[1] In 1907 an oval table was introduced in England by way of a
change, but this variety is not here considered.
[2] A later form of "lawn-billiards" again enjoyed a brief popularity
during the latter half of the 19th century. It was played on a lawn,
in the centre of which was a metal ring about 51/2 in. in diameter,
planted upright in such a manner as to turn freely on its axis on a
level with the ground. The players, two or more, were provided with
implements resembling cues about 4 ft. long and ending in wire loops
somewhat smaller in diameter than the wooden balls (one for each
player), which were of such a size as barely to pass through the
ring. In modern times such games as billiards have afforded scope for
various imitations and modifications of this sort.
BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH (1768?-1818), British opera-singer, was born in
London, her father being a German musician named Weichsel, and her
mother a popular vocalist. She was trained in music, and at fourteen
sang at a concert in Oxford. In 1783 she married James Billington, a
double-bass player. She had a voice of unusual compass, and as Rosetta
in _Love in a Village_ she had a great success at Covent Garden in 1786,
being engaged for the season at a salary of L1000, a large sum for those
days. Her position as a singer in London was now assured. In 1794 she
and her husband went to Italy, and Mrs Billington appeared at Naples
(where she was the heroine of a new opera, _Inez di Castro_, written for
her by F. Bianchi), at Florence, at Venice and at Milan. Her husband
died suddenly during the tour, and in 1799 she married a Frenchman named
Felissent, whom, however, she left in 1801. Returning to England she
appeared alternately at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, her professional
income during 1801 amounting to between L10,000 and L15,000.
Henceforward she sang in Italian opera till the end of 1810, when
ill-health forced her to abandon her profession. In 1817 she was
reconciled to her husband, and went with him to live near Venice, where
she died on the 25th of August 1818.
BILLITON (Dutch _Blitoeng_), an island of the Dutch East Indies, between
Banka and Borneo, from which it is separated respectively by Caspar and
Karimata straits. Politically it is under an assistant resident. It is
roughly circular in form, its extreme measurements being 55 m. by 43,
and its area 1773 sq. m. In physical structure and in products it
resembles Banka; its coasts are sandy or marshy; in the interior an
extreme elevation of 1670 ft. is found. The geological formation is
Devonian and granitic, with laterites. The mean annual rainfall is
heavy, 102 to 126 in. The day temperature varies from 80 deg. to 87 deg. Fahr.
The nights are very cool. Like Banka, Billiton is chiefly noted for its
production of tin, the island forming the southern limit of the
occurrence of this metal in this locality. There are upwards of 80
mines, which employ some 7500 workmen, and have produced more than 6500
tons of tin in a year. Iron is also worked. On the rocks along the coast
are found tortoises, trepang and edible birds' nests, which are articles
of export. The forests supply wood of different kinds for boat-building,
in which the inhabitants are expert; and also provide trade in
cocoa-nuts, sago, gum and other produce. The population is about 42,000,
of whom some 12,000 are Chinese. The natives belong to two classes, the
_Orang Darat_, the aborigines, thought to be akin to the Battas and
other branches of the pre-Malayan or Indonesian race; and the _Orang
Sekah_, people of Malayan stock who live in boats. The coast is as a
rule difficult of access, being beset with rocks and coral banks, and
the best harbour is that at the chief town of Tanjong Pandan on the west
coast. The island was formerly under the sultan of Palembang, by whom it
was ceded to the British in 1812. As no mention was made of it in the
treaty between the British and Dutch in 1814, the former at first
refused to renounce their possession, and only recognized the Dutch
claim in 1824. Till 1852 Billiton was dependent on Banka.
BILL OF EXCHANGE, a form of negotiable instrument, defined below, the
history of which, though somewhat obscure, was ably summed up by Lord
Chief Justice Cockburn in his judgment in _Goodwinn_ v. _Robarts_
(1875), L.R. 10 Ex. pp. 346-358. Bills of exchange were probably
invented by Florentine Jews. They were well known in England in the
middle ages, though there is no reported decision on a bill of exchange
before the year 1603. At first their use seems to have been confined to
foreign bills between English and foreign merchants. It was afterwards
extended to domestic bills between traders, and finally to bills of all
persons, whether traders or not. But for some time after they had come
into general employment, bills were always alleged in legal proceedings
to be drawn _secundum usum et consuetudinem mercatorum_. The foundations
of modern English law were laid by Lord Mansfield with the aid of juries
of London merchants. No better tribunal of commerce could have been
devised. Subsequent judicial decisions have developed and systematized
the principles thus laid down. Promissory notes are of more modern
origin than bills of exchange, and their validity as negotiable
instruments was doubtful until it was confirmed by a statute of Anne
(1704). Cheques are the creation of the modern system of banking.
Before 1882 the English law was to be found in 17 statutes dealing with
isolated points, and about 2600 cases scattered over some 300 volumes of
reports. The Bills of Exchange Act 1882 codifies for the United Kingdom
the law relating to bills of exchange, promissory notes and cheques. One
peculiar Scottish rule is preserved, but in other respects uniform rules
are laid down for England, Scotland and Ireland. After glancing briefly
at the history of these instruments, it will probably be convenient to
discuss the subject in the order followed by the act, namely, first, to
treat of a bill of exchange, which is the original and typical
negotiable instrument, and then to refer to the special provisions which
apply to promissory notes and cheques. Two salient characteristics
distinguish negotiable instruments from other engagements to pay money.
In the first place, the assignee of a negotiable instrument, to whom it
is transferred by indorsement or delivery according to its tenor, can
sue thereon in his own name; and, secondly, he holds it by an
independent title. If he takes it in good faith and for value, he takes
it free from "all equities," that is to say, all defects of title or
grounds of defence which may have attached to it in the hands of any
previous party. These characteristic privileges were conferred by the
law merchant, which is part of the common law, and are now confirmed by
statute.
_Definition._--By Sec. 3 of the act a bill of exchange is defined to be "an
unconditional order in writing, addressed by one person to another,
signed by the person giving it, requiring the person to whom it is
addressed to pay on demand or at a fixed or determinable future time a
sum certain in money to or to the order of a specified person, or to
bearer."[1] The person who gives the order is called the drawer. The
person thereby required to pay is called the drawee. If he assents to
the order, he is then called the acceptor. An acceptance must be in
writing and must be signed by the drawee. The mere signature of the
drawee is sufficient (Sec. 17). The person to whom the money is payable is
called the payee. The person to whom a bill is transferred by
indorsement is called the indorsee. The generic term "holder" includes
any person in possession of a bill who holds it either as payee,
indorsee or bearer. A bill which in its origin is payable to order
becomes payable to bearer if it is indorsed in blank. If the payee is a
fictitious person the bill may be treated as payable to bearer (Sec. 7).