirit of the
country, for there, there are no Rentiers--but every one must have a
calling--even the sultan is traditionally supposed to belong to the
tooth-pick trade!
Since the abolition of capital and summary punishments and the
monopolies, by the promulgation of of the Tanzimat, which was an
attempt at reformation, not without some beneficial results, a new
impulse has been given to the activity of the population. In a word,
give but the necessary impetus, and as much genuine go-a-headism may
be found in Turkey, as in Yankee-land itself.
With such a population, and so many internal resources, it may be
deemed a matter of wonder that this empire should be in so ruinous
a condition.