MOLLUGO CERVIANA, _Ser._ (= _Pharnaceum _Travels in Peru and India While Superintending the Collection of Chinchona Plants and Seeds in South America, and Their Introduction into India.

This little herb is used as a medicine in fevers in Ceylon, where it

is called "Pat-paadagan;" and as the plant is also found in the Indian

peninsula, it is most probably employed in a similar manner by the

Hindu doctors. The order to which it belongs is remarkable for little

besides the presence of _saponine_ in several species.

MALVACEÆ.

SIDA ACUTA, _Burm._ (= _Sida lanceolata_, Retz.).

The roots of this have an intensely bitter taste, and their infusion,

in conjunction with ginger, is prescribed in cases of intermittent

fever, for which they have also been tried in the Indian hospitals, but

without satisfactory results, though they were found to possess some

medicinal virtues as a tonic. The plant is called "Pata" in Sanscrit;

and "Malaytanghie" in Tamul. It is a shrub with narrow lance-shaped,

pointed leaves, coarsely toothed along the edges, and either smooth or

sprinkled with bristly hairs, especially on the veins underneath.

PAVONIA ZEYLANICA, _Cav._ (= _Hibiscus Zeylanicus_, Linn.).

A tall annual plant, with variable leaves, the lower ones being

roundish heart-shaped, and the upper deeply three to five lobed, and

whitish or pale-red flowers. It is called "Sittamootie" in Tamul, and

an infusion of the root is administered in fevers, but Ainslie states

that it does not appear to possess any virtues.

OLACACEÆ.

OLAX ZEYLANICA, _Linn._

A small tree, native of Ceylon and of some parts of India, yielding

a fœtid, salt-tasted wood, which is employed in putrid fevers. The

Cinghalese, who call the tree "Malla," eat the leaves in their curries.

AURANTIACEÆ.

ÆGLE MARMELOS, _Corr._ (= _Cratæva Marmelos_, Linn.).

The Bengal Quince-tree. Almost every part of this tree is used

medicinally by the native Indian doctors. In fever cases a decoction of

the bark of the root, and also of the stem, is employed, but when the

latter is used it is generally combined with a great variety of other

substances. The expressed juice of the leaves, diluted with water,

is also administered in incipient fevers and colds. The fruit is a

valuable remedy in diarrhœa and dysentery, and has been successfully

employed in those complaints by medical men in this country. It is a

tree of moderate size, with its young branches furnished with sharp

spines, and has ternate or rarely pinnate leaves, and axillary panicles

of few large fragrant flowers. It has a great number of vernacular

names. In Hindustanee and Bengalee it is called "Bael, Bêl, or Bêla;"

in Telinga, "Maredoo;" in Tamul, "Willamarvum;" in Malayan, "Tanghula,"

&c.

MELIACEÆ.

AZADIRACHTA INDICA, _A. de Juss._ (= _Melia Azadirachta_, Linn.).

The bitter astringent bark of this tree, the Neem or Margosa tree of

India, is considered by the native doctors to be a most valuable tonic

and febrifuge, and it has been successfully employed as a substitute

for Chinchona-bark by English physicians in India. A bitter principle

called _Azadirine_ has been obtained from it. Other parts of the tree

are likewise reputed to possess medicinal properties: the bitter oil

obtained from the pericarp being employed as an anthelmintic, and the

olive-like fruit itself in leprosy, while the leaves are universally

used in India for poultices. The Neem forms a large ornamental tree,

and has pinnate leaves with unequal-sided smooth leaflets sharply

toothed at the edges, and loose axillary panicles of bluish flowers.

"Neem" or "Nim" is its Hindustanee and Bengalee name; "Nimba," in

Sanscrit; "Vaypun" or "Vapan," in Tamul; and "Kohomba," in Cinghalese.

CEDRELACEÆ.

CEDRELA TOONA, _Roxb._

The Toon-tree grows to a large size, and yields a valuable reddish

timber, resembling some kinds of mahogany. It has abruptly pinnate

leaves composed of from six to twelve pairs of opposite, usually

entire, smooth leaflets of an ovate-lanceolate shape; and its flowers

are small, yellowish, and sweet-scented, and are disposed in terminal

drooping panicles. Toon bark is powerfully astringent, but is said

to be devoid of bitterness. It is much esteemed in the treatment of

intermittent fever, though seldom administered alone, but generally

prescribed in combination with the excessively bitter seed of the

_Guilandina Bonducella_. The flowers yield a yellow dye, but the colour

is not permanent.

SOYMIDA FEBRIFUGA, _A. de Juss._ (= _Swietenia febrifuga_, Roxb.).

The specific name of this tree indicates its use as a medicine in

fevers. The part employed is the bark, which is of a reddish colour and

has a very bitter, slightly astringent, but not unpleasant taste. It

was long ago highly recommended as a substitute for Peruvian bark by

several English doctors in India, and appears to possess considerable

medicinal virtues, though Ainslie found that when given in large doses

it deranged the nervous system, occasioned vertigo and subsequent

stupor. The tree is called "Shemmarum" by the Tamuls; "Soimido" by the

Telingas (whence the generic name adopted by botanists); and "Rohuna"

by the Bengalese. It is a very large, hard-wooded tree, with abruptly

pinnate leaves composed of from three to six pairs of opposite,

oval-oblong blunt leaflets; and produces large panicles of small

yellowish flowers towards the points of the young branches.

The bark of another large Indian tree belonging to this order, the

"Chikrassee" of the Bengalese (_Chickrassia tabularis_, A. de Juss.),

is a powerful astringent, but, like the Toon bark, devoid of bitterness.

OXALIDACEÆ.

AVERRHOA BILIMBI, _Linn._

A syrup prepared with the juice of the excessively acid gherkin-like

fruits of the Bilimbi is used by the native doctors in the treatment

of fevers, as also is a conserve of the flowers. The Bilimbi is a

small tree, with unequally pinnate leaves, which, like those of the

well-known sensitive plant, are irritable and close their leaflets

together when touched. Its fruits are commonly used for pickling by

Europeans, both in the East and in the West Indies.

XANTHOXYLACEÆ.

TODDALIA ACULEATA, _Pers._ (= _Scopolia aculeata_, Smith).

Powerful stimulating properties are ascribed to all parts of this

plant. The fresh bark of its root is administered by the Telinga

physicians, who call the plant "Conda cashinda," for the cure of the

kind of remittent fever known by the name of "hill fever," from its

being caught in the jungles of the Indian hills. It is a moderately

tall shrub with prickly stems and branches, alternate, trifoliate,

smooth leaves marked with numberless pellucid dots, and usually having

prickles on their stalks and on the midribs of the leaflets; and its

flowers, which are whitish and strong scented, are borne in simple or

compound racemes. Its Cinghalese name is "Koodoomirris-wel."

SIMARUBACEÆ.

SAMADERA INDICA, _Gaertn._

All parts of this tree partake of the excessively bitter qualities

common to the order. The decoction of the rasped wood has recently been

extensively and successfully employed in Ceylon, in the treatment of

intermittent fever, and is recommended to be given in combination with

Myrobalan galls. The wood is of a pale colour, resembling quassia-wood,

and is very light. The tree is indigenous to Ceylon, and also to the

Indian peninsula, and is the "Karin-njotti" of Rheede. It attains a

considerable size, and has oblong-elliptical, alternate leaves, and

long, pendulous, compressed flower-stalks, divided at the top into a

many-flowered umbel. The bark, called "Niepa bark," also possesses

febrifugal properties.

RHAMNACEÆ.

ZIZYPHUS JUJUBA, _Lam._ (= _Rhamnus Jujuba_, Linn.)

The root of this common Indian tree is a reputed febrifuge, and an

infusion of it, combined with some warm seed, is said to be employed

as such in the Moluccas, while the bark is used in diarrhœa. It is a

small tree, with prickly branches, usually having the spines in pairs,

and elliptical or oblong obtuse leaves, covered on the under side, as

also are the branches, with dense short tawny tomentum, and it bears

small greenish-yellow flowers, which produce roundish, yellow, edible

fruits about the size of cherries. Its Sanscrit name is "Vadari," and

its Bengalese "Kool."

LEGUMINOSÆ.

CASSIA FISTULA, _Linn._ (= _Cathartocarpus Fistula_, Pers.).

The black, sweet-tasted pulp contained in the long cylindrical

pipe-like pods of this common tropical plant is well known as a gentle

laxative medicine; and its roots are reputed to be an excellent

febrifuge. It is the "Sonali" of the Bengalese, the "Amultas" of the

Hindus, and the "Ahalla" of the Cinghalese, and is a moderately large

tree, with very long pinnate leaves, and loose drooping racemes of

bright-yellow fragrant flowers.

GUILANDINA BONDUCELLA, _Linn._ (= _Cæsalpinia Bonducella_, Fleming).

The seeds and bark, but particularly the former, have an intensely

bitter taste, and are supposed to possess powerful tonic virtues.

The seeds, called Bonduc nuts, are lead or ash coloured and most

excessively hard. Their cotyledons, powdered and combined with spices

or other medicinal substances, are prescribed with beneficial results

in intermittent fever. The root is also said to be a good tonic in

dyspeptic complaints; in fact, all parts of the plant are reputed to

possess medicinal properties. The plant is a prickly, trailing shrub,

with abruptly twice-pinnate leaves, each pinna consisting of from five

to eight pairs of oval leaflets, and bears racemes of rusty-yellow

flowers. The Tamuls call it "Kalichikai;" the Telingas "Getsakaia;"

the Hindus "Cat-caleyi" and "Natacaranja;" and the Cinghalese

"Koombooroo-wel." It is a common plant throughout the tropics of both

hemispheres.

PHASEOLUS TRILOBUS, _Roth._ (= _Dolichos trilobus_, Linn.).

Ainslie says that "this plant was brought to Dr. F. Hamilton in Bahar,

where he was informed by the Vytians of that district that the fresh

herb was given in decoction in cases of irregular fever." It is a

procumbent, spreading, herbaceous plant, with leaves composed of three

roundish, entire, or three-lobed leaflets on long stalks, and bears a

few pea-like flowers at the ends of long ascending stalks.

ORMOCARPUM SENNOIDES, _D. C._ (= _Hedysarum sennoides_, Willd.).

A shrub with glutinous hairy shoots, unequally pinnate leaves, and

short axillary racemes bearing a few pea-like flowers, producing

jointed pods. The decoction of the roots of this shrub, which is called

"Caat Morungie" in the Tamul language, and "Adivie moonaga" in Telinga,

is prescribed by the native physicians as a tonic and stimulant in

fevers, and a liniment made of the powdered bark and sesamum oil is

applied externally in paralysis and lumbago.

COMBRETACEÆ.

TERMINALIA TOMENTOSA, _W. et A._ (= _Terminalia alata_, Roth.).

This is a large tree with deeply-cracked bark, and nearly opposite,

linear, oblong, obtuse leaves, somewhat cordate at the base, crenulate,

and clothed with pubescence underneath. It is the "Peea-sal" or "Usan"

of the Bengalese; the "Nella madoo" of the Telingas; and the "Aans"

of the Hindus. The reddish-brown, cracked bark has a strong but not

unpleasant astringent taste, and is classed amongst the febrifuge

medicines by the native doctors: powdered and mixed with oil it is

employed in apthæ.

MYRTACEÆ.

SYZYGIUM CARYOPHYLLIFOLIUM, _D. C._ (= _Calyptranthes

caryophyllifolia_, Willd.).

"Nawel" of the Tamuls; "Nereddie" of the Telingas; and "Madang" of

the Cinghalese. The thick, brownish-coloured bark of this tree has an

astringent, slightly aromatic taste, and a decoction of it is sometimes

prescribed by native doctors in fevers and bowel complaints, and is

also employed as a wash for foul ulcers. It has been recommended as a

tanning substance, but it does not possess sufficient astringency to

render it suitable for that purpose. The tree has smooth, entire leaves

of an oblong-lanceolate shape and attenuated at the base, and bears

cymose panicles of flowers upon the old branches, producing little

edible fruits about the size of peas.

BARRINGTONIACEÆ.

BARRINGTONIA RACEMOSA, _Roxb._ (= _Eugenia racemosa_, Linn.).

"Cadapum" (Tam.); "Kamtee" (Tel.); and "Deya-midella" (Cing.). Ainslie

says that the reddish-coloured bark of the Cadapum is supposed

to possess virtues similar to those of Chinchona bark. Medicinal

properties are also ascribed to the root and seed, both of which

have a bitter though not unpleasant taste. It is a large tree, with

cuneate-oblong, acuminate, serrulate leaves, crowded together towards

the ends of the branches, and long pendulous racemes of large flowers,

producing ovate, bluntly quadrangular fruits.

CUCURBITACEÆ.

ZANONIA INDICA, _Linn._

Mr. Thwaites says that the Cinghalese value this plant as a febrifuge,

and call it "Wal-rasakinda." It is also found in India, and is the

"Penar-valli" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus. The plant is a climber,

supporting itself by means of tendrils, and has alternate, elliptical,

pointed leaves, slightly cordate at the base, and axillary racemes of

flowers.

TRICHOSANTHES CUCUMERINA, _Linn._

This is another cucurbitaceous plant much used by the Cinghalese as a

febrifuge, and from the experiments made with it in the hospitals at

Badulla it appears to possess considerable efficacy. It is astringent

and contains a bitter principle, which it yields to boiling water, and

is therefore recommended to be used in the form of an infusion, made

with the dried stem and leaves. The plant is called "Doommaala" by

the Cinghalese, and is very common both in Ceylon and India. It is an

annual climbing plant, with three-cleft tendrils, and broadly-cordate,

angular or lobed leaves toothed along the edges. Its seeds are used in

bowel complaints.

UMBELLIFERÆ.

HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA, _Linn._

The Asiatic Pennywort has recently been discovered to be a valuable

remedy in leprosy, scrofula, venereal, and other complaints. The native

doctors, however, have hitherto considered it serviceable only in bowel

complaints and fevers, administering it in the form of an infusion of

the toasted leaves in combination with fenugreek. It has a bitter,

pungent, disagreeable taste, and when bruised gives off a peculiar

offensive odour. The active principle of the plant is said to be due to

a thick pale-yellow oil or extract, which has been called _Vellarine_,

from the Tamul name of the plant, "Vullarei." Its Telinga name is

"Babassa;" its Hindu, "Thulkura;" and its Cinghalese, "Heen-gotookola."

By the latter people it is used as an anthelmintic. Though named

_Asiatica_ by botanists, it is by no means confined to that continent,

but is spread very generally throughout the tropics. It has creeping

stems, and tufts of roundish kidney-shaped leaves.

CHINCHONACEÆ.

HYMENODYCTION EXCELSUM, _Wall._ (= _Cinchona excelsa_, Roxb.)

Roxburgh supposed this tree to belong to the same genus as the Peruvian

barks, but no species of true _Chinchona_ has ever been found wild in

the Eastern hemisphere. The present tree grows to a large size and

yields a thick bark, the inner coatings of which possess the bitterness

and astringency of the real Peruvian bark, especially when fresh; but

the bitterness, though more durable, is not so quickly communicated to

the taste. It is called "Bundaroo" by the Telingas.

COMPOSITÆ.

VERBESINA CINEREA, _Less._ (= _Conyza cinerea_, Linn.).

A low-growing annual plant, widely spread throughout the tropics of the

old world, and considered by the Hindus to possess medicinal virtues, a

decoction of the entire herb being administered in febrile affections

in order to promote perspiration. It is the "Seera shengalaneer" of the

Tamuls, and the "Gherutti Kamma" of the Telingas.

AUCKLANDIA COSTUS, _Falc._

In an elaborate memoir upon this plant, Dr. Falconer has shown it

to be the source of the celebrated "Costus" of the ancients, which

was previously referred to the _Costus Arabicus_, Linn. (= _Costus

speciosus_, Sm.), a plant belonging to the order _Zingiberaceæ_. It

is a gregarious herbaceous plant with a perennial root sending up

annual erect stems six or seven feet high, bearing large, somewhat

lyrate pinnatifid leaves. Costus-root is collected in large quantities

in Cashmere, but the only use made of it there is for perfuming bales

of shawls, and thus protecting them from insects, the great bulk of

it being exported to China and Persia, in both of which countries it

is highly esteemed as a medicine, the Persian doctors regarding it

as an efficacious remedy in nearly all the ills human nature is heir

to. Ainslie says that the native practitioners in India prescribe an

infusion of it as a stomachic and tonic, and also in the advanced

stages of typhus fever. In Cashmere it is called "Koot," which agrees

with the Arabic "Koost:" in Bengal it is known by the name of "Putchuk."

EMILIA SONCHIFOLIA, _D. C._ (= _Cacalia sonchifolia_, Linn.).

"Shudimudi" of the Bengalese, or "Kadoo-para" of the Cinghalese. An

annual, with erect or spreading, branching stems, and variously shaped

leaves, the lower ones being usually lyrate, and the upper more or less

amplexicaul, with blunt or sharp auricles. On the Malabar coast the

native practitioners, according to Rheede, consider a decoction of this

plant to possess antifebrile qualities.

EBENACEÆ.

DIOSPYROS EMBRYOPTERIS, _Pers._ (= _Embryopteris glutinifera_, Roxb.).

An American species of _Diospyros_ (_D. Virginiana_, Linn.) is

employed as a febrifuge by rustic practitioners in the United States,

and O'Shaughnessy states that the bark of the present tree has been

given in India, but with doubtful results, in the treatment of

intermittent fevers. It is well known as the Gaub-tree, and the viscid,

excessively astringent juice of its fruit is used for tanning, and

for paying the seams of boats. It is a middle-sized tree, with long

elliptic-lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, and whitish flowers.

APOCYNACEÆ.

OPHIOXYLON SERPENTINUM, _Willd._

"Chivan amelpodi" in Tamul; "Chota Chand" in Hindostanee; "Chandra" in

Bengalee; "Patalganni" in Telinga; and "Aikawaireya" in Cinghalese.

The root of the Chandra is very bitter, and is administered by the

Telinga and also by the Javanese doctors in the form of a decoction,

as a remedy in fever cases. It is one of the numberless supposed

remedies for the bites of venomous snakes, but, as in many other

similar instances, its virtues are fanciful, and its great reputation

is probably ascribable to the old doctrine of _signatures_, the plant

being a climber and having a twining stem.

WRIGHTIA ANTIDYSENTERICA, _R. Br._ (= _Nerium antidysentericum_, Linn.).

The bark of this species of _Wrightia_ is included in some European

works on Materia Medica under the name of Tellicherry or Conessi

bark. It has long enjoyed a high reputation in India as a tonic and

febrifuge; but other parts of the plant likewise appear to possess

similar properties, a decoction of the long oat-like seeds being

employed in ardent fever. The bark is also given in dysentery. Among

the Tamuls it goes by the name of "Veppalei," while the Hindus call it

"Curayia," and the Telingas "Pala codija." It is a small tree producing

a white ivory-like wood, which has been tried for engraving purposes,

but found unsuitable on account of it not being of even quality

throughout. It has obovate-oblong, shortly acuminate, smooth leaves,

and nearly terminal corymbs of jasmine-like flowers.

ASCLEPIADACEÆ.

CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA, _R. Br._ (= _Asclepias gigantea_, Linn.).

Various parts of the Yercum-plant have long been employed for medicinal

purposes by the native doctors, and experiments made by Anglo-Indian

practitioners have proved that the inner bark of the root, called Mudar

bark, is a valuable remedy in leprosy, and that it may also be given

with advantage in several other complaints, including intermittent and

other fevers. An elastic gum and a valuable fibre are also obtained

from the plant. There are two varieties of Yercum, one with white and

the other with purple flowers, the former forming a tree fifteen or

twenty feet high, and the latter a shrub.

LOGANIACEÆ.

STRYCHNOS NUX-VOMICA, _Linn._

According to Roxburgh the exceedingly bitter wood of the Nux Vomica

is employed as a remedy in fevers of the intermittent kind, and also

for the cure of snake-bites, when that of the next species cannot be

obtained. The poisonous bark is commonly sold in the Indian bazaars in

place of the febrifuge "Rohuna bark," which is in reality the produce

of _Soymida febrifuga_. It is the false Angostura bark of our Materia

Medica. Nux Vomica seeds have also been administered with some benefit

in intermittent fever. The _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_ forms a small tree,

has oval, entire, shining leaves, strongly marked with from three to

five longitudinal nerves, and bears small corymbs of greenish-white

flowers.

STRYCHNOS COLUBRINA, _Linn._

The "Naga musadi" of the Telingas, or "Koochilaluta" of the Bengalese.

The wood of this species is greatly esteemed by the natives as a remedy

for snake-bites, and is also given in cases of intermittent fever.

It is a climbing shrub with thick woody tendrils, elliptic-oblong,

blunt-pointed, three-nerved leaves, and small corymbs of yellowish

flowers.

GENTIANACEÆ.

OPHELIA CHIRATA, _Griseb._ (= _Gentiana Chirayta_, Roxb., and

_Agathotes Chirayta_, Don.).

The name "Chirata" or "Chirayta," by which this plant is commonly known

in India, is derived from the Sanscrit "Kirataticta." The dried stems

of the Chirata have long been famed amongst the natives of India as a

tonic and febrifuge; and they have also gained considerable reputation

amongst European practitioners in India, who, however, have found them

to be more efficacious in the cure of intermittent fever when employed

in combination with the seeds of the _Guilandina Bonducella_, mentioned

above. It is an annual plant, two or three feet high, with smooth round

stems and opposite, ovate or somewhat cordate, acuminate leaves, marked

with from five to seven nerves, and bears yellow flowers. Chirata is

included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia.

OPHELIA ANGUSTIFOLIA, _Don._ (= _Swertia angustifolia_, Ham.).

The stems of this species are called "Pukaree Chirata" in the

Himalayas, and are substituted for the true Chirata. The species is

distinguished by its stems being somewhat four-sided, by its much

narrower, sharper-pointed, obscurely three-nerved, short-stalked

leaves, and by its white, violet-spotted flowers. Both this and the

true Chirata are natives of the Himalayas.

OPHELIA ELEGANS, _Wight._

It has recently been discovered that the stems of this South Indian

species are made up into bundles in the same manner as the Himalayan

Chiratas, with which they have hitherto been confounded in the

bazaars. The plant, however, has a different native name, being called

"Salaras" or "Salajit" by the inhabitants of the Pulney hills; but it

is considered equally efficacious as a febrifuge. It has obsoletely

four-sided stems, narrow, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, three-nerved

leaves, tapering to a slender point, and beautiful pale-blue flowers.

SALVADORACEÆ.

SALVADORA, _sp._

A decoction of the bark of a species of _Salvadora_ is recommended by

Hindu doctors in cases of low fever, and as a tonic. Great confusion,

however, exists among the species of this genus, and it is therefore

uncertain which one is thus employed. Ainslie mentions _Salvadora

Persica_, but it is very doubtful whether that species is found in any

part of India.

CORDIACEÆ.

CORDIA MYXA, _Linn._

Tonic and febrifuge properties are ascribed to the bark of this tree,

it being, according to Horsfield, one of the chief remedies used in

fevers by the Javanese, who call it "Kendal." It is a small tree

with rounded branches, ovate leaves, smooth on the upper surface

but roughish underneath, and usually terminal panicles of flowers,

producing yellow, sweet-tasted pulpy fruits about the size of cherries.

In the Tamul language it is called "Vidi marum;" "Nekra" in Telinga;

"Lesura" in Hindostanee; and "Loloo" in Cinghalese.

SOLANACEÆ.

SOLANUM XANTHOCARPUM, _Schrad. et Wendl._ (= _Solanum Jacquini_,

Willd.).

There are two varieties of this plant, one of which was formerly

considered a distinct species, and named _Solanum Jacquini_. All parts

of the latter variety are used medicinally, and it is one of the fever

remedies employed by the Cinghalese, who call it "Kattoo-wel-battoo."

It is a decumbent, spreading annual plant, armed with numerous long

white prickles, and has sinuately-pinnatifid prickly leaves. The Tamuls

call it "Kandung Kattiri."

SCROPHULARIACEÆ.

PICRORHIZA KURROOA, _Royle._

A small perennial herbaceous plant found in Kemaon, at Gossain-than,

and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, where its roots, which

are called "Hooling" in Tibet, and have a powerful bitter taste, are

used as a febrifuge by the natives, and also sent down to the bazaars

of Bengal, where they form one of the many bitter roots sold under

the name of "Teeta." The plant grows about six inches high, and has

scarcely any stem, its leaves all rising from the summit of the thick

root, and also its flower-stalks, which are five or six inches high,

and bear a dense spike of small bluish flowers at the top.

HERPESTIS MONNIERIA, _Humb._ (= _Gratiola Monnieria_, Linn.)

The Cinghalese consider this plant to possess febrifuge virtues: they

call it "Loonoo Weela." In India its expressed juice is mixed with

petroleum, and used as a topical application in rheumatism. It is a

little creeping plant, common in moist places throughout the tropics

of both hemispheres, and has obovate-cuneate leaves, bearing solitary

long-stalked pale-blue flowers in their axils. The Bengalese call it

"Adha birni," and the Telingas "Sambrani-chittoo."

ACANTHACEÆ.

ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA, _Nees ab Essen._ (= _Justicia paniculata_,

Burm.).

This is the celebrated Creyat, the principal ingredient in the famous

bitter tincture called _drogue amère_, so highly esteemed in India for

its tonic and stomachic properties, and also as a febrifuge. The entire

plant is employed, the intensely bitter principle being found in all

parts of it. It is an annual, with stiff quadrangular stems from one

to two feet high, bearing smooth lanceolate leaves, attenuated at the

base. In the Telinga language it is called "Nella vemoo;" in Bengalese,

"Kala-megh;" in Hindustanee, "Calapnath;" and in Tamul, "Kiriat," hence

the common Indian name of the plant, Creat or Creyat.

JUSTICIA ADHATODA, _Linn._ (= _Adhatoda Vasica_, Nees ab Essen.)

The flowers, leaves, and roots have a bitterish and somewhat aromatic

taste, and are supposed to possess antispasmodic properties. An

infusion of them, especially of the flowers, is given to prevent

the return of rigour in intermittent fever. In Ceylon it is used as

an expectorant for children. The Bengalese call the plant "Bakus;"

the Tamuls, "Adhatodey;" the Cinghalese, "Paawetta;" the Telingas,

"Adasara;" and in Sanscrit it is called "Vasica" or "Uroos." It forms

a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, with elliptic oblong leaves,

attenuated to both ends, and pale-coloured flowers with purple stripes

and rusty spots.

LABIATÆ.

OCIMUM SANCTUM, _Linn._

The Tamul physicians prescribe a decoction of the root of this common

Indian species of Basil in fever cases, and the juice of the leaves in

catarrhal affections. The Brahmins consider the plant sacred to Vishnu,

and cultivate it in the vicinity of temples, while the Malays strew it

upon the graves of their departed friends. The whole plant generally

has a purplish tinge, and grows about a foot high: it has long-stalked,

downy, oval leaves, toothed along the edges, and small pale-purple

flowers. Its Tamul name is "Toolasee;" its Bengalese, "Kala-toolsee;"

and its Cinghalese "Madooroo-tallu."

ANISOMELES MALABARICA, _R. Br._ (= _Nepeta Malabarica_, Linn.).

"Pemayrutie" of the Tamuls; "Moga beerakoo" of the Telingas; and

"Bootan Kooshum" in Sanscrit. A shrub, 2 to 5 feet high, clothed with

short tomentum, and having oblong-lanceolate leaves, narrowed at the

base, and purplish flowers disposed in distant whorls. The leaves are

bitter, astringent, and somewhat aromatic, and are given in infusion

in the later stages of dysentery and in intermittent fevers. Patients

suffering under the last-mentioned disease are also made to inhale the

vapour rising from an infusion of the whole plant, in order to induce a

copious perspiration.

GENIOSPORUM PROSTRATUM, _Benth._ (= _Ocimum prostratum_, Linn.).

A small herb used as a febrifuge by the natives of the Madras

presidency. It has a prostrate stem and numerous hispid branches,

bearing small oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves, and long spike-like

racemes of very small flowers.

ROYLEA ELEGANS, _Wall._ (= _Phlomis calycina_, Roxb., and _Ballota

cinerea_, Don.).

According to the late Dr. Royle, after whom the genus is named, this

plant is employed as a febrifuge in the Himalayas, where it is called

"Putkuroo." It is a much-branched, erect shrub from three to five feet

high, having the branches clothed with ash-coloured tomentum, and

bearing ovate, sharp-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves, slightly cordate

at the base. Its flowers vary from white to pale-rose colour.

VERBENACEÆ.

PREMNA SERRATIFOLIA, _Linn._ (= _Premna integrifolia_, Linn.).

The warm, bitterish-tasted root of this plant is prescribed in

decoction by the native practitioners as a gentle stomachic and cordial

in fevers. It has an agreeable odour. The tree is called "Moonnee" by

the Tamuls; "Ghebboonellie" by the Telingas; and "Middee-gass" by the

Cinghalese. Its trunk and large branches are armed with spines, and

its leaves are ovate or oval, entire or toothed towards the top, of a

shining green above and paler underneath.

VITEX TRIFOLIA, _Linn._

Different parts of this plant are employed medicinally, in various ways

and for various diseases, by native doctors in India and also in Java.

The part used as a remedy for intermittent fever is the leaves, which

are powdered and taken in water. Pillows stuffed with them are used

to cure cold in the head, and headache. It is a decumbent shrub, with

the branches, under side of the leaves, and inflorescence mealy-white.

There are two varieties: one with trifoliate and the other with simple

leaves. Its Tamul name is "Neer-noochie;" its Telinga, "Neela vavilie;"

and its Hindustanee, "Nisindha," or "Seduari."

VITEX NEGUNDO, _Linn._

This species is considered to have medicinal properties similar to

but weaker than the last. The decoction of the root has a pleasant

bitter taste, and is administered in cases of intermittent and typhus

fever. In Tamul it is called "Noochie;" in Telinga, "Wayalakoo;" in

Hindustanee, "Nisunda;" and in Cinghalese, "Sooddoo-nikka." It is

a more erect shrub than the last, and its leaves are all compound,

consisting of from three to five entire or toothed or deeply pinnatifid

leaflets, covered with white meal underneath, as also are the branches

and flowers.

NYCTAGINACEÆ.

BOERHAAVIA DIFFUSA, _Linn._ (= _Boerhaavia procumbens_, Roxb.).

The roots of several species of _Boerhaavia_ are employed medicinally

by the natives of various parts of the world. In India those of the

present have the reputation of being antifebrile, and Ainslie also

says that the native practitioners include them amongst their laxative

medicines. This plant is a herbaceous perennial with decumbent, smooth,

or rarely pubescent stems and leaves, the latter varying very much in

shape. Among the Bengalese it is known by the name of "Gadha-poorna;"

and it is the "Pittasooddopala" of the Cinghalese. Its leaves are eaten

as a potherb.

EUPHORBIACEÆ.

TRAGIA CANNABINA, _Willd._

"Sirroo canchorie" in the Tamul; and "Doolya-gunda" in the Telinga

language. The root of this plant has a pleasant odour when fresh:

the native doctors consider it to possess diaphoretic and alterative

qualities, and they prescribe an infusion of it in ardent fever. It is

an erect shrub, about four feet high, with hispid stems and leaves, the

latter being divided into three sinuated lobes. Roxburgh says that the

hairs on this plant sting as bad as those of the common nettle.

PIPERACEÆ.

CHAVICA BETLE, _Miq._ (= _Piper Betle_, Linn.).

This affords the celebrated Betle leaves, so extensively employed as a

masticatory in the East. Ainslie says that the warm juice of the leaves

is prescribed by the native doctors as a febrifuge, in the quantity of

a small spoonful twice daily.

PIPER NIGRUM, _Linn._

Black pepper has long been known to possess febrifuge powers: an

infusion of it in some kind of spirit is a popular remedy for

preventing the return of the paroxysms in intermittent fevers. The

root, however, is the part used by the native doctors in India, and

is administered in the form of a decoction. _Piperin_, one of the

constituents of pepper, has been said to be a more certain and speedy

febrifuge than the chinchona alkaloids, but O'Shaughnessy says that

after repeated and careful trials he found it was not of the least

utility. The Tamul name of the plant is "Shuvium."

ZINGIBERACEÆ.

CURCUMA LONGA, _Linn._

The uses of the various kinds of Turmeric for dyeing purposes and as

a condiment, particularly for the preparation of curry-powder, are

well known, both in this country and to the natives of India; but the

latter consider that it also possesses medicinal virtues, and give it

as a stimulant and tonic in intermittent fever and some other diseases.

European practitioners at one time regarded it as useful in jaundice.

LILIACEÆ.

ALLIUM SATIVUM, _Linn._

Ainslie says that the Hindus express a stimulating oil from common

garlic, which they prescribe internally in ague to prevent the

recurrence of the paroxysms, and use externally in paralytic and

rheumatic affections. Garlic is called "Vullay poondoo" in Tamul;

"Lassun" in Hindostanee; and "Lasuna" in Sanscrit.

ORONTIACEÆ.

ACORUS CALAMUS, _Linn._

The rhizomes of the common Sweet-Flag are well known in some parts of

England as a cure for ague, and the natives of the East are well aware

of their virtues in this respect. Indian practitioners also reckon it

valuable in the "indigestions, stomach-aches, and bowel affections of

children," so much so, indeed, that, according to Ainslie, "there is

a penalty incurred by any druggist who will not open his door in the

middle of the night and sell it if demanded." The Bengalese call it

"Shwet buch;" the Cinghalese, "Wadakaha;" and the Hindus, "Bach."

POTHOS SCANDENS, _Linn._

The native practitioners use this plant in putrid fevers. It is an

epiphyte with slender rooting stems adhering to the branches of trees

like ivy, and has entire, lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves,

tapering upwards to a point and blunt and rounded at the base, where

they are articulated with the winged stalk.

GRAMINACEÆ.

ANDROPOGON MURICATUS, _Retz._

The fragrant aromatic roots of this grass, called Cuscus or Vetivert,

are only employed for perfumery purposes in this country, but in India

they are well known as the material of which window and door screens

are made, and the native doctors, moreover, consider them to possess

medicinal virtues, prescribing an infusion of them as a diaphoretic

and gentle stimulant in some kinds of fever. "Vittie" is the Tamul

name of the plant, and "Vayr" in the same language signifies _root_,

and, by combining and corrupting these, Europeans have formed the word

_Vetivert_; while its other European name, Cuscus, is derived from

the Persian "Khus-Khus." In Hindustanee it is called "Useer;" and in

Sanscrit "Viratara."

ANDROPOGON IWARANCUSA, _Roxb._

The natives administer an infusion of the roots of this grass, combined

with pepper, in fevers, of both the continued and intermittent kind.

It has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, and fragrant odour. The specific

name is derived from the Bengalee and Hindustanee, which is variously

spelt "Ibharankusha," "Iwarankusha," "Kurankusha," or "Iwarancussa."

ANDROPOGON CALAMUS-AROMATICUS, _Royle_.

According to Royle, this is the κάλαμος ἀραματικός of the ancient

Greeks, and the Sweet-cane or Calamus of the Bible. When chewed it has

a strong taste of ginger, whence it is commonly called Ginger-grass.

The native doctors give an infusion of it as a stomachic and febrifuge;

and they also prepare from it a very fragrant aromatic oil, which they

esteem very highly as a liniment in chronic rheumatism. This is sent

to this country as grass-oil, or ginger-grass oil, and is sold by our

perfumers as oil of geranium or spikenard.

APPENDIX D.

REPORT ON THE CULTIVATION OF CHINCHONAS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. BY WILLIAM

G. McIVOR, ESQ., SUPERINTENDENT OF CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION IN THE

NEILGHERRY HILLS.

_Rearing Seeds._--THE first sowing of imported seeds took place in

the beginning of February 1860. No certain data being given for the

treatment of Chinchona-seeds, our first operations were necessarily

experimental, and a good number of seeds were lost by being sown in too

retentive a soil, and supplied with what, to Chinchona-seeds, proved

to be an excess of moisture; the greatest success we obtained in our

first attempts was with the use of a soil composed almost entirely of

burned earth, and of this sowing nearly sixty per cent. germinated, the

temperature of the earth being about 70°. The number of days required

before germination took place in the several sowings varied from

sixty-two to sixty-eight. The seedlings made but little progress for

the first six weeks, but after that time they sprung into rapid growth,

averaging from 1-1/4 to 2 inches per mensem.

Seeds of the valuable Chinchona Condaminea, received on the 16th

February 1862, were sown on the same day in a very light open soil

composed of a beautifully open sort of sand, with a very small

admixture of leaf-mould. Our experience with the first seeds having

established beyond all doubt that the Chinchonas are very impatient of

any excess of moisture, particular care was taken in the preparation

of the soil used in this sowing. The earth was in the first instance

exposed to the sun for two or three days and thoroughly dried, it

was then heated to about 212° in order to destroy all grubs or larva

of insects; after being allowed to cool, it was brought into the

potting-shed and watered sufficiently to make it moist, but only to

that degree of moisture that the particles of soil would not adhere

together on being pressed firmly with the hand, that is, the earth on

being laid down was sufficiently dry to break and fall into its usual

form. With the soil in this state the pots were filled, the surface

lightly pressed down, and the seeds sown thereon, being lightly covered

with a sprinkling of sand. The pots were then placed on a slight bottom

heat of about 72°. These were never watered in the strict sense of the

word; when the surface got dry they were slightly sprinkled with a fine

syringe just sufficient to damp the surface, but never to penetrate

the soil. Under this treatment the seeds began to germinate very

vigorously on the sixteenth day after sowing, and now, 17th March 1862,

or twenty-nine days after sowing, upwards of sixty per cent. of the

whole of the perfect seeds sown have germinated, and we may fairly hope

to rear over ninety per cent. of this sowing. I may, however, observe

that these seeds possessed the great advantage of being forwarded to

India in a letter, and thus they were never subjected to the damaging

effects produced on seeds sent out in air-tight parcels. The reason of

this is the want of a circulation of air through the packets, and a

consequent deposit of moisture on the interior of the outer covering

by every increase and decrease of temperature on the voyage. As soon

as the seeds germinate they are carefully pricked out into fresh pots

(the soil being prepared as before described for the seeds). This must

of course be done with very great care, the radicle being carefully

covered with soil, while the seed and cotyledons are kept above the

surface. In this way about twenty-five seedlings are transplanted into

a four-inch pot, and treated in every respect the same as the seeds;

that is, they are never watered, the soil being merely sprinkled as

before stated to keep it in that medium state of moisture in which

it was first put into the pots. This prevents the damping off of the

seedlings, to which they are very liable when treated otherwise; it

also greatly facilitates their growth and the formation of roots,

the soil being so perfectly open that it is readily affected by

the atmosphere, and thus kept in the most favourable condition for

promoting vegetation. When treated in this way our seedlings have made

an average growth in ten months of over eighteen inches, the growth

being much more rapid towards the end of the ten months than in the

earlier stages.

_Propagation._--As soon as the seedlings and imported plants attained

sufficient size, they were propagated by being layered; in this way it

was found that they rooted readily in about six weeks or two months,

and threw out shoots from every bud; and not only this, but many

latent buds were developed, and a fine growth of young wood produced

for succeeding layers and cuttings. The principle of layering, being

so well known to English gardeners, requires no detail; but in the

Chinchona-plants it was found that the layers were very liable to

_bleed_, and this not only weakened the plants but retarded the

formation of roots; this we found to be remedied in a great degree by

inserting in the cut a triangular piece of perfectly dry broken porous

brick. An abundance of young wood being produced, we proceeded to

propagate by cuttings, the earth being prepared with great care, the

same as for the seeds, with the exception of not being heated. The ends

of the cuttings are placed upon pieces of perfectly dry porous brick,

around the sides of the pots. They are then placed on a bottom heat of

75° or 80°; and, with this treatment, young and tender wood roots in

about three weeks or one month, older wood in about six weeks to two

months. With cuttings of the young wood our loss has not exceeded two

per cent., and with older wood about ten per cent.

Our object being to produce the largest number of plants in the

shortest possible space of time, it was found that cuttings and layers

required more wood than could be conveniently spared, and it was

resolved to try the propagation by buds; in this respect the success

has been most satisfactory. The secret of success entirely lies in the

amount of moisture given; if in excess, they rot immediately, but, if

sufficient care is exercised in reference to moisture, the losses will

not exceed three or four per cent. Six C. Calisaya buds put in on the

30th January all rooted in forty-one days. It may be observed that it

is not necessary that a leaf should be attached to the bud: this is no

doubt an advantage, although we have struck many buds of the red bark

without leaves, and also a few of the Calisayas.

It ought to be explained that the reason why the earth is brought to a

medium state of moisture before being put into the pots is because it

is never afterwards watered to such an extent as to render it really

wet, being in fact just kept in that state of moisture in which it was

originally placed in the pots, and this uniform and medium state of

moisture is more easily retained by the pots being plunged in beds of

earth. The reason why we found this system necessary was, that, when

the soil was watered in the usual way after the seedlings or cuttings

were placed in it, it was found, from its expansion and adhesion by

the action of the water, that its particles were forced far too close

together to be beneficial to the growth of the plants, and in many

instances this proved to be injurious, vastly retarding their growth.

In the nurseries in the open air the same principle of cultivation

and propagation as that described above has been adopted, and, with

reference to the condition of the plants and layers, with nearly equal

success, the period of rooting of the layers being from two months to

ten weeks, while cuttings take from two to three months, the average

loss being about fifteen per cent.: this occurs from the impossibility,

in the open air, of keeping a uniform state of the atmosphere around

the cuttings. With layers this is not so important, as they root quite

as surely (though slower) as in the propagating-houses, and flourish

equally well.

_Formation of Plantations._--The mode of cultivation of these plants

likely to prove the most advantageous being uncertain, it was resolved

in May and June of 1861 to place out a number of plants under different

conditions of shade, exposure, &c., and the result has been that the

plants placed without the protection of living shade have made the

most satisfactory progress, and borne the dry season without the least

injury. The plants placed under living shade were found to be damaged

in some degree during the rains by the incessant drip, but on the

weather clearing up they threw out new leaves and quickly recovered.

Nine months after planting, or at the end of our dry season, these

plants were found to be suffering considerably from the drought; and

on taking a few of them up, it was found that the holes in which these

Chinchonas were planted had become entirely filled by the fibres of

the roots of the living trees in their neighbourhood, which had drawn

up the whole of the moisture and nourishment from the soil in which

the Chinchona-plants were placed. In putting the plants out, which

were placed in the open, we of course saw from the first that with the

young plants we had to combat the bad effects of excessive evaporation

during our dry season, under a bright and scorching sun; we also saw

the injury likely to be done to the plants by radiation during bright

and cloudless nights. To obviate these disadvantages the plants were

sheltered on the approach of the dry season by a rough enclosure of

bamboo-branches, with the leaves adhering to them, so as to give them

sufficient shade both from the effects of evaporation and radiation.

The enclosure is left open on the north side, and enclosed on the

south, east, and west; the sun's declination being south during the

dry weather. The ground will not be impoverished by the roots of

other trees, and the whole of its nourishment is preserved for the

Chinchona-plants. At the same time they will, by this treatment, be far

more efficiently protected from evaporation and radiation than they

would be by the use of living shade, whether caused by forest-trees or

by the admixture of faster-growing plants. In addition to this shade

of the branches of cut bamboos, the soil around the roots of some of

the young Chinchona-plants was covered one or two inches in thickness

with half-decayed leaves, and the plants thus treated show a very

great luxuriance, which is not exceeded by any of the plants in our

propagating-houses. To ascertain the cause of this luxuriance a few

of the plants were recently examined, and although at the end of the

dry season the soil about the roots was found to be perfectly moist;

thousands of young rootlets of great strength were found to have been

thrown into the covering of decayed leaves, so that it had become one

matted mass of beautiful white roots, many of them nearly the thickness

of a crow-quill. On the strength of these observations we have resolved

to place out this season seventy-five acres of Chinchona-plants in

cleared land, and exactly under the conditions and treatment last

described; we also propose planting seventy-five acres under various

degrees of living shade, in which every attempt will be made to

mitigate as much as possible the injurious effects of this system

already described. The cultivation of these plants being experimental,

it is necessary that we should give every method of cultivation which

appears reasonable a fair trial, and that only developed facts should

influence us in giving preference to one method of cultivation over

that of another. The distances at which we have prepared to place

the plants are for the larger growing species from nine to ten feet

apart, for the sorts of medium size eight feet, and for the shrubby

sorts seven feet: these distances are of course too close to admit

of the plants attaining a full size, but we believe that it will be

advantageous to plant them close in the first instance, and thin them

out afterwards. In order to illustrate the extreme growth of our

plants, it is worthy of note that one or two of them, although not yet

twelve months old, have attained a height of about five feet by three

and a half feet in diameter through the branches; we may therefore

conclude that the plants will in about two years fairly cover the

ground if placed at the distances given above. When they begin to crowd

and impede the growth of each other they will of course be thinned

out and pruned; and it is anticipated that a good supply of bark may

be obtained by these means in from eight to twelve years, or perhaps

earlier.

_Ootacamund, 19th March, 1862._

* * * * *

P.S. On the 5th of April the seeds of _C. Condaminea_ were coming up

plentifully, and 4193 seedlings had already been transplanted. 100

seedlings of _C. crispa_ had also come up. The seeds of _C. Condaminea_

were coming up at the rate of 500 a-day. At this date there were 25,000

Chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry hills, and all the species, except

_C. lancifolia_, were increasing rapidly. It will be some time before

Mr. McIvor will be able to propagate from the latter species, owing

to the very unhealthy state in which the plants arrived from Java. In

April 50 acres of ground were prepared for planting at the Dodabetta

site, and 70 acres at Neddiwuttum.

APPENDIX E.

NOTE ON THE EXPORT TRADE IN PERUVIAN BARK FROM THE PORTS OF SOUTH

AMERICA, AND ON THE IMPORT TRADE INTO ENGLAND.

ARICA, the port for the "_Calisaya_" bark from Bolivia. In 1859

the export of bark amounted to 192,600 lbs., valued at 17,334_l._;

and between January and November, 1860, to 388,800 lbs., valued at

35,000_l._

ISLAY, another port for the "_Calisaya_" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the

export of bark amounted to 146,000 lbs., valued at 13,460_l._ (of which

136,500 lbs. went to England, and 9500 lbs. to France); and between

January and November, 1860, to 107,700 lbs., valued at 9770_l._

PAYTA, the port for the "_Crown_" barks from Loxa. The price of bark

at this port for the last nine years has been twenty-four dollars the

cwt.; but during the last year the price has risen to thirty dollars,

where it is likely to remain for some time. The usual annual export

amounts to 140,000 lbs., the actual quantity shipped in 1861, and it is

valued at 8400_l._

GUAYAQUIL, the port for the "_Red_" bark and the "_West Coast

Carthagena_" bark. The quantity exported varies very much in different

years, the price being at present about twenty dollars the cwt. In 1857

the export of bark amounted to 516,600 lbs.; in 1858 to 533,300 lbs.;

in 1859 to 201,700 lbs.; in 1860 to 91,500 lbs.; and in 1861 to 443,700

lbs.; valued in the last of these years at 17,748_l._

The "_Grey_" barks were exported, in former years, from CALLAO, and in

small quantities from HUANCHACO and LAMBAYEQUE, but of late years none

has been exported.

The "_Carthagena_" barks from New Granada are exported from the ports

of CARTHAGENA and SANTA MARTHA, and also from the little port of TUMACO

on the Pacific coast. From 1849 to 1855 great quantities were exported,

but in the latter year the supply began to fail. The existing civil

war in New Granada has still further injured this trade. No reliable

account of the export of bark from the above ports of New Granada has

been received.

From the four ports of ARICA, ISLAY, PAYTA, and GUAYAQUIL the average

amount of bark annually exported may be taken at 912,900 lbs., valued

at 59,076_l._ Small quantities may come from other ports, of which no

authentic account has been obtained; so that the total amount annually

exported from South America may be estimated at considerably over

2,000,000 lbs.

There being no duty on the importation of Peruvian bark into England,

the returns of the amount imported are much less carefully kept than

was formerly the case. The returns, too, are in packages, and not in

lbs. or cwts., and these packages vary in weight from 120 lbs. to 60

lbs. The number of packages of Peruvian bark imported into England in

1858 was 19,831; in 1859 the number was 10,651; in 1860 it was 10,456;

and in 1861 it was 20,748. Taking the average of the weight of the

packages at 80 lbs. each, the quantity imported into England during the

last four years would be 4,934,880 lbs., and in the year 1861 about

1,659,840 lbs.

The quantity of Peruvian bark imported into England during the three

months ending on March 31st, 1861, was reported to be 306,300 lbs.,

and during the same period, in the present year, 310,700 lbs. At this

rate the annual import would be a little over 1,200,000 lbs., which is

probably more correct than the above estimate from the packages.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING

CROSS.

[Illustration: MAP

PART OF PERU

to illustrate

M^R. C. MARKHAM'S JOURNEY

THE CHINCHONA FORESTS OF

CARAVAYA.]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The only valid argument against this change is that it may cause

confusion, but the alteration is too slight for this to be possible;

and it is not uncommon, among botanists, to correct the usual spelling

of genera or species of plants, when it is found to be erroneous. Among

other examples of such changes may be enumerated those of _Plumeria_,

now altered to _Plumieria_; _Bufonia_ to _Buffonia_; and _Gesneria_ to

_Gesnera_.

[2] _See page 490._

[3] In Quichua, when the name of a plant is reduplicated, it almost

invariably implies that it possesses some medicinal quality.

[4] La Condamine, Jussieu, and Ruiz all believed that the Indians

were aware of the medicinal qualities of Peruvian bark, and that they

imparted their knowledge to the Spaniards. Humboldt and Ulloa were of

an opposite opinion. The stories of its virtues having been discovered

by watching the pumas or South-American lions chewing the bark to cure

their fevers, mentioned by Condamine; and of an Indian having found it

out by drinking of the waters of a lake into which a chinchona-tree had

fallen--told by Geoffroy--are of modern and European origin.

[5] Jussieu says that it is certain that the first knowledge of the

efficacy of this bark was derived from the Indians of Malacotas, some

leagues south of Loxa.--Weddell, _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_,

p. 15.

[6] Poëppig, _Reise_.

[7] Mr. Spruce's _Report_, p. 25.

[8] The first Marquis of Astorga married Leonora, daughter of Don

Fadrique Henriquez, Admiral of Spain, and sister of the Queen of

Aragon, who was mother of King Ferdinand the Catholic: so that Ana was

sixth cousin to her contemporary King Philip IV

[9] _Nobiliario genealogico de los Titulos de España, por Alonzo Lopez

de Haro, Madrid, 1626._

[10] Alcedo.

[11] _Creacion y Privilegios de los Titulos de Castilla, por Don José

Berni._ The Counts of Chinchon were hereditary Alcaides of the Alcazar

of Segovia. In 1623 the Count of Chinchon here received Charles I. of

England, and gave him a supper of "certaine trouts of extraordinary

greatnesse." In 1764 the then Count of Chinchon ceded the Alcazar to

the crown.

[12] A large supply of seeds of this kind has been sent to India and

Ceylon.

[13] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_, No. 1.

[14] Sebastian Badus asserts that bark was brought to Alcala de Henares

as early as 1632.--Humboldt's _Aspects_, ii. p. 268.

[15] I translated and edited Acuña's Voyage for the Hakluyt Society in

1859.

[16] _Disertacion por Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue._

[17] Torti's work, _De Febribus_, was published at Venice in 1732.

[18] _Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina_, par P. Briquet. Paris, 1856.

[19] _Voyage de Condamine_, p. 31.

[20] 1738, p. 226.

[21] _Noticias Secretas_, p. 572.

[22] _Semanario de la Nueva Granada_, p. 283.

[23] Endlicher separated the species whose capsules begin to

open from the top, and formed them into a sub-genus, which he

called _Cascarilla_. Klotzsch, combining these with other species

characterised by a six-parted corolla, raised them to an independent

genus called _Ladenbergia_.

[24] _Histoire naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 72.

[25] Dr. Weddell's list is as follows:--

1. C. CALISAYA (_Weddell_) Bolivia and Caravaya.

2. C. CONDAMINEA (_Humboldt_) Loxa.

3. C. SCROBICULATA (_Humboldt_) Peru.

4. C. AMYGDALIFOLIA (_Weddell_) Peru and Bolivia.

5. C. NITIDA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru.

6. C. AUSTRALIS (_Weddell_) Southern Bolivia.

7. C. BOLIVIANA (_Weddell_) Caravaya and Bolivia

8. C. MICRANTHA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) Peru and Bolivia.

9. C. PUBESCENS (_Vahl_) Peru and Bolivia.

10. C. CORDIFOLIA (_Mutis_) New Granada.

11. C. PURPURASCENS (_Weddell_) Bolivia.

12. C. OVATA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) Peru and Bolivia.

13. C. CHOMELIANA (_Weddell_) Bolivia.

14. C. GLANDULIFERA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru.

15. C. ASPERIFOLIA (_Weddell_) Bolivia.

16. C. HUMBOLDTIANA (_Lambert_) Jaen.

17. C. CARABAYENSIS (_Weddell_) Caravaya.

18. C. MUTISII (_Lambert_) Loxa.

19. C. HIRSUTA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru.

_Doubtful._

C. DISCOLOR (_Klotzsch_) N. Peru.

C. PALALBA (_Pavon_) Peru.

[26] M. Delondre decided that the fruit and flowers, though having

a bitter principle, did not contain the alkaloids, while the roots

contained them, though in smaller proportion than the bark of the trunk

and branches.

[27] Weddell.

[28] Briquet, p. 22.

[29] _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_, No. 10.

[30] _Aricine_, as a sulphate, does not crystallize, but forms a

peculiar trembling jelly. It was so named from the port of Arica,

whence the bark of _C. pubescens_ is exported.

[31] Pereira says that, if a substance suspected to contain _quina_ be

powdered, then shaken with ether, and afterwards successively treated

with chlorine and ammonia, the liquid will assume a green colour if the

slightest trace of quina be present.--_Mat. Med._ ii. part ii. p. 119.

One or two pounds of bark suffice well for an analysis.

[32] _Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina et de ses préparations_, par P.

Briquet, Paris, 1855. Also Pereira's _Materia Medica_.

[33] The word _quinquina_ is generally adopted for the medical

preparations which are taken from Peruvian bark. _Quina_ signifies

_bark_ in Quichua, and _quinquina_ is a bark possessing some medicinal

property. _Quinine_ is, of course, derived from _quina_, _chinchonine_

from _chinchona_. The Spaniards corrupted the word _quina_ into

_china_; and in homœopathy the word _china_ is still retained. In 1735,

when M. de la Condamine visited Peru, the native name of _quina-quina_

was almost entirely replaced by the Spanish term _cascarilla_, which

also means bark.

[34] _Autobiography of Sir James MacGrigor_, chap. xii. p. 241.

[35] _Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales_, quoted by Delondre, p. 7.

[36] _Aspects_, ii. p. 267.

[37] _Semanario de la Nueva Granada._

[38] From Martius: a note in No. 1 of Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de

Pavon_.

[39] Some of these MSS. are, I believe, in possession of Don Pedro

Carbo, of Guayaquil.

[40] Spanish edition of General Miller's _Memoirs_, i. p. 42.

[41] It is the form of _C. Condaminea_, represented in the unshaded

branch with capsules, Plate x. of the _Plantes Equinoctiales_.

[42] It comes in very small quills, as if taken from a mere shrub.

[43] Besides _quinine_ several other febrifugal alkaloids are found

in the chinchona barks, one of the most important of which is

_chinchonidine_, discovered by Pasteur in 1852.

[44] I found some very beautiful dried specimens of this species in

the botanical gardens at Madrid last year. The lanceolate leaves and

panicles of flowers still retained their colour. They were marked

"_Cascarilla fina de Uritusinga de Loxa, Quin. de Pavon_."

[45] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_.

[46] _Howard_, from MS. of Ruiz.

[47] Mr. Cross's _Report_, Nov. 1861.

[48] Pereira, _Materia Medica_, ii. p. 106.

[49] Afterwards published in a pamphlet of 57 pages, with plates.

[50] In 1856 Mr. Howard shared Dr. Weddell's belief that the "red bark"

belonged to a variety of _C. ovata_.--_Pharmaceutical Journal_, Oct.

1856.

[51] Howard.

[52] With "red bark" another kind, known as "West coast Carthagena," is

exported from Guayaquil. The name is absurd. Mr. Howard believes it to

be derived from the _C. Palton_ of Pavon, which is found in the woods

of Cuenca, and in the province of Loxa. Samples of this bark yield 2.05

of alkaloids, 1.34 of chinchonidine, and 0.7 of quinine.

[53] Alcedo.

[54] Mutis was born at Cadiz in 1732. He resided in South America for

forty years, and corresponded with Linnæus. Dying in 1808, the greater

portion of his papers was destroyed in the revolution at Bogota; but a

part of his collection of dried plants is now in the botanical gardens

at Madrid, in a disgraceful state of disorder.

[55] In 1776 Don Sebastian José Lopez Ruiz, a physician at Bogota,

persuaded the Spanish government that he was the first discoverer

of chinchona-trees in New Granada, and obtained a yearly pension of

2000 dollars as a reward; but he was afterwards considered to be an

impostor, and the viceroy deprived him of it.

[56] The pupil and fellow-workman of Mutis, from whose notes he wrote.

[57] _Anales de la Historia Natural de Madrid_, 1800.

[58] _Floræ Columbiæ specimina selecta_, i. p. 21: Berlin, 1858. A

superbly illustrated work by Dr. Karsten.

[59] _Die medicinischen Chinarinden Neu-Granadas_, von H. Karsten:

Berlin, 1858. I have had this pamphlet translated for the use of those

intrusted with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation in India

and Ceylon. It contains a great deal of valuable information respecting

the most favourable situations for the production of alkaloids in

chinchona barks, and other particulars respecting the growth of the

bark, and the methods of collecting it. Dr. Karsten is a careful

observer and a scientific botanist and chemist, and his observations

form a very important addition to our knowledge of this subject.

[60] _Report of the Administrador Don Ignacio Cavero, Semanario_, p.

183.

[61] 300 dried specimens, and 242 coloured drawings, sent in the ship

'Buen Consejo.'

[62] Namely:--

1. _C. lanceolata_ (_Cascarilla bobo amarillo_).

2. _C. purpurea_ ( " _de hoja morada_).

3. _C. ovata_ ( " _pata de gallareta_).

4. _C. nitida_ ( " _fino_).

5. _C. hirsuta_ ( " _fino delgado_).

6. _C. magnifolia_ {( " _flor de Azahar_).

{( " _magnifolia--Wedd_).

7. _C. glandulifera_ ( " _negrilla_).

[63] I have examined Pavon's dried specimens from Huanuco, now in the

botanical gardens at Madrid.

There are leaves of _C. lanceolata_, from the forests of Muña; leaves

and capsules of _C. ovata_, some of the former very slightly cordate,

from Panao and Pillao; leaves, flowers, and capsules of _C. purpurea_;

and leaves and capsules of _C. nitida_, from Cuchero.

[64] Ruiz published his _Quinologia_ in 1792.

[65] At first, in the best years, as many as 25,000 arrobas of bark

were exported from the province of Huanuco, and some large fortunes

were made.--_Poeppig._ An arroba = 25 lbs.

[66] _Mercurio Peruano._

[67] A Peruvian who was for many years Director of the Cabinet of

Natural History in Madrid, during the reign of Charles III.

[68] _Reise in Peru, während der Jahre 1827-32_, von Eduard Poeppig,

Professor an der Universität zu Leipzig, ii. pp. 217-23, 257-64.

[69] Stevenson, however, says that large quantities of bark were

brought from the woods east of Huamalies in 1825.--_Travels_, ii. p. 66.

[70] Poeppig. Van Tschudi, p. 399.

[71] Poeppig.

[72] Howard.

[73] I have caused the part of Poeppig's work which relates to

chinchona-trees and their barks to be translated for circulation in

India and Ceylon.

[74] As early as 1790 the calisaya bark was highly prized in Madrid.

[75] The valuable species found in Bolivia and Southern Peru. Dr.

Weddell derives the name from the Quichua words _colli_ (red) and

_saya_ (form); Poeppig from _colla_ (a remedy) and _salla_ (rocky

ground); Van Tschudi from _collisara_ (reddish maize). Dr. Laefdael,

the Judge of Caravaya, told me it came from _ccali_ (strong) and

_sayay_ (become, or be thou). Calisaya is the name of a family of

Indian Caciques in Caravaya, one of whom acted an important part in the

revolt of 1780-1. The plant may have been called after him.

[76] The bark of _C. Calisaya_, known as "yellow bark" in commerce, was

at first erroneously believed to come from _C. cordifolia_, because

Mutis had called the bark from that species _cascarilla amarilla_, or

"yellow bark." See p. 28.

[77] This account of the Bolivian bark trade is from Dr. Weddell's

_Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les partes voisines de Pérou_.

Paris, 1853. Chap. xiii. p. 235.

[78] Gibbon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 147.

[79] _Mercurio del Vapor_, Dec. 15, 1859.

[80] _Yuncu_ is a tropical valley in Quichua, hence _yungus_, a Spanish

corruption of the same word.

[81] _Quinologie_, par M. A. Delondre. Paris, 1854.

[82] _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les partes voisines de

Pérou_, par H. A. Weddell. Paris, 1853. Dr. Weddell is now engaged in

the publication of a work on the plants of the more elevated parts of

the Andes, entitled _Chloris Andina_.

[83] An account of it was published in the Journal of the Horticultural

Society, vol. vii. p. 272.

[84] Pereira, _Mat. Med._ ii. part ii. p. 118.

[85] Weddell, _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_.

[86] Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_.

[87] _Mém. de l' Acad. Roy. des Sciences_, 1738, p. 226.

[88] _Noticias Secretas_, p. 572.

[89] MS. quoted by Howard.

[90] Poeppig.

[91] Karsten.

[92] I. p. 245. Probably the idea was first conceived much earlier by

Dr. Ainslie, who, half a century ago, remarked that it was matter of

regret that "it had never been attempted to rear those articles of the

Materia Medica in India, for which the world is now solely indebted to

America."--Ainslie's _Materia Medica_, p. 66 (_note_).

[93] _Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm._ ii. p. 252.

[94] _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 13.

[95] _Quinologie_, par M. A. Delondre, p. 15.

[96] So convinced is Dr. Weddell that there is imminent danger of the

supplies of bark eventually being exhausted, that he says, "Avant

que la malheur que je prévois n'arrive (et ce ne sera pas de notre

temps) la science aura peut-être fait la conquête de quelque nouveau

médicament qui rendra moins regrettable la perte de l'écorce de

Pérou."--_Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 245.

[97] Howard.

[98] Howard.

[99] _Ychu_ is grass in Quichua, and _corpa_ a lodging.

[100] Information from Gironda, then Governor of Sina.

[101] _Kew Miscellany_, Oct. and Nov. 1856.

[102] Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 8.

[103] _Bonplandia_, March, 1859, p. 72. The pay of an

Assistant-Resident in Java is 500_l._ a-year.--Money's _Java_.

[104] A lofty tree, 150 to 200 feet high, with a very close-grained

wood. It yields a fragrant resin called _storax_.

[105] Report of Mr. Fraser, H. M. Consul at Batavia.

[106] Dr. Junghuhn called some of the plants _C. lanceolata_, and

others _C. succirubra_; but he has himself allowed that the former

are a mere variety of the worthless species, seeds of which were sent

by M. Hasskarl from Uchubamba; and the latter certainly cannot be

_C. succirubra_, as that valuable kind is not found in the Peruvian

districts visited by M. Hasskarl.

[107] Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860. No. 50.

[108] Dr. Anderson's Report, Dec. 14, 1861, No. 326; and Dr.

Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 12.

[109] Report of Mr. Fraser, late H. M. Consul at Batavia.

[110] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_. No. 7.

[111] He left Java in September, 1861, after a residence of six years.

[112] Howard. No. 7 (_note_).

[113] Report of Mr. Fraser.

[114] Dr. Junghuhn has published two very interesting reports on the

cultivation of the chinchona-plants in Java, in the _Bonplandia_, a

German botanical journal: the first in Nos. 4 and 5 of 1858, and the

second in the numbers for July and August, 1860. I have caused these

reports to be translated and circulated for the information of those

who are intrusted with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation in

India or Ceylon.

[115] Mr. Spruce's remark on the eventual necessity of cultivating the

chinchona tree is important. He says, "I have seen enough of collecting

the products of the forests to convince me that _whatever vegetable

substance is needful to man, he must ultimately cultivate the plant

producing it_."--_Report_, p. 83.

[116] It appears, by a government return, that 2051 lbs. of quinine

were sent to India in 1856, and 1180 lbs. in 1857.

The _Friend of India_ of December 10th, 1860, however, quoting from

the _Lancet_, states that the consumption of quinine and bark in the

government hospitals in India in 1857-8 was 6815 lbs., and that in

1858-9 it amounted to 5087 lbs. The writer of the article adds that

the government druggists in India sell quinine at 1_l._ an ounce; but,

taking the cost of an ounce of quinine at 10_s._, the expenditure

on this medicine, according to the above figures, would amount to

54,520_l._ in 1857-8, and to 40,696_l._ in 1858-9!

[117] Nevertheless we now have plants of _C. lancifolia_, the species

which should have been procured from New Granada, thriving in India.

They have been received from Java, in exchange for other species, and

were originally raised from seeds sent by Dr. Karsten.

[118] When it was founded by General La Fuente, then Prefect of

Arequipa.--_Castelnau_, iii. p. 443.

[119] There is anchorage for 20 or 25 vessels in 10 or 12 fathoms; but

there is always a rather heavy swell, so that a hawser is necessary to

keep a vessels bow to it, even in fine weather.

[120] In the following proportions:--

To England Alpaca wool 22,500 cwts worth £192,729

" Sheep's wool 18,669 " " 67,306

" Vicuña wool 72 " " 1,537

" Copper " 333

" Bark 1,365 " " 12,383

" Specie 34,706

To France Wool 877 " " 1,886

" Bark 95 " " 1,077

To the United States Wool 8,054 " " 24,884

--------

£336,842

--------

[121] The analysis of this soil, by Dr. Forbes Watson, gave the

following result:--

Water, and a little organic matter 7.100

Silica, as silicate and as silex 59.800

Peroxide of iron 12.100

Alumina 12.300

Lime 4.100

Magnesia 2.100

Soda 0.724

Chloride of sodium 0.408

Phosphoric acid 0.117

Carbonic acid

Sulphuric acid 0.082

-------

99.681

Loss .319

-------

100.000

-------

[122] "Tambo" is a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word _Tampu_, an

inn or post-house.

[123] Almost all the woollen clothing of the Peruvian Indians is now

imported from Yorkshire, and their shirtings from Lowell. Formerly it

was all of home manufacture.

[124] Probably from the Quichua word _Chiri_--cold.

[125] _El Peru en_ 1860, por Alfredo Leubel.

[126] The republic of Peru has had 37 years and 7 months of existence,

of which _28 years and 8 months_ have been passed in peace, 2 years in

foreign war, and 6 years and 11 months in civil dissensions.

1824 to 1828 inclusive At peace.

Jan. to July, 1829 At war with Colombia.

July, 1829, to the end of 1833 At peace, under President Gamarra.

Jan. 1834, to Feb. 1836 In civil dissensions.

Feb. 1836, to Aug. 1838 At peace, under General Santa Cruz.

Aug. 1838, to Jan. 1839 At war with Chile.

Jan. 1839, to Jan. 1841 At peace, under President Gamarra.

Jan. 1841, to July, 1841 In civil dissensions.

July, 1841, to June, 1842 At war with Bolivia.

Aug. 1842, to July, 1844 In civil dissensions.

July, 1844, to June, 1854 At peace under Presidents Castilla

and Echenique.

June, 1854, to Jan. 1855 In civil war.

Jan. 1855, to Oct. 1856 At peace, under President Castilla.

Oct. 1856, to March, 1858 An insurrection at Arequipa.

March, 1858, to March, 1862 At peace, under President Castilla.

These are the plain facts of the case, which are preferable to vague

and ignorant statements that Peru has been in a constant state of civil

war ever since the War of Independence.

[127] The elevations were taken with one of Negretti and Zambra's

boiling-point thermometers.

[128] So called from being covered with small round pebbles, like

comfits.

[129] At this elevation grows an asclepiad (_Pentagonium flavum_), a

little lowly plant with yellow flowers.--_Chloris Andina_, ii. p. 49.

[130] _Baccharis Incarum_ of Weddell.--_Chloris Andina_, i. p. 170.

[131] Dr. Weddell mentions a composita (_Merope piptolepis_) as being

common near the shores of these lakes.--_Chloris Andina_, i. p. 162.

And an oxalis in the crevices of the rocks near La Compuerta.--_Oxalis

Nubigena_, ii. p. 291.

In the neighbourhood of La Compuerta there are several other lowly

alpine plants--a St. John's wort (_Hypericum brevistylum_), another

oxalis, and two mallows, &c. &c.

[132] M. de Castelnau says that vessels exactly resembling those of

lake Titicaca are represented on the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes.

[133] Gonzalez Montoya was the best Governor that Puno has ever known.

He was a benevolent as well as a determined man, and abolished the

_mitas_, or drafting of Indians for forced labour in the mines of

Potosi. When ordered by the Government to restore the _mitas_, he

replied, "Obedesco pero no cumplo."

[134] Garcilasso de la Vega says that the Indians boil the leaves of

the _sunchu_, and then dry them in the sun, and keep them to eat in the

winter.--I. lib. 8, cap. xv. p. 284.

[135] In 1663 the mines of Laycaycota, Cancharani, and San Antonio de

Esquilache, near Puno, produced 1,500,000 dollars' worth of silver in

one year!--Miller's _Memoirs_, ii. p. 238.

[136] _Compendio del hecho y apuntamiento de derechos de Fisco, en

la causa contra José de Salcedo, sobre las sediciones y tumultos del

asiento de minas de Laycocota._ _Papeles Varios_ 2, in the National

Library at Lima.

[137] This was the Count of Medellin who married Catalina Ponce de

Leon, sister of the Duchess of Gandia, whose husband was brother of the

Countess of Lemos.

[138] _Declaracion de todo lo que contiene la demonstracion hecha por

los Vehedores Don Juan Eusebio Ximenes, y Don Valentin Calderon de la

Barca, de Orden Real, a Cancharani, Laycocota la alta, y Laycocota la

baja, sus situaciones y vetas, desde la villa de Puno en distancia a

una legua a cuya falda esta la gran laguna de Chucuito_, 1718. MS.

Report at Puno, with a map, which has unfortunately been lost.

[139] The men who broke out the ores with picks got 5 rials a day; and

6 men worked out 6 to 8 cwts. of mineral daily, working 12 hours. The

rest of the workmen got 4 rials a-day

[140] A small shrub (_Baccharis Incarum_) often covering the hills.

[141] It yields about 30 per cent. of silver.

[142] In 1845 Bustamante placed the value of the exports at 2,500,000

dol.!

[143] From the _Geografia del Peru_. Lima, 1859.

[144] An Englishman had a schooner on the lake, but I believe she is

now abandoned or broken up; and there is no craft at present but the

reed balsas.

[145] The Peruvian Government answered this decree in a noble spirit,

by declaring that they would not retaliate, but, on the contrary, would

assist commercial traffic between the two countries by every means in

their power. Linares rescinded his barbarous edict on October 17th.

[146] All the bark shipped at Islay is smuggled across the Bolivian

frontier; Arica is the recognised port of Bolivia; and the bark

exported from Payta comes from the neighbouring republic of Ecuador.

[147] Evaporation, however, goes on at all seasons, owing to the

excessive elevation of the waters.

[148] So say the people of Puno, but the island is all limestone.

[149] The name is more modern; given, as tradition relates, by one

of the Incas, who happened to be encamped here when a _chasqui_ or

messenger arrived with extraordinary rapidity from Cuzco. The Inca

exclaimed, "_Tia-huanaco!_" "Be seated, O Huanaco!"--the huanaco being

the swiftest animal in Peru.

[150] The Hindoo god Siva is also represented with a necklace of human

heads.

[151] For descriptions of the ruins at Cuzco, see my former work,

_Cuzco and Lima_, chap. iv. and v.

[152] It is now introduced into our greenhouses.

[153] The lizard appears to have been a favourite device amongst the

ancient Aymaras. There is also one carved on a block of stone amongst

the ruins of Tiahuanaco.

[154] The idol of Copacabana was made of a beautiful blue stone, hence

the name. It had an ugly human head, and a fish's body, and it was

adored as the God of the Lake.

[155] Calancha.

[156] Facing the road on the mainland, between Juli and Pomata.

[157] He nominated Apu Inca Sucso, a grandson of the Inca Viracocha,

as Governor; who was father of Apuchalco Yupanqui, the grandfather of

Don Alonzo Viracocha Inca, and his brother Don Pablo, who governed the

island of Titicaca, under the Spaniards, in A.D. 1621.

[158] Fray Alonzo Ramas says that in 1611 an old woman, aged 120 years,

died at Viacha, a day's journey from La Paz, who confessed that she had

been a Virgin of the Sun.

[159] _Cronica Moralizada de la Provincia del Peru, del Orden de San

Agustin, por el Padre Fray Antonio de la Calancha._ Lima, 1653.

[160] Mr. Merivale, in his _Colonization and Colonies_, says, "It must

be admitted that, had the legislation of Spain in other respects been

as well conceived as that respecting the Indians, the loss of her

Western empire would have been an unmerited visitation."

[161] Others say that the word _Cacique_ was brought from the Old World

by the Spaniards, and that it is a corruption of the Arabic _Sheikh_.

[162] Prince of Esquilache's despatch, A.D. 1618, No. 6, p. 344, H. 53.

MS. despatches in the national library at Madrid.

[163] See the sentence of death passed on the Inca Tupac Amaru in 1782,

by the Visitador Areche, in which the use of these dresses, and the

celebration of festivals and plays, are prohibited for the future.

[164] See _Money's Java_, i. p. 215, where there is an account of the

position and functions of the native "Regents."

[165] The pay of an Indian was usually 1 rial (6_d._) a week in the

farms, and 20 rials (about 10_s._) in the mines. But the miners kept

back a third of the Indian's wages, nominally to form a fund to pay for

his return to his home at the end of his period of service.

[166] The Marquis of Montes Claros derives the word _mita_ from the

Quichua _mitta_, "time," and says that the _mita_ was established to

prevent idleness, and for the good of the Indians!--_Memorias_, i. p.

21.

[167] _Report of the Viceroy Prince of Esquilache_, 1620. This,

however, is not quite clear: it is more probable that Indians were

lawlessly torn from their homes to work in the mines when the _mita_ of

a seventh did not yield a sufficient number of labourers. In North Peru

the proportion was a sixth, and in Quito a fifth.

[168] Montes Claros describes them as Indians domiciled on the estates

or in the houses of Spaniards, like servants; their masters giving them

food, clothes, and a bit of land, and paying their tribute for them.

Lest the system should degenerate into slavery, the king, in a _cedula_

of 1601, declared that they were free, and desired that this should be

made known to them.--_Memorias_, i. p. 27.

[169] _Ordenanzas_, No. 34, 12, 140.

[170] Especially in those of the Count of Alba de Liste in 1660. In

September of that year this viceroy assembled a Junta, in obedience to

an order from Spain, to consult respecting the instruction and good

treatment of the Indians. The proceedings, still in MS., may be seen in

the national library at Lima.

[171] _Cuzco and Lima_, chap. vii., from the _Noticias Secretas_ of the

Ulloas.

[172] II. p. 304 of the _Memorias de los Vireyes_. But no safe

calculation can be made respecting the actual population from these

numbers.

[173] _Papeles Varios._ No. 4. MS. in the library at Lima.

[174] The amalgamation with quicksilver was introduced at Potosi by

Velasco in 1571. The quicksilver was sent down from Huancavelica to

the port of Chincha, thence to Arica by sea, and from Arica over the

cordillera to Potosi.--_Report of the Prince of Esquilache._

[175] _Carta sobre trabajos, agravios, y injusticias que padecen los

Indios del Peru_; por Don Juan de Padilla, 1657.--MS. in the National

Library at Lima.

[176] _Papeles Varios._ No. 4. MS.

[177] MS. in Lima library.

[178] _Manifesto de los agravios que padecen los Indios._--MS. at Lima.

[179] _Funes_, iii. p. 242-333.

[180] _Calancha._

[181] In 1591 a duty of 2 per cent. was placed on all merchandise, and

5 per cent. on coca.--_Report of the Prince of Esquilache_, 1620.

[182] This system of _repartimientos_ or _repartos_ was also introduced

in the first instance with a benevolent intent, that of supplying

the people with European goods at a reasonable price. I use the word

_reparto_ in future, to distinguish this system from that of the

_repartimiento_ during the earlier period of Spanish domination in

Peru, which, with the same word, had a very different meaning.

[183] _Informe por Diego Tupac Amaru.--Azangaro._ Oct. 18, 1781.

(Angelis).

[184] Letter from Gen. del Valle to two friends at Lima, Oct. 3, 1781.

[185] _Colonization and Colonies_, p. 6 and p. 283 (_note_).

[186] _Papeles Varios_, No. 4.--MS. at Lima.

[187] _Manifesto de Don Juan de Padilla_.--MS. at Lima.

[188] _Sumario del Concilio II., Provincial en Lima_, 1567. Also,

letter from Dr. Juan Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, July 20, 1782, MS.; and

in the collection of Angelis.

[189] _Practica de visitas y Residencias_, Naples, 1696; and _Papeles

Varios_, No. 4.

[190] See Temple's _Travels in Peru_ for an authentic account of the

rebellion of the Cataris in Upper Peru, and the siege of La Paz.

[191] Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco, January, 1784, MS.; also in Nos.

9 to 20 of the _Museo Erudito_ of Cuzco, July, 1837.

[192] Letter from Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, MS.

[193] _Ensayo de la Historia civil del Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, y

Tucuman, por el Dr. Don Gregorio Funes, Dean de la Santa Iglesia

Catedral de Cordova._--Buenos Ayres, 1817, 4 vols, tom. iii. pp.

242-333. This work contains a detailed and very interesting account of

the insurrections of Tupac Amaru, and of the Cataris in Upper Peru.

[194] An account of the copious materials from which my information

respecting Tupac Amaru is derived will be found in a note at the

beginning of the following chapter.

[195] "Native races must in every instance either perish, or be

amalgamated with the general population of their country."--Merivale's

_Colonies and Colonization_, p. 510.

[196] _Spanish Conquest in America_, iv. p. 368.

[197] _Colonies and Colonization_, p. 522.

[198] _Amaru_ means serpent in Quichua, and _Tupac_ royal or excellent.

_Tupac_ also may be the participle of _Tupani_, I rend.

Serpents are frequently carved in relief on the masonry of Inca

edifices.

Travels in Peru and India While Superintending the Collection of Chinchona Plants and Seeds in South America, and Their Introduction into India. · 第 30 / 31 章

MOLLUGO CERVIANA, _Ser._ (= _Pharnaceum Cervianum_, Linn.).