Peace and Reconstruction
To a far greater extent than in the United States, England, while the
war was still in progress, looked ahead to the problems which would
inevitably arise when the country shifted back to a peace basis.
As early as the summer of 1916 discussion of methods of adjustment from
war to peace had begun. A “Ministry of Reconstruction” was created in
August, 1917, succeeding a “Reconstruction Committee of the Cabinet,”
which had been appointed over a year earlier. It is noteworthy that as
time went on “the idea of reconstruction, of a simple return to prewar
conditions, was gradually supplanted by the larger and worthier ideal
of a better world after the war.”[267] The aim of the reconstruction
movement came to be not simply to tide over the transition from war
to peace but also to remedy the prewar evils which war experience had
disclosed.
[267] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Reconstruction
Pamphlet_ No. 1, “The Aims of Reconstruction,” 1918, p. 4.
Many conferences discussed “reconstruction,” and a multitude of books
and pamphlets kept the printing presses busy. The point of view of
labor was put forward in that remarkable document, “Labour and the
New Social Order,” later adopted as the platform of the reorganized
Labor party. A “Joint Committee on Labour Problems after the War”
representing the most important labor bodies also put out a number of
pamphlets on special subjects. The Ministry of Reconstruction through
numerous subcommittees dealt with a wide variety of concrete problems,
such as shipping, finance, the allocation of raw materials, rural
development, military demobilization, health, housing and education.
The “Civil War Workers Committee,” the “Committee on Joint Standing
Industrial Councils,” and the “Women’s Advisory Committee on the
Domestic Service Problem,” were among those dealing with questions
affecting the woman worker. But when the armistice came many plans
were not complete, and in only a few cases had the machinery for
putting them into effect actually been created. So in spite of the
really remarkable extent of their attention to after war conditions
the English had after all to trust in large part to hastily improvised
schemes or to chance.
There were three principal problems affecting the woman worker which
pressed for attention during the reconstruction period. First, the
prevention of unemployment as the flood of war orders subsided was
alone sufficient to tax the resources of the best statesmanship.[268]
Second, there was the question of industrial opportunities for the
“dilutees,” who had taken up work formerly reserved for skilled men
under government pledges or unofficial agreements that pre-existing
conditions would be restored at the end of the war. Third, equality
of payment where men and women were doing similar work had become a
burning issue, responsible for no small share of the labor unrest
prevalent during the latter part of the war.
[268] The Women’s Employment Committee of the Ministry of
Reconstruction held that the question of what disposition should be
made of the national factories was also one of major importance.
The committee suggested that work in these factories, if they were
retained by the government, could be so regulated as largely to prevent
unemployment by manufacturing goods for which an early demand could
be foreseen. Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Report of the
Women’s Employment Committee_ (Cd. 9239) 1919, p. 4.
While unemployment prevention, though no small problem, was merely a
matter of industrial readjustment temporary in nature, action on the
other two questions promised to lead to an extensive reconstruction of
prewar conditions. In whatever was done it was necessary to take into
account the fact that the labor movement was larger and more militant
than before the war, with a definite program which would not be
satisfied even with the best of working conditions, but which demanded
a voice in the shaping of the whole conduct of industry.
_Postwar Unemployment among Women_
It was generally anticipated that an unemployment crisis would follow
the cessation of war activities, in which, as at the beginning of
the struggle, women workers would suffer more than men, since so
large a proportion of them were working in war industries, taking
the places of men only for the duration of the war. Among munition
workers in the engineering trade “the great majority of male workers
will probably continue,” said the Civil War Workers Committee, “but
there can be little doubt that large numbers of women workers will
be definitely discharged.”[269] It estimated that 420,000 women
munition workers would lose their jobs at the end of the war. Public
attention was forcibly called to the danger by the sudden discharge
of several thousand women munition makers in the spring of 1917, on
account of a change in the kind of munitions needed. The women were
suddenly dismissed without the slightest provision for finding them new
positions—“turned off,” said one writer, “with as little ceremony as
one turns off the gas.” Although many women were then needed in other
branches of munition work there was, for a time, much confusion and
distress.
[269] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, Civil War Workers
Committee, _First Interim Report_, p. 5.
The official agency charged with developing a plan for the prevention
of unemployment among war workers was the “Civil War Workers Committee”
appointed by the Ministry of Reconstruction. The committee was
authorized to “consider and report upon the arrangements which should
be made for the demobilization of workers engaged during the war in
national factories, controlled establishments, in other firms engaged
in the production of munitions of war and on government contracts, or
in firms where substitute labour has been employed for the duration
of the war,” and its six reports outline such plans in considerable
detail. Most of the recommendations applied to men and women alike.
They included the aid of the government principally through its
employment exchanges, in helping discharged war workers find other
employment, two weeks’ notice or two weeks’ wages to all employes
on government contracts, free railroad passes to those who had left
home to work on munitions and encouragement to private employers, the
government and foreign customers to place postwar orders before the
end of the conflict. As soon as there was “a reasonable prospect of
peace” the employment exchanges should canvass employers for peace
time openings and register available employes. On the ground that
it was impracticable to distinguish between war workers and others
and impossible to select with assurance the trades most liable to
unemployment during the reconstruction period the committee advised a
general extension of the existing plan of unemployment insurance. On
a scheme which had received considerable comment in certain quarters,
that of granting every munition worker a month’s vacation with pay, the
committee reported adversely by a vote of twelve to seven.
In reviewing the probable position of women workers after the war, the
committee noted that outside the metal and chemical industries, the
bulk were in commercial and clerical occupations. It recommended the
establishment of still another committee to “consider the conditions
of women’s employment” in these lines. A fairly comprehensive program
for the “demobilization” of temporary clerks in government departments
was laid out. A special employment exchange working with the Civil
Service Commission, the arrangement of training courses, special
consideration to the temporary clerks in making new appointments and
determination of the future position of women in government employment
were urged. But in behalf of clerical workers in private employment
the only recommendation was the provision, when necessary, of advisory
committees in connection with the employment exchanges. Women farm
workers were not believed to need help in adjusting themselves and on
the railways the future position of the women could be settled only by
agreement between the companies and the unions.
Despite the protests of the workers and the efforts of official
committees, anticipations as to widespread unemployment were all too
accurately fulfilled. In the month before the armistice, October, 1918,
the official _Labour Gazette_ reported the state of employment as “very
good. Much overtime was worked in nearly all the principal trades.”
But by December there was “a marked decline in employment, especially
for women.” In the first week of the new year, nearly 225,000 women
were receiving the weekly “donations” for unemployed war workers,[270]
in contrast to 101,000 men. Four months later, in May, of the 63,930
persons receiving reduced donations after having been paid for thirteen
weeks, nearly two-thirds were women. The number of civilians in receipt
of “donations” rose each week until the first week in March, when
it reached a total of 494,000 women and 234,000 men. From that time
on the number of unemployed war workers gradually decreased, until
on November 21, three days prior to discontinuance, there were only
34,271 female applicants for out-of-work donations.[271] Yet on the
whole, even though there was for a few months an alarming amount of
unemployment among women workers, officials held that British industry
adjusted itself to peace more quickly than it had to war. A long list
of factories which had changed from war to peace products, for instance
from airplanes to furniture and from fuses to electric equipment,
was given as early as February. Government control of raw materials
was used to aid the transition, and priority was given to certain
essentials in using the productive capacity set free from war work.
[270] _Vide_ p. 246.
[271] _Vide_ Appendix L for detailed figures on unemployment among
women workers after the armistice.
The independence among women workers which had developed during
the war was reflected in their attitude during the period of great
unemployment. In the similar crisis at the beginning of the war they
had been inarticulate. But on February 15, 1919, their organizations
arranged a meeting in Albert Hall, London, attended by women
representing nearly every trade, at which women speakers dwelt on the
folly of unemployment while the country was in need of all kinds of
manufactured articles. Resolutions were passed giving the three points
of the “Women’s Charter”—“the right to work, the right to live and the
right to leisure.” It was held that all workers by hand or brain should
unite, and that work should be provided for the unemployed. An adequate
living wage, an eight hour day and a forty hour week were advocated as
standards for working conditions. A deputation was organized to take
the resolutions to the Prime Minister, but apparently he did not reply
to them.[272]
[272] United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, _Monthly Labor Review_,
May, 1919, pp. 242-243.
The measures actually adopted by the government show many traces of
the Civil War Workers Committee recommendations, though, hastily put
in force as they were, they were much less complete, and in some cases
widely different. The arrangements made but little distinction between
men and women workers. The whole process of “demobilizing” war workers
was put in charge of a “controller general” responsible to the Ministry
of Labor, who controlled the employment exchanges, a new “Appointments
Branch” for “men of office rank” and the labor departments of the
Ministry of Munitions, the Admiralty and the War Office. The employment
exchanges were made the center for the transfer of war workers. By the
day after the armistice the recall of employment exchange officials
from the army had been arranged. Staff and premises were enlarged and
additional local advisory committees formed. Various efforts were
made to provide raw materials and to hasten the change to peace time
work by munition manufacturers. Instructions to manufacturers asked
them to avoid an immediate general discharge of workers, to abolish
all overtime and piece work at once, and to retain as many workers as
possible on short time. If wages under this plan fell below certain
levels, which were for women 25s. ($6.00) a week, the government agreed
to make up the difference. In case of actual discharge, a week’s
notice or a week’s pay was to be given, and free railway passes home
or to new work places were provided. “The loyal and cordial cooperation
of all employers” in carrying out the directions was invited, but
nothing is at hand to show to what extent they were observed or how far
they lessened unemployment. It will be noted that men and women workers
were treated practically alike under this scheme. The “Waacs” and other
women auxiliaries of the army and navy were demobilized under the same
conditions as all members of the military forces, receiving, besides
certain gratuities, a civilian outfit, four weeks’ pay and a railway
pass.
Special provision for unemployed women through training courses was
outlined in a pamphlet issued by the government in the spring of
1919.[273] It was stated that a large number of typical women’s trades,
such as clothing, textiles, food manufacture and laundry work, would be
covered by short training courses of from one to six months’ duration,
usually three months. In addition a special course in housekeeping
would be offered. The courses might be given in any suitable place,
such as a factory, as well as in trade schools and the government
instructional factories formerly used for training munition workers.
Approved students were to receive 15s. to 25s. ($3.50-$6.00) a week
while taking the course, with traveling fares if necessary, and an
additional 10s. ($2.40) weekly if obliged to live away from home.
[273] _Vide The Common Cause_, May 9, 1919, p. 1.
When the government adopted for immediate action the plans for
relieving unemployment previously outlined it also put forward
certain other schemes for decreasing unemployment during the later
reconstruction period, which included the stimulation of orders
and contracts, public and private, an increase in public works and
improvements and the extension of contributory unemployment insurance
to practically all workers.
The chief reliance of the government in dealing with unemployment
after the armistice was not a contributory insurance plan, but a
system of unemployment “donations.” Before the war contributory
unemployment insurance, paying 7s. ($1.68) a week to unemployed workers
for fifteen weeks a year from a fund created through small weekly
contributions for employers, employes and the government, covered
2,200,000 workers in six trades, almost all of whom were males. In
1916 the law was extended for a period of from three to five years
after the end of the war to include most of the chief war industries
with an additional 1,500,000 employes, including many women. But by
an emergency order made within a few weeks after the armistice, the
contributory insurance law was temporarily superseded by a scheme of
“donations” applying also to all war workers not previously covered
and all ex-soldiers and sailors. Free policies were issued, at first
good in the case of civilians for six months beginning November 25,
1918, and in the case of soldiers, for twelve months from the date of
demobilization. The policies provided their holders with donations
while unemployed for thirteen weeks if civilians and twenty-six
weeks if soldiers. The original scale was 20s. ($4.80) weekly for
women workers, which was raised after a few weeks to 25s. ($6.00).
Additional payments were made for dependent children, amounting to 6s.
($1.44) weekly for the first and 3s. (72 cents) for each succeeding
child. A later amendment permitted payments to civilians for an
additional thirteen weeks at a reduced rate, which was, for women,
15s. ($3.60) weekly. Later, in May, 1919, when according to the terms
of the original order all donation policies held by civilians would
have expired, they were renewed for an additional six months. Except
for ex-service men and women, the system was finally discontinued
on November 25, 1919. At this date 137,000 civilians were receiving
donations, of whom 29,000 were females. All donations were paid through
the employment exchanges and could be stopped if the recipients refused
“to accept suitable employment.”
Undoubtedly the system of unemployment donations prevented much
suffering among thousands of wage earners to whom the country was
indebted for their war work. But as a whole its operation can not be
said to have been satisfactory, particularly among women employes. An
entire session of the House of Commons was devoted mainly to criticisms
of the system and its defence by the Minister of Labor. Complaints of
“slackers” who were taking a vacation at the taxpayers’ expense were
met by charges that women were being forced to take places at sweated
wages by refusals to pay the unemployment donations. In the five months
ending April 25, 1919, claims for donations numbering 141,770 were
disallowed, in 100,442 of which cases appeals to the referees were
made. Only 27,536 of the appealed claims were finally allowed, 81 per
cent of the women’s claims being denied, about half of them on the
ground of “refusal to accept suitable employment.”[274]
[274] _Labour Gazette_, May, 1919, pp. 171 and 187.
The Ministry of Labor, which administered the unemployment donations,
admitted that an unsatisfied demand for women workers existed in
domestic service, laundries, the needle work trades and in some
districts in the textile industry at the same time that half a million
women were out of work. But the places open were either very highly
skilled or grossly underpaid and unattractive. For one firm which
needed 5,000 workers, the employment exchanges could find only fifty
women who seemed qualified, of whom the firm hired only fifteen.
The association of laundrymen even appealed to the government to bring
pressure to bear on the women to accept work, but apparently no action
was taken in answer to the demand. The women workers themselves said
that when the government had raised the rate of unemployment donations
from 20s. to 25s. weekly on the ground that a single woman could not
live on less, they could not be expected to enter laundries at 18s.
($4.32) a week.
Other less prominent difficulties of adjustment were the reluctance of
soldiers’ wives to enter new kinds of work when they would retire from
industry in a few months, and the unwillingness of women in general to
go from the comparatively high wages of munitions to the low wages of
learners and to factories lacking the conveniences of the new munitions
plants.
Criticism of the system was so widespread that an official
investigating committee was formed which issued two reports.[275] The
committee concluded that there had been no widespread fraud, though
under the plan as first put in operation it was possible legally for
persons who were not genuinely seeking work to abuse the scheme. The
committee felt, however, that the emergency had been great and that
if the later safeguards had been introduced in the beginning the
whole system might have broken down. They recommended, among other
points, swifter prosecution of fraud, a contributory rather than a
noncontributory plan, and discontinuance of allowances based on the
number of dependents. They felt that applicants must not expect exactly
the same sort of work or wage rates that they had had during the war,
and that donations should be stopped if similar work was refused.
[275] Committee of Inquiry into the Scheme of Out-of-Work Donation.
_Interim Report_ (Cmd. 196), _Final Report_ (Cmd. 305).
_The Domestic Service Problem_
Some of the main difficulties and the keenest discussion centered on
the question of domestic service. That the Ministry of Reconstruction
found it advisable to appoint a “Women’s Advisory Committee on the
Domestic Service Problem,” which made a formal report, indicates the
extent of agitation on the subject. It will be recalled that during the
war the number of household servants decreased by 400,000. Householders
seemingly expected that as soon as the war was over this shortage would
be made up from the ranks of ex-munition workers. But this failed to
occur. Some dissatisfaction with the wages offered, most frequently
10s. to 13s. ($2.40 to $3.12 a week, with board) was expressed, but
the chief complaint was that of long hours and unsatisfactory personal
treatment.
Various schemes for attracting workers by improving conditions were
put forward, some of which involved radical changes from the usual
customs. The majority of the official Women’s Advisory Committee,
however, placed its chief emphasis in solving the problem merely on the
provision of improved methods of training, notably a two year course
to be entered by girls of fourteen. Other groups, such as the Fabian
Women’s Group and the Women’s Industrial Council, advocated plans which
in essence abolished all “living in,” and provided for hostels giving
training which would send qualified workers into the homes for a fixed
number of hours. By May the Young Women’s Christian Association was
ready to open a hostel in London from which workers were to be sent
out on an eight hour basis. Employers were to pay 10d. (20 cents)
an hour to the hostel, and the workers were to receive 30s. ($7.20)
for a forty-eight hour week, and to pay the hostel £1 ($4.80) weekly
for board, for a guarantee against unemployment, for use of uniform
and club privileges. If the hostel was successful, others were to be
started.[276]
[276] _London Times_, May 1, 1919.
Meanwhile an active movement for union organization among domestic
servants was begun, and forty branches having 4,000 members were formed
in the four or five months after the armistice. The chief aim of the
union was said to be the raising of the status of domestic service
so that the workers would be proud of it. Its standards seemed to be
comparatively modest—a minimum weekly wage of 12s. 6d. ($2.40) for
general servants and 15s. ($3.60) for cooks, a ten hour work day during
a fourteen hour period, part of Sunday and another half day off weekly
and abolition of uniforms. This last demand perhaps represented the
sharpest departure from prevailing customs. In Glasgow a “Mistresses’
League” was formed to cooperate with the union, and it was the general
opinion of persons interested that both sides needed organizing.
Still “a house is not a factory,” and there were not wanting friends of
the women worker to point out that domestic service must necessarily
remain to some extent individual and unstandardized.
I am profoundly sceptical as to the various “industrialised”
suggestions put forward—the introduction of shifts, etc.
How could a household worker strictly on a shift system deal
with the irregular incursion of visitors, children home for
the holidays, measles, influenza, spring cleaning and other
ills to which mortal flesh is heir?...
From the maid’s point of view, I take it the main
disadvantages of domestic service are twofold; the question
of free evenings and the uncertainty as to the type of
household. Time off in the afternoon is naturally of less
value than time off at night. Similarly a maid may find
herself on taking a new situation in a comfortable home or
very much the reverse.
In a house organized on proper lines, domestic service has
compensations as well as drawbacks. A just mistress will
arrange for adequate time off, even if the home can not
be laid down each week with mathematical exactness. She
will see that her maids are properly housed, that their
food is adequate and properly cooked, that their work is
organized on sensible lines and gives as much scope as
possible for individual responsibility. In a household which
lives literally as a family and is inspired with mutual
consideration and good will “that servant problem” simply
does not exist. When mutual consideration and good will are
lacking neither corps, caps, correspondence nor conferences
will create the cement by which a contented household is
held together.[277]
[277] Violet Markham in _The Labour Woman_, June, 1919, p. 59.
It is difficult to tell how far these new schemes will change the
conditions of housekeeping and lessen unemployment by attracting women
to domestic service. But the fact that they were put forward is an
interesting sign of the extent of the movement for reconstructing the
national life on better lines.
_Dilution and Equal Pay_
The other two chief problems of the women workers in the
reconstruction period, that of the “dilutees,” who had taken up men’s
work during the war, and that of “equal pay for equal work” and an
adequate standard of wages for women workers generally, were closely
related to each other. Much of the opposition of the men workers to
the entrance of women into new occupations was based on the fact that
women’s wage standards were lower than those of men. In most cases, it
will be remembered, dilution had taken place under promises that it
would last only during the war. Parliament, by the Munitions Act, had
given the government’s pledge that departures from prewar practices
should be merely temporary in the establishments covered.[278] Similar
clauses, often even more explicit, were found in practically all
the substitution agreements made by private employers with labor
organizations.[279] Meanwhile the fixing of women’s wages by law
had been widely extended, and, in the opinion of close students of
labor problems, “a removal of the statutory regulations might well be
followed by a serious and immediate fall in wages.”[280]
[278] _Vide_ p. 55.
[279] _Vide_ p. 62.
[280] G. D. H. and M. I. Cole, _Regulation of Wages_, p. 17.
The government in several instances took action on matters connected
with women’s wages and occupations after the war, but it is not too
harsh to say that a disposition to tide over difficulties temporarily
rather than to define any very clear line of policy was evident. Two
laws were passed affecting the after war wages of women. The Trade
Boards (minimum wage) Act was extended in 1918, before the close of
the war, as a measure of preparedness for peace. “There is reason to
fear that the after war dislocation of industry will make the problem
of adequate wages for unskilled and unorganized workers, especially
women, very acute,” said an official explanation of the changes in the
act.[281] “Eight years’ satisfactory results of Trade Boards pointed to
these as the best way of meeting the situation.” The new law provided
that boards might be formed wherever wages were _unduly_ low, instead
of _exceptionally_ low as in the original law. The general wage
level for women workers was so low before the war that it had often
been difficult to prove an “exceptional” condition. Provisions were
also made to have minimum wage awards come into force more quickly.
By the spring of 1919 new Trade Boards had been formed in eight
industries.[282] They apparently fixed wages for women on the basis
of the necessary cost of living for a single woman—28s. ($6.72) for a
forty-eight hour week in laundries, for example.
[281] _Labour Gazette_, August, 1918, p. 307.
[282] Tobacco; aerated waters; boot and shoe repairing; paper bag
making; brush and broom making; hair, bass, and fibre trade; laundries;
corsets.
But the Trade Boards covered only a fraction of the industries of the
country, and further measures were considered necessary to prevent a
dislocation of wages. Following the advice of a committee appointed
by the Ministry of Reconstruction, the Wages (Temporary Regulation)
Bill was passed November 21, 1918. This act required employers to
pay the “prescribed” or “substituted” rate which prevailed at the
time of the armistice for a period of six months. In May, 1919, the
provisions of the act were extended for another six months. Under
this law an Interim Court of arbitration was set up which handled the
arbitration of disputed wage cases. During the year of its existence
it made 932 awards and advised on several others. On November 20,
1919, this Interim Court was displaced by the Industrial Courts Act,
which in addition to its function of voluntary arbitration, extended
certain parts of the Wages Temporary Regulation Act until September 30,
1920.[283] At the close of the war the greatest number of women were
substituting for men on semi-skilled and repetition processes, and it
was therefore semi-skilled men who were menaced most immediately by
the danger of undercutting by the women. But in the rapid extension of
specialized work during the war lay an evident threat to the position
of the skilled worker. A right solution of the two questions, in which
the interests of all the groups concerned would be safeguarded, would
apparently involve a modification of prewar conditions, rather than a
return to them.
[283] Great Britain, Ministry of Labour, _Labour Gazette_, December,
1919, pp. 514, 515.
Three points of view were evident in English opinion about women’s
work and wages after the armistice. The first point of view was,
briefly, that women workers would and should return to their prewar
occupations. But little attention was given to the question of their
wage level. Whether such a return was possible or just to the women
themselves, or whether they might not be excluded for a time but
remain potential competitors with low wage standards, thus bringing
about the very danger they were trying to avoid—all this was seemingly
not considered. Though relatively seldom expressed in print it was a
viewpoint held widely and tenaciously. Government officials, visiting
America in November, 1917, for instance, said that marriage, the return
of married women to their homes and the revival of the luxury trades
and domestic service, would relieve the situation. Many old line trade
unionists also believed that women should not be allowed to remain in
most of their new lines of work, and demanded the literal fulfilment
of all pledges to that effect. The general secretary of the Postal
and Telegraph Clerks’ Association, at a conference of “Working Class
Associations” said as to the basis of suitable occupations:
My own view, for what it is worth, is that this problem could be
solved with very little trouble. I think a careful study of the
census returns for the last thirty years would help to solve the
problem of the basis of suitability. We could safely conclude that
the occupations which, according to the census, show a steady and
persistent increase in the number of women employed are suitable
occupations for the extension of women’s labour. I think we must
face it ... that, as far as we can see at present, the prewar
standard for fixing wages as between men and women is likely to
remain.
A second point of view, which might be termed the “moderate” one,
compromising between prewar and war conditions, advocated the retention
of women in all “suitable” occupations, together with an extension
of protective labor legislation, protection of the wage level by
minimum wage fixing, and “equal pay for equal work” where men and
women remained in the same occupations. This opinion was evident
in the two chief official reports on women’s work which have been
issued since the armistice, that of the Home Office on “Substitution
of Women in Nonmunition Factories during the War” and that of the
“War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry.” The former described
a fairly large range of new employments as “suitable” for women,
including positions in scientific laboratory work, supervision and
management, as well as factory processes. Even with all unsuitable
occupations set aside, there remained “a body of industries and
operations offering a hopeful field of fresh employment to women,
where their war experience can be turned to account, and should prove
a national asset of great value.” Among the approved trades were light
leather tanning, fancy leather manufacture, box and packing case
making, furniture, scientific instrument making, flint glass cutting
and engraving, and cutlery, except scissors manufacture. The factors
causing an occupation to be disapproved were the heaviness of the work,
the use of dangerous machinery or poisonous substances, the presence
of exceptional heat, wet or dirt and the necessity for night work or
solitary employment.[284] Basing its conclusions on considerations of
“efficiency” and relative output, the War Cabinet Committee decided
that women would probably not remain in heavy manual labor and out
door work. There had not been time during the war to judge of their
effectiveness in skilled work, but in routine and repetition processes,
into which the war had hastened their “normal” movement, they had
been successful and were likely to stay permanently. Repetition work
in the metal trades, light work in chemical plants, certain processes
in printing, woodworking and manufacture, agriculture, commerce
and government positions, and many of the new administrative and
professional openings for educated women, were mentioned by the War
Cabinet Committee as providing possibilities for the continued work of
women.[285] But both reports recognized that many other factors besides
suitability, notably the attitude of the trade unions, would play an
important part in determining the position of the woman worker.
[284] _Vide_ Appendix M (p. 249) for list of “unsuitable” occupations.
[285] The report of the “Machinery of Government Committee” took a
similar position, advocating in a rather guarded way the increased
employment of women in the civil service, including the upper division,
from which they had been excluded before the war.
The chief purpose of the investigations of the War Cabinet Committee
was to decide on the proper relation between the wages of men and
of women. The majority of the committee concluded that when men and
women did radically different work, it was “not possible to lay down
a relation between their wages.” However, for the protection of women
workers they urged a universal minimum wage for adult women, sufficient
to cover the necessary cost of living for a single woman. The extension
and strengthening of protective labor laws was also endorsed, and
the possibility of such regulation through international action was
welcomed. But when the two sexes had entered the same occupations, the
committee subscribed to the principle of equal pay for equal work, “in
the sense that pay should be in proportion to efficient output.” The
committee believed that piece rates should be equal and time rates
should be fixed by trade union negotiation. In the frequent case in
which a woman was doing part of a man’s job, the total rate should be
unchanged, and the different workers should be paid in proportion to
the value of their contribution. Where processes were simplified on the
introduction of women, the women should be paid the unskilled men’s
rate, unless it could be proved that their work was of less value.
The third position regarding women’s wages and women on men’s jobs was
clear cut and uncompromising and was perhaps typified in a minority
report to the War Cabinet Committee by Mrs. Sidney Webb. In this report
Mrs. Webb expressed the belief that existing relations between men’s
and women’s employment were harmful to individuals and to the nation.
All occupations should be opened to qualified persons regardless of
sex, at the same standard rates and under the same working conditions.
“Equal pay for equal work” was an ambiguous and easily evaded phrase.
A national legal minimum wage should also be fixed, in which “there
should be no sex inequality.” As a corollary to the proposals Mrs.
Webb believed that some form of public provision for the needs of
maternity and childhood should be established. “There seems no
alternative—assuming that the nation wants children—to some form of
state provision, entirely apart from wages.”[286]
[286] Great Britain, _Report of the War Cabinet Committee on Women in
Industry, Minority Report_, p. 255.
Eighteen months after the signing of the armistice it was still hardly
possible to know definitely what the after war wages and occupations
of the woman worker would be. After war industrial conditions in
themselves naturally stimulated some return of women to their former
occupations. Many of the women substitutes were found in munition
making which was immediately curtailed, while the luxury, the needle
and other “women’s” trades, depressed during the war may be expected
to revive in time. The reluctance of women to enter these trades under
the prevailing wage standards was very pronounced, however. Another
important factor in forcing women back to prewar lines of work was the
carrying out of certain war time substitution agreements. For example,
the newly formed industrial council of the wool textile industry,
representing employers and employes, adopted on February 3, 1919, the
substitution agreement made between employers and work people of the
West Riding of Yorkshire three years before. By the terms of this
agreement, the returning soldiers were to get their places back when
fit for employment. Women were not to be employed on men’s work if
men were available and were to be the first discharged if there was a
shortage of work. As long as women substitutes remained in the industry
they were to be paid on a basis equivalent to that of men workers.
But in other cases, even though similar agreements exist, it appears
probable that they will be modified to allow women to keep at least
some of their new jobs. Although the Amalgamated Society of Engineers
had the legal sanction of the Munitions Acts for excluding women from
engineering at the end of the war, at a conference between employers
and the union for drafting an after war trade agreement their president
expressed his willingness to allow women to remain in semi-skilled
repetition work. According to this official much of this kind of work
would be carried on in munition plants converted into factories for
the manufacture of articles formerly imported. Officials expect the
so-called “Whitley” industrial councils of employers and employes to
make many similar adjustments, but it has been noted that the council
in the woolen industry merely reverted to prewar conditions and
arranged to shut out the women. Moreover, in many new occupations,
notably clerical and commercial work, which women entered without
conditions, and where their efficiency has been demonstrated, it seems
almost certain that they will remain. The awakened spirit among women
workers and the growth of labor organizations among them, which will
give voice to their demands, must also not be forgotten in judging
whether women will not continue to occupy at least a part of their
new field of work. The radical point of view, that there should be
no barriers against their continuing all their new occupations has
attracted much attention from its logical presentation and the new note
that it strikes.
The position of the government on “dilution” is not wholly clear.
During the Parliamentary campaign of December, 1918, Lloyd George,
in answer to questions from Lady Rhondda of the Women’s Industrial
League, stated that he intended to carry out the terms of the Treasury
Agreement of 1915, which promised to restore prewar practices. But
“the government had never agreed that new industries come under the
Treasury Agreement.” Women could find employment in these, which were
already extensive, and in their prewar occupations. The Prime Minister
also stated that he was “a supporter of the principle of equal pay
for equal output. To permit women to be the catspaw for reducing the
level of wages is unthinkable.” In his stand at this time, Lloyd George
appeared to approach the middle-of-the-road compromising position of
the majority of the War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry.
A somewhat similar stand was taken in the “Restoration of Prewar
Practices Act” of August 15, 1919, which arranged for the fulfilment
of pledges made in the Treasury Agreement. It required the owners of
the establishments covered—mainly those engaged in munitions work—to
restore or permit the restoration of prewar trade rules and customs,
and to allow such prewar practices to be continued for a year.
Rules laid down by the Ministry of Labour are quoted, however, which
would turn out all the “dilutees,” both male and female, and give
back to the skilled men their former monopoly. The rules state that
wherever a part of the force must be discharged, the “dilutees” must
go first and that if a skilled man applies for work, a “dilutee” must
be discharged if necessary.[287] It is probable that these rules apply
only to establishments covered by the Munition Acts, but, as far as
they go, they leave the women nothing of their war time gains.
[287] _Scientific American_, June 7, 1919.
On the other hand, in assenting to the recommendations of the national
Industrial Conference, the government agreed with those who argued
for the same protective legislation for both sexes along with state
maternity provisions. This national industrial conference, representing
employers and employes was called in the spring of 1919 during great
labor unrest. It urged legislation for a forty-eight hour week and a
universal minimum wage for both sexes, and such bills were pending in
Parliament in September, 1919.
The conference also proposed that public provision for maternity
care be extended and centralized under the Ministry of Health to
whose creation the government was pledged. Maternity protection will
undoubtedly hold a prominent place in legislation during the next few
years. The successful strike of the women bus workers for equal pay,
supported as they were by their male coworkers and by the public, gave
hope for the coming of industrial equality between men and women. Such
equality immediately raises the question of pay for the services which
married women render to the state. The rearing of healthy children is
of vital national importance and the endowment of motherhood, provision
of milk and proper food for pregnant and nursing mothers and the
extension of maternity centers and hospitals with medical and nursing
care, are already under consideration by the newly created Ministry of
Health.
_Child Workers After the War_
On the needs of children there was much more general agreement. The
most pressing problem was prevention of unemployment during the
readjustment from war to peace time production. The larger issue lay in
greater public control over the first years of working life, to the end
that the young workers might grow into better citizens. Both problems
were undoubtedly made more difficult by the harm done to boys and girls
in body and character by the war. But at the same time the war had
roused a greater appreciation of the value of these future citizens and
a greater determination to improve their chances.
Alarming forecasts were made as to the probable extent of unemployment
among boys and girls at the end of the war by a committee of enquiry
appointed by the Ministry of Labour at the suggestion of the Ministry
of Reconstruction.[288] A number of munition firms which were canvassed
said that they intended to discharge nearly half their boys and three
quarters of their girls when peace was declared. It was estimated that
60,000 out of the 200,000 working boys and girls in London would be
thrown out of a job. Acute unemployment was predicted in occupations
that had engaged more than three-tenths of all working girls—the metal,
woodworking and chemical trades, government establishments, transport
and perhaps commerce.
[288] _The Labour Gazette_, December, 1919, p. 524.
It was likewise anticipated that it would be particularly difficult
for boys and girls dismissed at the end of the war to find new places.
Not only would openings be few and the numbers of adults seeking work
be large, but the high wages children had received for repetition
work on munitions would make them unwilling to learn trades or to
accept lower pay. When a number of boys were discharged from munition
plants in 1916-1917, although labor at that time was very scarce,
great difficulty was found in getting them new places because of
their unwillingness to accept ordinary wages. To meet the crisis the
Ministry of Reconstruction committee suggested a comprehensive program
for unemployment prevention. The discharge of war workers should be
regulated and placement centered in the employment exchanges, whose
juvenile employment committees were to be strengthened. Government
establishments should hold back dismissals until notified that places
were open. A canvass for possible openings and for probable dismissals
should be made in advance of the end of the war.
The second point in the committee’s plan was keeping newcomers out of
industry. The exemptions allowing children under fourteen to leave
school should be abolished, scholarships provided for many capable
children at secondary schools, and the working weeks for all under
eighteen reduced to forty-eight hours. For those still uncared for,
training during unemployment should be provided. Training centers
should be opened in all towns of over 20,000 population and allowances
made to parents whose children attended. For the boys most demoralized
by war work it might even be necessary to open residential training
camps where they could remain at least six or eight weeks.
The third main point in the program was the improvement of working
conditions, including for all occupations a week of forty-eight hours
for work and continuation school together, the abolition of night work,
and a searching physical examination before entering industry. A novel
recommendation was that it should be made a legal offence to employ
young persons under conditions “impeding their training.”
But as was the case with the women workers, the comprehensive plans
worked out under the Ministry of Reconstruction had not been adopted
when the armistice was signed, and juvenile workers were helped through
the unemployment crisis only by the incomplete makeshifts hastily
adopted in the first few days after November 11. Chief among these
was the provision of unemployment donations, the payment of which
was conditional on attendance at a training center wherever one was
available. The donations were payable for the same period as those
for adults, that is, for thirteen weeks during the first six months
of peace, later extended for a second six months, but were less in
amount, being 14s. 6d. ($5.48) weekly for boys and 12s. 6d. ($3.00) for
girls. During the first few months of 1919, about 50,000 young persons
received the donations.
The number receiving donations steadily declined until on November 21,
1919, when civilian donations ceased, there were 8,000 boys and 2,287
girls on the Labor Exchange donation lists.[289] By February of that
year 116 training centers had been opened, providing nearly sufficient
in London, and a smaller number elsewhere. More were opening daily, but
it was hard to find teachers and rooms. The centers were managed by the
Board of Education, in close cooperation with the employment exchanges.
About 13,500 boys and girls were in attendance daily.[290]
[289] _The Labour Gazette_, December, 1919, p. 524.
[290] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Pamphlets on
Reconstruction Problems, No. 15_, “Juvenile Employment,” 1919, p. 19.
The Fisher Education Law is, to date, the chief constructive measure
looking toward a permanent improvement in the condition of juvenile
workers. This measure was the result of proposals made by 1917 by an
official committee on “Juvenile Education in Relation to Employment
after the War,” which were strikingly like those put forward by a
number of workers’ organizations. All exceptions allowing children to
leave school before the age of fourteen were abolished. Any gainful
employment by children under twelve was forbidden, and children between
twelve and fourteen might work only on Saturdays and for a few hours
after school. Attendance at continuation schools by all young workers
was required, and the age limit will be eighteen years when the law
goes into full effect. Eight hours a week and two hundred and eighty
hours a year must be given to continuation school, the time for
attendance being taken out of working hours. Unfortunately, those who
in some ways most need the protection of the law, namely, the boys
and girls who left school for work prematurely during the war, do not
come under its provisions. Two special sections exempted those who had
already left school from returning, and those fourteen years old or
more when the law was passed, from attendance at continuation classes.
Nevertheless by the enactment of this law the final effect of the war
on English child labor standards should be to lift them to a higher
level than ever before.
Even at this time of writing it is difficult to measure the final
effects of the war upon the economic conditions of the women and
children. Too many unfinished plans and unfulfilled pledges still
remain for action by the government. Far reaching changes are, however,
in prospect and some of them actually under way. Foremost among
these is the aroused spirit among the workers, who are demanding and
peacefully securing a real share in the management of industry. In this
awakening the woman worker has fully participated. The disadvantages
of war work, in long hours, overstrain, the disruption of home life,
may pass as industrial conditions return to normal. The gains in the
way of better working conditions, higher wages and a wider range of
occupations seem likely to be more permanent. Most important of all
is the fact that because of her broader and more confident outlook on
life, the woman worker is able consciously to hold to the improved
economic position to which the fortunes of war have brought her.
APPENDICES
Appendix A
The following table, from a “Report to the Board of Trade on the State
of Employment in the United Kingdom,” of February, 1915, compares the
number of males and females on full time, on overtime, on short time,
and unemployed, between September, 1914, and February, 1915.
STATE OF EMPLOYMENT IN SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER AND DECEMBER, 1914, AND
FEBRUARY, 1915
(Numbers Employed in July = 100 per cent.)
------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| September, 1914 | October, 1914 |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| M | F | M | F |
Full time | 60.2 | 53.5 | 66.8 | 61.9 |
|3,913,000|1,337,500|4,342,000|1,547,500|
| | | | |
Overtime | 3.6 | 2.1 | 5.2 | 5.9 |
| 234,000| 52,500| 338,000| 147,500|
| | | | |
Short time | 26.0 | 36.0 | 17.3 | 26.0 |
|1,690,000| 900,000|1,124,500| 650,000|
| | | | |
Contraction in | 10.2 | 8.4 | 10.7 | 6.2 |
Nos. employed | 663,000| 210,000| 695,000| 155,000|
| | | | |
Enlisted | 8.8 | ... | 10.6 | ... |
| 572,000| ... | 689,000| ... |
| | | | |
Net displacement | | | | |
(-) or | -1.4 | -8.4 | -0.1 | -6.2 |
replacement (+) | -91,000| -210,000| -6,500| -155,000|
------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| December, 1914 | February, 1915 |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| M | F | M | F |
Full time | 65.8 | 66.6 | 68.4 | 75.0 |
|4,277,000|1,665,000|4,446,000|1,875,000|
| | | | |
Overtime | 12.8 | 10.8 | 13.8 | 10.9 |
| 832,000| 270,000| 897,000| 272,500|
| | | | |
Short time | 10.5 | 19.4 | 6.0 | 12.6 |
| 682,500| 485,000| 390,000| 315,000|
| | | | |
Contraction in | 10.9 | 3.2 | 11.8 | 1.5 |
Nos. employed | 708,500| 80,000| 767,000| 37,500|
| | | | |
Enlisted | 13.3 | ... | 15.4 | ... |
| 864,500| ... |1,010,000| ... |
| | | | |
Net displacement | | | | |
(-) or | +2.4 | -3.2 | +3.6 | -1.5 |
replacement (+) | +156,000| -80,000| +243,000| -37,500|
------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
Appendix B
The following table indicates some of the processes formerly reserved
for men on which the factory inspectors found women employed by the end
of 1915:
INDUSTRY PROCESSES
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Linoleum Attending cork grinding and embossing machines,
machine printing, attending stove,
trimming and packing.
Woodworking—
Brush making Fibre dressers, brush makers and on boring
machinery.
Furniture Light upholstery, cramping, dowelling, glueing,
fret-work, carving by hand or machine,
staining and polishing.
Saw mills On planing, moulding, sand-papering, boring,
mortising, dovetailing, tenoning, turning and
nailing machines. Taking off from circular
saws; box making, printing and painting.
Cooperage Barrel making machines.
Paper mills In rag grinding and attending to beating and
breaking machines, and to coating machines,
calenders and in certain preparations and
finishing and warehouse processes.
Printing Machine feeding (on platen machines and on
guillotines) and as linotype operators.
Wire rope On stranding and spinning machines.
Chemical works Attending at crystallising tanks and for yard
work.
Soap As soap millers and in general work.
Paint At roller mills, filling tins and kegs, labeling
and packing.
Oil and cake mills Trucking, feeding and drawing off from chutes,
attending to presses.
Flour mills Trucking.
Bread and biscuits Attending to dough-breaks, biscuit machines,
and at the ovens assisting bakers.
Tobacco Leaf cutting, cigarette making, soldering,
trucking and warehouse work.
Rubber At washing machines, grinding mills, dough
rolls, solutioning, motor tube making.
Malting Spreading and general work.
Breweries Cask washing, tun-room work, beer bottling
and bottle washing.
Distilleries In the mill and yeast houses.
Cement Attending weighing machines, trucking.
Foundries Core making, moulding.
Tanning and At the pits, in finishing and drying, and in
currying oiling, setting up, buffing and staining.
Woolen mills Beaming and overlooking, attending drying
machines, carding, pattern weaving.
Jute mills On softening machines, dressing yarn,
calendering.
Cotton mills In blowing room on spinning mules, beaming,
twisting and drawing, and in warehouse.
Hosiery Folding and warehouse work.
Lace Threading.
Print, bleach and
dye works Beetling, assisting printers at machines,
warehouse processes.
Appendix C
The following tables from the second report of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science bring out in detail, first, the gradual
disappearance of unemployment and short time and the increase of
women’s numbers in industry from September, 1914, to April, 1916;
second, the changes in numbers of women in the various occupations,
both industrial and nonindustrial in December, 1915, and April, 1916,
compared with July, 1914, and, third, similar details as to the number
of women who were undertaking “men’s work.”
STATE OF EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AT VARIOUS DATES SINCE THE OUTBREAK OF
WAR, COMPARED WITH STATE OF EMPLOYMENT IN JULY, 1914
(“Industrial” employment only. Numbers employed July, 1914 = 100 per
cent.)
Sept., Oct., Dec., Feb., Oct., Dec., Feb., April,
1914 1914 1914 1915 1915 1915 1916 1916
Contraction (-)
or expansion (+)
in numbers
employed -8.4 -6.2 -3.2 -1.5 +7.4 +9.2 +10.9 +13.2
Employed on 2.1 5.9 10.8 10.9 13.9 14.5 12.8 ...
overtime
Employed on 36.0 26.0 19.4 12.6 5.6 6.1 4.6 ...
short time
EXTENSION OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN DECEMBER, 1915 AND APRIL, 1916
--------------------------+-----------------+----------------------
| Estimated | Increase (+) or
| Industrial | Decrease (-)
Occupations Group | Population. | of Females in
| July, 1914, +----------+-----------
| Females |Dec., 1915|April, 1916
+-----------------+----------+-----------
Building | 7,000 | + 3,600 | + 6,400
Mines and Quarries | 9,000 | + 800 | + 2,300
Metal Trades | 144,000 | +71,700 | +126,900
Chemical Trades | 40,000 | +19,400 | + 33,600
Textile Trades | 851,000 | +29,700 | + 27,800
Clothing Trades | 654,000 | + 6,700 | + 11,700
Food Trades | 170,000 | +31,700 | + 30,900
Paper and Printing Trades | 169,000 | ... | - 900
Wood Trades | 39,000 | + 7,400 | + 13,200
Other Trades | 96,000 | +25,400 | + 35,700
+-----------------+----------+-----------
All “Industrial” | | |
Occupations | 2,180,000 | +196,500 | +287,500
+-----------------+----------+-----------
Commercial | 474,500 | ... | +181,000
Professional | 68,500 | ... | + 13,000
Banking and Finance | 9,500 | ... | + 23,000
Public Entertainment | 172,000 | ... | + 14,000
Agriculture | ... | ... | ...
Transport | 9,500 | ... | + 16,000
Civil Service | 63,000 | ... | + 29,000
Arsenals, Dockyards, etc. | 2,000 | ... | + 13,000
Local Government | | ... |
(incl. Teachers) | 184,000 | ... | + 21,000
Domestic Service | ... | ... | ...
+-----------------+----------+-----------
Total for “Nonindustrial” | | |
Occupations | 983,000 | ... | +310,000
+-----------------+----------+-----------
Total for all Occupations | 3,163,000 | ... | +597,500
--------------------------+-----------------+----------+-----------
EXTENT OF SUBSTITUTION OF FEMALE FOR MALE WORKERS IN DECEMBER, 1915,
AND APRIL, 1916.
-----------------------------+-----------------------------------
|Estimated number of Females on work
| in substitution of Males’ work
+------------------+----------------
Occupations Group | December, 1915 | April, 1916
-----------------------------+------------------+----------------
Building | 6,100 | 8,800
Mines and Quarries | 2,700 | 4,400
Metal Trades | 70,300 | 117,400
Chemical Trades | 9,600 | 16,200
Textile Trades | 57,600 | 73,400
Clothing Trades | 30,400 | 42,300
Food Trades | 29,500 | 35,000
Paper and Printing Trades | 22,500 | 23,600
Wood Trades | 11,400 | 17,400
Other Trades | 27,000 | 37,400
+------------------+----------------
All “Industrial” Occupations | 267,100 | 375,900
+------------------+----------------
Commercial | ... | 189,000
Professional | ... | 16,000
Banking and Finance | ... | 25,000
Public Entertainment | ... | 32,000
Agriculture | ... | ...
Transport | ... | 18,000
Civil Service | ... | 31,000
Arsenals, Dockyards, etc. | ... | 13,000
Local Government | |
(incl. Teachers) | ... | 37,000
Domestic Service | ... | ...
+------------------+----------------
Total for “Nonindustrial” | |
Occupations | ... | 361,000
+------------------+----------------
Total for all Occupations | ... | 736,900
-----------------------------+------------------+----------------
Appendix D
The following table, compiled from the quarterly reports in the _Labour
Gazette_ and a special report of the Board of Trade, gives the increase
in the employment of women between April, 1916, and July, 1918, for
the most of the important occupational groups. It can not be compared
directly with the similar tables, previously given, prepared by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, because of slight
differences in the estimates of the numbers employed in July, 1914.
EXTENSION OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, APRIL,
1916-JULY, 1918
(Classified by employers’ position, not by nature of work.)
-------------------+---------+-------------------------------------------+
|Estimated| Estimated increase since July, 1914 |
|No. Empl +-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
| July, | April,| July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, |
| 1914 | 1916 | 1916 | 1916 | 1917 | 1917 |
-------------------+---------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
Industrial | | | | | | |
Occupations[291] |2,176,000|275,000|361,000|393,000| 423,000| 453,000|
Government | | | | | | |
Establishments[292]| 2,000| 25,000| 79,000|117,000| 147,000| 198,000|
Commercial | 496,000|166,000|240,000|268,000| 274,000| 307,000|
Professional | | | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 50,500| 13,000| 14,000| 15,000| 18,000| 21,000|
Banking, Finance | | | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 9,500| 23,000| 32,000| 37,000| 43,000| 50,000|
Hotels, Theaters | 181,000| 12,000| 20,000| 16,000| 10,000| 13,000|
Agriculture | | | | | | |
(perm. labor | | | | | | |
Gt. Britain) | 80,000|-14,000| 20,000| 500| -14,000| ... |
Transport | | | | | | |
(not municipal) | 17,000| 23,000| 35,000| 41,000| 51,000| 62,000|
Civil Service | 66,000| 39,000| 58,000| 67,000| 76,000| 89,000|
Local | | | | | | |
Government[293] | 198,000| 21,000| 30,000| 34,000| 44,000| 47,000|
Other | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
-------------------+---------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
Total |3,276,000|583,000|889,000|988,500|1,072,000|1,240,000|
-------------------+---------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
[291] Not owned by government.
[292] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.
[293] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.
-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-----------
| Estimated increase since July, 1914 |Per cent of
|---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+increase
| July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, | July, |July, 1914-
| 1917 | 1917 | 1918 | 1918 | 1918 |July, 1918
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------
Industrial | | | | | |
Occupations[294] | 518,000| 529,000| 533,000| 537,000| 565,000| 26.0
Government | | | | | |
Establishments[295]| 202,000| 211,000| 207,500| 197,000| 223,000|11,200.0
Commercial | 324,000| 333,000| 343,000| 354,000| 364,000| 73.4
Professional | | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 20,000| 50,000| 50,000| 57,000| ... | 4.0
Banking, Finance | | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 54,000| 59,000| 61,000| 63,000| 65,000| 687.0
Hotels, Theaters | 22,000| 28,000| 26,000| 25,000| 39,000| 21.5
Agriculture | | | | | |
(perm. labor | | | | | |
Gt. Britain) | 23,000| 7,000| -6,000| 9,000| 33,000| 41.3
Transport | | | | | |
(not municipal) | 72,000| 77,000| 76,000| 78,000| ... | ...
Civil Service | 98,000| 116,500| 124,000| 159,000| 168,000| 255.0
Local | | | | | |
Government[296] | 49,000| 51,500| 51,500| 53,000| 52,000| 26.5
Other | ... | ... | ... | ... | 150,000| ...
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------
Total |1,382,000|1,462,000|1,466,000|1,532,000|1,659,000| 50.6
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------
[294] Not owned by government.
[295] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.
[296] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.
Appendix E
The following table, compiled from the _Labour Gazette_, and a special
report of the Board of Trade, gives a quarterly estimate of the number
of women replacing men for the period between April, 1916, and April,
1918.
NUMBER OF FEMALES SUBSTITUTED FOR MALE WORKERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN
CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS, BY QUARTERS, APRIL, 1916-APRIL, 1918
-------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
| April,| July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, |
| 1916 | 1916 | 1916 | 1917 | 1917 |
-------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
Industrial | | | | | |
Occupations[297] |213,000|264,000|314,000| 376,000| 438,000|
Government | | | | | |
Establishments[298]| 13,000| 79,000|117,000| 139,000| 187,000|
Commercial |152,000|226,000|264,000| 278,000| 308,000|
Professional | | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 12,000| 15,000| 15,000| 17,000| 20,000|
Banking, Finance | | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 21,000| 31,000| 37,000| 42,000| 48,000|
Hotels, Theaters | 27,000| 31,000| 30,000| 31,000| 35,000|
Agriculture | | | | | |
(perm. labor, | | | | | |
Gt. Britain) | 37,000| 35,000| 20,000| 23,000| 32,000|
Transport | | | | | |
(not municipal) | 24,000| 35,000| 41,000| 52,000| 64,000|
Civil Service | 30,000| 41,000| 64,000| 73,000| 83,000|
Local | | | | | |
Government[299] | 18,000| 26,000| 31,000| 40,000| 41,000|
-------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
Total |547,000|783,000|933,000|1,071,000|1,256,000|
-------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
[297] Not owned by government.
[298] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.
[299] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.
(A) = Per cent No. of substitutes in April, 1918,
is of total No. employed in July, 1914
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------
| July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, | (A)
| 1917 | 1917 | 1918 | 1918 |
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------
Industrial | | | | |
Occupations[300] | 464,000| 490,000| 503,000| 531,000| 24.4
Government | | | | |
Establishments[301]| 191,000| 202,000| 197,000| 187,000|9,350.0
Commercial | 328,000| 337,000| 342,000| 352,000| 70.9
Professional | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 21,000| 22,000| 22,000| 22,500| 44.5
Banking, Finance | | | | |
(mainly clerks) | 53,000| 55,000| 57,000| 59,500| 626.3
Hotels, Theaters | 38,000| 44,500| 45,000| 44,500| 24.5
Agriculture | | | | |
(perm. labor, | | | | |
Gt. Britain) | 43,000| 33,000| 31,000| 40,000| 50.0
Transport | | | | |
(not municipal) | 74,000| 78,500| 78,000| 79,500| 21.3
Civil Service | 99,000| 107,000| 123,000| 153,000| 231.8
Local | | | | |
Government[302] | 43,000| 44,000| 44,000| 47,000| 23.7
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------
Total |1,354,000|1,413,000|1,442,000|1,516,000| 46.2
-------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------
[300] Not owned by government.
[301] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.
[302] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.
Appendix F
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FEMALES DIRECTLY REPLACING MALES IN VARIOUS
BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY IN JANUARY, 1918.
(Compiled from the Report of the War Cabinet Committee on Women in
Industry.)
_Trade_
Metal 195,000
Chemical 35,000
Textile 64,000
Clothing 43,000
Food, Drink and Tobacco 60,000
Paper and Printing 21,000
Wood, China and Earthenware, Leather 23,000
Other 62,000
Government Establishments 197,000
-------
Total 700,000
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FEMALES DIRECTLY REPLACING MALES IN VARIOUS
BRANCHES OF COMMERCE IN APRIL, 1918.
(Compiled from the Report of the Board of Trade on the Employment of
Women in April, 1918.)
Wholesale and Retail Drapers, Haberdashers, Clothiers, 41,000
Wholesale and Retail Grocers, Bakers, Confectioners 92,000
Wholesale and Retail Stationers and Booksellers 16,000
Wholesale and Retail Butchers, Fishmongers, Dairymen 30,000
Retail Chemists 12,000
Retail Boot and Shoe Dealers 8,000
-------
Total (including some not specified above) 352,000
Appendix G
ESTIMATE BY THE BRITISH WAR CABINET COMMITTEE ON WOMEN IN INDUSTRY ON
AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS AT THE END OF
THE WAR.
Earnings under 25s. weekly:
Dressmakers, milliners (first five years), laundry
workers, pottery workers (most grades), knife girls
and kitchen hands in refreshment houses.
Earning between 25s. and 30s. weekly:
Cutlery workers, soap and candle makers (unskilled),
corner tenters (cotton), woolen and worsted weavers,
backwashers (Scotch Tweed), dyers and cleaners, biscuit
makers, cigarette makers, pottery workers (certain
grades), waitresses in refreshment depots.
Earning between 30s. and 35s. weekly:
Ammunition makers (women’s work), chainmakers, salt
packers, fine chemical workers, soap makers (most
operations), card-room operatives (cotton), clothing
machinists, workers in grain milling and brewing, cigar
makers, shop assistants (co-operative).
Earning between 35s. and 40s. weekly:
Workers in the light casting trade, chemical laborers,
big tenters and ring-spiners (cotton), wool combers,
tailoring fitters and cutters, boot operatives,
bakery workers, jigger women in potteries, tanners,
shop assistants (large stores).
Earning between 40s. and 45s. weekly:
Workers in engineering, chemicals (shift work) and
explosives; textile dyers, tobacco machinists, motor
drivers (for shop), railway carriage cleaners,
telephonists, railway clerks.
Earning between 45s. and 50s. weekly:
Cloth lookers (cotton), hosiery machinists, web dyers,
gas index readers and lamp-lighters, railway porters,
ticket collectors, telegraphists.
Earning between 50s. and 60s. weekly:
Ledger clerks, Civil Service clerks (Class I).
Earning over 60s.:
Women on skilled men’s work in engineering omnibus
conductors (London), gas workers (heavy work for
South Metropolitan Gas Co.).
Appendix H
NUMBER OF ORDERS MODIFYING THE LABOR LAWS, ISSUED FROM AUGUST 4, 1914,
TO FEBRUARY 19, 1915
(_Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for 1914_,
p. 56.)
Textile:
Wool 748
Hosiery 231
Cotton 159
Flax 28
Hemp and jute 29
Silk 8
Dyeing and finishing 37
Leather and leather equipment 105
Canvas equipment 137
Munitions 151
Shipbuilding 15
Electrical supply 35
Metal accessories 141
Machinery 57
Wood 44
Clothing:
Uniforms 514
Fur coats 9
Boots 245
Caps 28
Shirts 73
Bedding 33
Surgical dressings 21
Tobacco 10
Food 37
Tin boxes 37
Camp equipment 52
Wire and wire netting 34
Wagons, etc. 34
Rubber 16
Miscellaneous 73
-----
Total 3,141
Appendix I
The following list of modifications of the hour laws in 1915 was
compiled from the _Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and
Workshops for 1915_.
_Industry_ _Persons Affected_ _Latitude_
Munitions. Women. As in 1914.
Boys over 14.
Girls over 16.
Woolen and worsted Women and young 6 hours weekly overtime,
(from May). persons. in 2-hour shifts on
3 days or 1½ hours on
4 days. No overtime
on Saturday.
Weaving (July-Nov.). Women and young 8 hours weekly overtime
persons over 16. in 2-hour shifts on
4 days.
Hosiery. Protected persons. 1½ hours overtime on 4
days, or 1 hour on
5 days, but not on
Saturday or Sunday.
Cotton. Protected persons. 6 hours overtime weekly.
Margarine. Not stated. Not stated.
Window shades. Not stated. Not stated.
Flax. Not stated. Not stated.
Rope walks. Not stated. 6 hours overtime weekly.
Bleach and dye works Not stated. 6 hours overtime weekly.
(surgical dressings;
raising and finishing
flannelette).
Tanning and currying. Women. 4 hours overtime weekly.
Boys over 14.
Canvas equipment. Not stated. 5 hours overtime weekly.
Shipbuilding. Boys over 14. (a) Overtime, 5 hours a
week for boys under
16; 7½ hours for
those over 16.
(b) Eight hour shifts.
(c) Day and night shifts.
Bread baking. (a) Boys 17. (a) Night shift (not
exceeding 9 hours).
(b) Boys 15 and (b) Any period of 9 hours
over. between 4 a.m.
and 8 p.m.
Pastry baking (a) Women and boys (a) Night shift (not
(Scotland). of 17. exceeding 9 hours).
(b) Boys 15 and (b) Any period of 9 hours
over. between 4 a.m.
and 8 p.m.
Chocolate.[303] Women. When necessary, on account
of hot weather,
between 6 a.m. and
10 p.m. for two
spells of 4 hours
each, one in the
morning and one in
the afternoon.
Leather Women and young Overtime 1½ hours per day.
equipment.[304] persons over 16.
Aerated waters.[305] Women. Extension of overtime
allowed by S. 49.
Glass. Boys over 13 Extension of S. 55.
(educationally
qualified).
Oil and cake mills. Women and boys 8-hour shifts, or day and
over 16. night shifts.
Flour mills. Women and boys 8-hour shifts, or day and
over 16. night shifts.
Toys and games.[306] Women. Overtime as allowed by
S.49 and night shifts
during the Christmas
season.
Dairies. Women and young 5 hours on Sundays, with
persons. weekly limit of 60 hours.
No other overtime during
the week.
Paper mills. Women. 8-hour shifts, or day and
night shifts.
Pottery. Not stated. Suspension of certain
regulations.
Sandbags.[307] Women and young Overtime, 3 hours
persons. per week.
Cement Women. Night shift.
(Essex and Kent).
Waterproof capes Women and young (1) Overtime, 4½ hours
(War Office persons per week.
contracts).[308] over 16. (2) Permission for
Christians to work on
Saturday and Jews on
Sunday.
Manchester warehouses. Women and boys Overtime, 2 hours on not
over 16. more than 4 days a week
and on not more than 12
days in any 4 weeks.
Lace and patent net Women, girls (1) Different periods
factories (processes over 16; boys of employment for
of threading, brass over 14. different workers.
bobbin winding, (2) Where (1) is impractic-
jacking off able overtime 1½ hours
and stripping). per day, but with a
weekly limit of 60
hours exclusive of
meal times.
Non-textile works Women, girls Rearrangement of the
engaged on work for over 16; boys statutory hours but
the Crown, or on over 14. period of employment
work required in not to exceed 14 hours
the national on any one day, or 60
interest.[309] hours (exclusive of
meal times) in any
week.
[303] The order expired and was not renewed.
[304] The order expired and was not renewed.
[305] The order expired and was not renewed.
[306] The order expired and was not renewed.
[307] The order expired and was not renewed.
[308] The order expired and was not renewed.
[309] A new order, which was allowed in all nontextile works not
otherwise provided for. It allowed greater elasticity than was provided
by the Factory Acts, and permitted, for example, such moderate
overtime during the week as could be compensated by an earlier stop on
Saturdays.
Appendix J
GENERAL ORDER REGULATING OVERTIME ISSUED BY THE HOME OFFICE SEPTEMBER
9, 1916.
The following is the full text of the parts of the order applying to
women:
Scheme A. (Three Shifts.)
This scheme applies to women and female young persons of 16 years of
age and over, and male young persons of 14 years of age and over. Three
shifts, none of which may be longer than 10 hours, may be worked in
each period of 24 hours, subject to the following conditions:
(1) Each worker shall have one break of 24 hours or more in every week,
or of 32 hours or more in every alternate week, or of 40 hours or more
in every third week.
(2) Each worker shall have an interval of two unemployed shifts between
each two shifts of employment.
(3) An interval of not less than half an hour shall be allowed if the
shift is 8 hours or less, and an interval of not less than one hour if
the shift is more than 8 hours.
Provided that the superintending inspector of factories may authorize,
subject to compliance with condition (1) and to such other conditions
as he may impose, different arrangements as regards hours of work and
breaks at the week end for the purpose of changing over the shifts.
Scheme B. (Two Shifts.)
This scheme applies to women and female persons of 16 years of age
and over and male young persons of 14 years of age and over, provided
that the employment in the night shift of girls under 18 or boys under
16 years of age shall be subject in each case to the approval of the
superintending inspector of factories. Two shifts of 12 hours each may
be worked, subject to the following conditions:
(1) No person shall be employed more than 6 turns by day or more than 6
turns by night in any week.
(2) Unless otherwise sanctioned by the superintending inspector no
person shall be employed on Sunday except in a night shift commencing
on Sunday evening or ending on Sunday morning.
(3) The total hours worked per week (exclusive of meal times) shall not
exceed 60 provided that in the case of male young persons 16 years of
age and over the total hours worked per week (exclusive of meal times)
may be 63.
(4) Intervals for meals amounting to not less than 1½ hours shall be
allowed in the course of each shift, of which in the case of the night
shift one-fourth of an hour or more shall be allowed as a break within
4 hours of the end of the shift.
(5) Each worker shall have an interval of one unemployed shift between
each two shifts of employment.
Providing that the superintending inspector may authorize, subject
to such conditions as he may impose, a system of one long shift, not
exceeding 13 hours with a corresponding reduction in the other shift,
so that the average weekly total of hours shall not exceed the limits
specified above in paragraph (3).
Scheme C. (Rearrangement of Statutory Hours.)
This scheme applies to women and female young persons of 16 years of
age and over, and male young persons of 14 years of age and over.
In the case of such women and young persons the hours of work and
intervals for meals allowed by the (factory and workshop) act may be
arranged, subject to the following conditions:
(a) The total hours worked per week (exclusive of intervals for meals)
shall not exceed 60.
(b) The daily period of employment (including overtime and intervals
for meals)—
(1) Shall not commence earlier than 6 a.m. or end later than 10 p.m.
(2) Shall not exceed 14 hours.
(c) Intervals for meals amounting to not less than 1½ hours shall be
allowed during the period of employment, with an additional half an
hour if the period of employment is more than 13½ hours.
(d) No overtime shall be worked on Saturday.
Naval Ship Repairing Work.
In cases of special emergency women, female young persons of 16 years
of age and over, and male young persons of 14 years of age and over,
employed on repair work for His Majesty’s ships may be employed for
special hours on any day of the week on the express instructions of the
senior naval officer in charge and subject to such conditions as he may
lay down as regards intervals for meals and rest, provided that in any
case—
(1) No male young person over 16 years of age shall be employed for
more than 67½ hours in the week (exclusive of intervals for meals and
rest).
(2) No other young person or woman shall be employed for more than 65
hours in the week (exclusive of intervals for meals and rest).
Miscellaneous Provisions.
No woman or young person shall be employed continuously at any time
for more than five hours without an interval of at least half an hour,
except that where not less than one hour is allowed for dinner, an
afternoon spell of six hours may be worked, with an interval of quarter
of an hour only for tea, if the factory inspector is satisfied that
adequate provision is made for the worker to obtain tea in the works
and for tea to be actually ready for them as soon as they stop work.
If work commences before 8 a.m. and no interval is allowed for
breakfast, an opportunity shall be given to take refreshment during the
morning.
A woman or young person shall not be allowed to lift, carry, or move
anything so heavy as to be likely to cause injury to the woman or young
person.
Different schemes of employment may be adopted and different intervals
for meals fixed for different sets of workers.
Employment on night shifts shall be subject to the provision, to
the satisfaction of the factory inspector, of proper facilities for
taking and cooking meals, and in the case of female workers, for their
supervision by a welfare worker or a responsible forewoman.
Circular letter 198802 to accompany Home Office Order of Sept 9, 1916.
No requirement is laid down in the order that workers on the night
shift shall change periodically to the day shift. The matter is left to
the individual employers to determine in consultation with their work
people. Care should be taken in selecting women and young persons for
night work. They should not be put on night work indiscriminately.
Appendix K
DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG PERSONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT EMPLOYMENTS IN JULY,
1914, OCTOBER, 1917, AND JANUARY, 1918
(Compiled from Ministry of Reconstruction,
_Juvenile Employment During the War and After_, pp. 10, 11, 77.)
--------------------------+----------------------------------+
| Total Boys and Girls Under 18 |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
|Estimated | Estimated |Increase or|
| numbers | numbers | decrease |
| employed |employed in|July, 1914-|
|Oct., 1917|Jan., 1918 |Jan., 1918 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Building | 50,000| 48,000 | -12,300 |
Mines and Quarries | 168,000| 178,000 | +11,300 |
Metal Trades | 404,000| 409,000 | +173,800 |
Chemical Trades | 47,000| 48,000 | +22,300 |
Textile Trades | 329,000| 324,000 | -15,000 |
Food, Drink and Tobacco | 96,000| 96,000 | +7,200 |
Clothing Trades | 169,000| 169,000 | -19,600 |
Paper and Printing | 75,000| 74,000 | -11,700 |
Wood Trades | 54,000| 55,000 | +10,000 |
Other Industries | 80,000| 81,000 | +10,000 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Industries Total | 1,472,000| 1,482,000 | +176,000 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Municipal gas, water, | | | |
electricity | 4,000| 3,500 | +2,000 |
Government establishments | 32,000| 30,000 | +27,000 |
Agriculture | 136,000| 130,000 | -9,000 |
Transport | 101,500| 102,500 | +25,100 |
Finance and commerce | 427,000| 416,000 | +94,000 |
Professional occupations | 29,000| 27,000 | +8,000 |
Hotels, cinemas, theaters | 30,000| 32,000 | +7,000 |
Postoffice | 24,000| 23,000 | -4,000 |
Other civil service | 13,500| 14,500 | +11,400 |
Local government | | | |
(including education, | | | |
but excluding Municipal | | | |
trams, water, gas, | | | |
electricity) | 18,000| 17,500 | +4,500 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Grand Total | 2,287,000| 2,278,000 | +342,000 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
--------------------------+----------------------------------+
| Total Boys Under 18 |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
| Estimated| Estimated |Increase or|
| numbers | numbers | decrease |
| employed|employed in|July, 1914-|
|Oct., 1917|Jan., 1918 |Jan., 1918 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Building | 44,000| 42,000| -17,000|
Mines and Quarries | 164,000| 174,000| +9,000|
Metal Trades | 296,000| 303,000| +113,000|
Chemical Trades | 22,000| 22,000| +7,500|
Textile Trades | 116,000| 114,000| -10,000|
Food, Drink and Tobacco | 43,000| 43,000| +3,000|
Clothing Trades | 45,000| 45,000| -3,000|
Paper and Printing | 30,000| 30,000| -10,000|
Wood Trades | 34,000| 34,000| -500|
Other Industries | 43,000| 44,000| -1,000|
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Industries Total | 837,000| 851,000| +91,000|
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Municipal gas, water, | | | |
electricity | 3,000| 3,000| +1,500|
Government establishments | 22,000| 21,000| +18,000|
Agriculture | 118,000| 113,000| -14,000|
Transport | 89,500| 90,500| +14,400|
Finance and commerce | 224,000| 216,000| -22,500|
Professional occupations | 18,000| 17,000| +3,000|
Hotels, cinemas, theaters | 17,000| 19,000| +6,500|
Postoffice | 10,000| 9,000| -7,800|
Other civil service | 4,500| 4,500| +1,500|
Local government | | | |
(including education, | | | |
but excluding Municipal | | | |
trams, water, gas, | | | |
electricity) | 10,000| 10,000| +2,400|
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Grand Total | 1,353,000| 1,354,000| +94,000|
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
--------------------------+----------------------------------+
| Total Girls Under 18 |
+----------------------+-----------+
|Estimated | Estimated |Increase or|
| numbers | numbers | decrease |
| employed |employed in|July, 1914-|
|Oct., 1917|Jan., 1918 |Jan., 1918 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Building | 6,000| 6,000| +4,700 |
Mines and Quarries | 4,000| 4,000| +2,250 |
Metal Trades | 108,000| 106,000| +60,800 |
Chemical Trades | 25,000| 26,000| +14,850 |
Textile Trades | 213,000| 210,000| -5,000 |
Food, Drink and Tobacco | 53,000| 53,000| +4,200 |
Clothing Trades | 124,000| 124,000| -16,550 |
Paper and Printing | 45,000| 44,000| -1,750 |
Wood Trades | 20,000| 21,000| +10,500 |
Other Industries | 37,000| 37,000| +11,000 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Industries Total | 635,000| 631,000| +85,000 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Municipal gas, water, | | | |
electricity | 1,000| 500| +500 |
Government establishments | 10,000| 9,000| +9,000 |
Agriculture | 18,000| 17,000| +5,000 |
Transport | 12,000| 12,000| +10,700 |
Finance and commerce | 203,000| 200,000| +116,500 |
Professional occupations | 11,000| 10,000| +5,000 |
Hotels, cinemas, theaters | 13,000| 13,000| +500 |
Postoffice | 14,000| 14,000| +3,800 |
Other civil service | 9,000| 10,000| +9,900 |
Local government | | | |
(including education, | | | |
but excluding Municipal | | | |
trams, water, gas, | | | |
electricity) | 8,000| 7,500| +2,100 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Grand Total | 934,000| 924,000| +248,000 |
--------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
Appendix L
POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT
(Tables Compiled from _Labour Gazette_, May, 1919, pp. 287-288;
October, p. 418; November, p. 473.)
1. Number of Out-of-Work Donation Policies Outstanding Weekly for Ten
Months of 1919.
-------------+------------------------------------------+
| Civilians |
Week +--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
Ending | Men | Boys | Women | Girls| Total |
-------------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
Jan. 3 | 101,390| 16,988| 224,955| 13,374| 356,707|
Jan. 10 | 119,315| 16,462| 265,479| 16,365| 417,621|
Jan. 17 | 139,113| 18,131| 303,813| 18,018| 479,075|
Jan. 24 | 156,671| 20,543| 343,742| 22,259| 543,215|
Jan. 31 | 177,361| 22,562| 399,864| 25,362| 625,149|
Feb. 7 | 191,371| 24,538| 427,734| 26,790| 670,433|
Feb. 14 | 212,205| 26,752| 452,810| 28,183| 719,950|
Feb. 21 | 218,278| 28,195| 470,294| 31,544| 748,311|
Feb. 28 | 227,836| 28,019| 494,471| 32,037| 782,363|
Mar. 7 | 234,402| 27,356| 494,365| 34,398| 790,521|
Mar. 14 | 208,540| 26,327| 485,784| 31,070| 751,721|
Mar. 21 | 207,973| 27,567| 474,452| 28,082| 738,074|
Mar. 28 | 209,486| 26,461| 488,655| 29,380| 753,982|
Apr. 4 | 214,263| 26,148| 469,550| 30,189| 740,155|
Apr. 11 | 217,538| 26,093| 455,736| 30,134| 729,501|
Apr. 18 | 210,119| 23,882| 452,144| 29,279| 715,424|
Apr. 25 | 215,687| 23,679| 443,941| 28,964| 712,271|
May 2 | 214,761| 23,040| 422,890| 29,242| 689,933|
May 9 | 191,651| 19,175| 366,536| 20,871| 598,233|
May 16 | 178,284| 16,845| 312,373| 17,023| 524,525|
May 23 | 164,569| 14,988| 250,010| 14,869| 444,436|
May 30 | 150,250| 12,912| 207,897| 13,231| 384,290|
June 6 | 135,317| 10,405| 169,621| 9,880| 325,223|
June 13 | 123,134| 8,439| 146,578| 7,910| 286,061|
June 20 | 116,158| 7,551| 132,649| 7,491| 263,849|
June 27 | 106,661| 6,615| 113,462| 6,544| 233,282|
July 4 | 100,270| 5,905| 100,576| 6,077| 212,828|
July 11 | 96,472| 5,341| 91,413| 6,155| 199,381|
July 18 | 92,762| 4,985| 83,755| 5,707| 187,209|
July 25 | 93,828| 5,226| 72,813| 5,354| 177,221|
Aug. 1 | 100,228| 6,529| 73,878| 6,176| 186,811|
Aug. 8 | 98,298| 6,245| 64,029| 5,673| 174,245|
Aug. 15 | 94,863| 6,669| 61,065| 6,093| 168,690|
Aug. 22 | 92,345| 6,267| 55,526| 5,182| 159,320|
Aug. 29 | 83,035| 5,006| 49,038| 4,053| 141,132|
Sept. 5 | 72,113| 4,008| 40,701| 3,041| 119,863|
Sept. 12 | 66,686| 3,236| 36,230| 2,471| 108,623|
Sept. 19 | 63,557| 3,111| 34,448| 2,334| 103,450|
Sept. 26 | 62,435| 3,151| 32,915| 2,230| 100,731|
Oct. 17[310]| 70,589| 4,371| 29,622| 2,586| 107,168|
Oct. 24 | 86,036| 6,551| 30,396| 2,672| 125,655|
Oct. 31 | 94,058| 7,349| 30,940| 2,838| 135,185|
-------------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
| Demobilized Members of H. M. Forces
Week +--------+-------+--------+------------
Ending | Men | Women | Total | Grand Total
-------------+--------+-------+--------+------------
Jan. 3 | 23,938| 50| 23,988| 380,695
Jan. 10 | 31,543| 88| 31,631| 449,252
Jan. 17 | 40,400| 131| 40,531| 519,606
Jan. 24 | 47,209| 170| 47,379| 590,594
Jan. 31 | 53,316| 238| 53,554| 678,703
Feb. 7 | 63,277| 380| 63,657| 734,090
Feb. 14 | 84,298| 394| 84,692| 804,642
Feb. 21 | 132,471| 841| 133,312| 881,623
Feb. 28 | 165,429| 828| 166,257| 948,620
Mar. 7 | 200,686| 1,025| 201,711| 992,232
Mar. 14 | 235,737| 1,161| 237,898| 988,619
Mar. 21 | 264,257| 995| 265,252| 1,003,326
Mar. 28 | 305,251| 1,012| 306,263| 1,060,245
Apr. 4 | 336,570| 961| 337,531| 1,077,686
Apr. 11 | 347,895| 917| 348,812| 1,078,313
Apr. 18 | 369,992| 1,013| 371,005| 1,086,429
Apr. 25 | 379,799| 1,258| 381,057| 1,093,328
May 2 | 402,151| 1,316| 403,467| 1,903,400
May 9 | | | 409,959| 1,008,192
May 16 | | | 403,356| 927,881
May 23 | | | 402,036| 846,472
May 30 | | | 386,921| 771,211
June 6 | | | 385,652| 710,875
June 13 | | | 378,768| 664,829
June 20 | | | 381,247| 645,096
June 27 | | | 372,843| 606,125
July 4 | | | 366,197| 579,025
July 11 | | | 365,768| 565,149
July 18 | | | 362,982| 550,191
July 25 | | | 363,663| 540,884
Aug. 1 | | | 366,671| 553,482
Aug. 8 | | | 362,741| 536,986
Aug. 15 | | | 361,833| 530,523
Aug. 22 | | | 350,755| 510,075
Aug. 29 | | | 336,952| 478,084
Sept. 5 | | | 326,751| 446,614
Sept. 12 | | | 311,959| 420,582
Sept. 19 | | | 305,253| 408,703
Sept. 26 | | | 302,272| 403,003
Oct. 17[311]| | | 337,948| 445,116
Oct. 24 | | | 343,672| 469,327
Oct. 31 | | | 344,242| 479,427
-------------+--------+-------+--------+------------
[310] Figures for Oct. 3 and 10, on account of special arrangements
made during the railway strike of these weeks, are not given.
[311] Figures for Oct. 3 and 10, on account of special arrangements
made during the railway strike of these weeks, are not given.
2. Number of Unemployed Women and Girls by Industries.
a. In Insured Industries.
---------------------------------+-----------+----------+-----------
| Number | Number | Number
| Insured |Unemployed|Unemployed
Trade |January 12,| April 25,|October 31,
| 1919 | 1919 | 1919
---------------------------------+-----------+----------+-----------
Building | 6,152 | 950 | 55
Construction of Works | 1,825 | 46 | 1
Shipbuilding | 8,810 | 522 | 21
Engineering and Ironfounding | 419,524 | 35,614 | 1,426
Construction of Vehicles | 17,577 | 6,336 | 107
Sawmilling | 812 | 331 | 17
Other | 171 | 1 | ...
+-----------+----------+-----------
Total Insured Under Act of 1911| 454,871 | 43,800 | 1,627
| | |
Iron and Steel Manufacture | 12,805 | 400 | 18
Tinplate Manufacture | 3,550 | 92 | 23
Wire Manufacture | 9,431 | 828 | 46
Anchors, Chains, Nails, Bolts, | | |
Nuts, Rivets, etc. | 12,690 | 2,888 | 169
Brass | 8,413 | 219 | 6
Copper, Tin, Lead, Zinc, etc. | 10,561 | 738 | 62
Hardware and Hollowware | 49,749 | 5,437 | 228
Tools, Files, Saws, Implements, | | |
Cutlery | 6,432 | 827 | 64
Clocks, Plate, Jewelry | 6,175 | 388 | 27
Needles, Pins, Typefounding, | | |
Dyes, etc. | 6,664 | 336 | 15
Electrical, Scientific, etc., | | |
Appliances and Apparatus | 28,866 | 2,152 | 151
Miscellaneous Metal | 5,185 | 1,455 | 70
Ammunition and Explosives | 197,128 | 5,818 | 100
Chemicals | 34,071 | 2,631 | 193
Leather and Leather Goods | 31,313 | 2,679 | 162
Brick, Tile and Artificial | | |
Building Material | 9,804 | 1,172 | 59
Sawmilling, Machined Woodwork and| | |
Wooden Cases | 30,176 | 2,049 | 51
Rubber and Manufactures Thereof | 35,319 | 2,369 | 151
+-----------+----------+-----------
Total Insured Under Act of 1916| 496,332 | 32,478 | 1,595
+-----------+----------+-----------
Grand Total | 951,203 | 76,278 | 3,222
---------------------------------+-----------+----------+-----------
b. In Uninsured Industries.
---------------------------------+--------------------------------
| Number of Policies of
Trade |Women and Girls Remaining Lodged
+--------------+-----------------
|April 25, 1919| October 11, 1919
---------------------------------+--------------+-----------------
Agriculture | 1,956 | 152
Conveyance of Men, Goods and | |
Messages | 11,932 | 962
Mines and Quarries | 982 | 78
Cotton | 81,635 | 1,171
Woolen and Worsted | 4,670 | 162
Other Textiles, including | |
Printing, Dyeing, etc. | 35,835 | 1,951
Commercial | 24,124 | 8,616
Food, Drink and Tobacco | 19,926 | 1,818
Dress | 26,519 | 2,924
Domestic Offices and Services | 84,529 | 7,348
General Laborers, Factory | |
Workers, etc. | 56,900 | 3,740
Other Uninsured Industries | 48,877 | 5,632
+--------------+-----------------
Total | 397,885 | 34,554
---------------------------------+--------------+-----------------
Appendix N
AVERAGE WAGES OF WOMEN AND GIRLS IN NON-MUNITION TRADES IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM.
(Calculated from Monthly Returns made by Employers to the Department of
Labour Statistics.)[312]
-------------------------------------------------------------
LAST WHOLE WEEK IN EACH MONTH.
--------------------+--------+----+------+-----+-----+------+
|Ordinary|May-|Sept.-|Jan.-|May- |Sept.-|
Industry |week in |Aug.| Dec. |April|Aug. | Dec. |
| 1906 |1915| 1915 |1916 |1916 | 1916 |
--------------------+--------+----+------+-----+-----+------+
| s. d. |s. d|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|
Cotton | 16 2 |17 1|17 0 |17 11|18 4|18 9 |
Woolen and worsted | 12 1 |15 3|15 6 |16 1|16 8|17 11 |
Linen | 9 9 |10 7|10 10 |11 3|11 11|12 5 |
Jute | 12 5 |18 4|18 10 |18 10|19 2|20 2 |
Hosiery | 12 3 |15 9|15 10 |16 8|17 2|17 1 |
Lace | 11 7 |13 3|13 6 |14 0|14 4|14 10 |
Silk | 9 9 |12 0|12 5 |12 11|13 5|13 7 |
Carpet | 11 10 |16 8|16 4 |17 1|17 0|17 8 |
Bleaching, etc. | 11 0 |14 5|15 0 |15 7|15 9|17 3 |
Boot and shoe | 10 6 |15 4|14 10 |14 7|16 3|16 7 |
Shirt and collar | 11 4 |13 7|13 7 |14 1|14 7|14 10 |
Ready-made tailoring| 10 10 |15 2|14 2 |14 10|15 7|16 0 |
Printing | 9 8 |12 3|12 7 |13 7|13 6|14 5 |
Bookbinding | 10 2 |12 3|12 8 |13 0|13 0|14 3 |
Pottery | 10 1 |12 2|12 5 |12 3|12 10|13 1 |
Glass | 8 6 |10 3|11 2 |10 9|11 1|11 9 |
Food preparation | 10 0 |14 5|14 10 |15 2|15 2|17 6 |
| | | | | | |
Total | 12 8 |14 9|14 10 |15 4|15 10|16 8 |
--------------------+--------+----+------+-----+-----+------+
-----------------------------+------+-----+------+-----+-------
|Jan.- |May- |Sept.-|Jan.-|May-
Industry |April |Aug. | Dec. |April|Aug.
|1917 |1917 | 1917 |1918 |1918
-----------------------------+------+-----+------+-----+-------
|s. d. |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.
Cotton |19 7 |20 7|21 5 |23 3|24 1
Woolen and worsted |19 8 |19 9|21 9 |22 8|25 3
Linen |13 8 |15 4|17 1 |18 8|20 4
Jute |20 4 |22 7|23 9 |24 4|24 7
Hosiery |18 5 |20 0|20 7 |22 6|23 10
Lace |15 6 |16 9|17 11 |18 6|19 2
Silk |14 9 |15 7|17 2 |18 7|20 5
Carpet |18 9 |20 4|21 3 |22 11|24 4
Bleaching, etc. |18 6 |20 10|22 3 |23 10|24 9
Boot and shoe |17 6 |19 6|20 6 |22 3|22 10
Shirt and collar |15 9 |17 2|18 3 |19 11|21 5
Ready-made tailoring |17 4 |18 9|21 5 |23 2|25 8
Printing |15 9 |16 4|18 2 |19 10|21 8
Bookbinding |15 2 |16 1|17 11 |19 11|21 6
Pottery |13 8 |16 11|17 7 |19 1|21 7
Glass |12 1 |13 9|14 9 |15 6|16 10
Food preparation |18 3 |20 2|21 7 |23 0|24 5
| | | | |
Total |17 8 |19 1|20 5 |21 10|23 6[313]
-----------------------------+------+-----+------+-----+-------
[312] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Report of the
Committee on Women’s Employment_, p. 82.
[313] Includes “Paper Making.”
Appendix M
List of trades in which women have been substituted for men during the
war, but “which from their nature and other conditions of work appear
in the main unsuitable for female labor in normal times.”
(Compiled from the British Home Office report on the “Substitution of
Women in Nonmunition Factories during the War,” pp. 16-26.)
Sawmilling Rope and Binder Twine
Wood Wool Manufacture Heavy Edge Tools
India Rubber Scythes and Sickles
Heavy Chemicals Wire Ropes (heavy)
Oil and Seed Crushing Shale Oil Refining
Glasshouse processes Cement Manufacture (most processes)
Flint Glass Feltmongering
Glass Bottles Matting
Papermaking Linoleum Manufacture
Flour and Corn Milling (except a few light processes)
Sugar Refining Paints and colours
Gas Manufacture China and earthenware
INDEX
Accounting, women employed in, 47.
Addison, Christopher, 140, 152.
Agriculture: employment of women in, 3, 14, 29, 33, 36,
40, 45, 47, 73;
wages paid, 5, 34, 72, 117;
Board of, 71, 73;
efforts to substitute women’s labor in, 63, 70-74;
Women’s Farm and Garden Union, 73;
Women’s National Land Service Corps, 73;
Women’s Land Army, 74;
establishment of training courses in, 85;
employment of children in, 171.
Adjustments, postwar, 215.
Aeroplanes, employment of women on work on, 35.
Airedale of Gledhow, Lord, 121.
Amalgamated Society of Engineers, 51-53, 56, 90, 100, 222.
Ammunition industry, employment of women in, 30.
_See also_ Munitions industry.
Anderson, Miss, 40.
Armature winding, employment of women in, 42.
Arsenals, employment of women at, 37, 60.
Aves, Ernest, 104.
Baillie, G. H., 60.
Bakers, employment of women as, 38, 42, 61.
Banks, employment of women in, 33, 39-40, 42, 45.
Bleaching, employment of women in, 61.
Bill posters, employment of women as, 42.
Billeting of Civilians Bill, 165.
Blast furnaces, employment of women in, 42.
Boot and shoe trade, employment of women in, 30, 61.
Boys, employment of. _See_ Children, employment of.
Boys’ Welfare Association, 184.
Brewing, employment of women in, 37.
Brick making, employment of women in, 38, 67.
British Association for Advancement of Science, 28, 32, 34, 120.
Brush making, employment of women in, 61.
Building trades, employment of women in, 38.
Butchers, employment of women as, 38.
Cement work, employment of women in, 38.
Cemetery laborers, employment of women as, 42.
Central Committee for Prevention and Relief of Distress, 21.
Central Committee on Women’s Employment, 23.
Central Labor Supply Committee, 56, 101, 106.
Chauffeurs, employment of women as, 42.
Chemicals industry, employment of women in, 34, 37, 42.
Children: Fisher Education Law, iv, 12, 226;
employment of, on war work, 2, 4, 17;
legislation regulating employment of, 12, 18-19;
compulsory schooling, 18;
effects of war on employment of, 167-190;
demand for labor of, 167;
relaxation of child labor and compulsory education laws, 170;
numbers employed, 168, 170;
illegal employment of, 174;
supervision of, 176;
wages of, 177;
hours of, 178;
Boys’ Welfare Association, 184;
effects of work on, 185;
postwar employment of, 224.
China making, employment of women in, 38, 61.
Cinema operators, employment of women as, 42.
Civil service. _See_ Government work.
Civil War Workers Committee, 206.
Clerical and Commercial Employments Committee, 69-70.
Clerical work: employment of women in, 33;
training courses in, 85.
Clothing industry, employment of women in, 30, 35, 42, 61, 67.
Clyde strike, 51.
Cole, G. D. H., 114.
College women in agricultural work, 73.
Comfort, legislation providing for, 7.
_See also_ Safety, health and comfort.
Commercial occupations, employment of women in, 29, 39, 45-46.
Competition in securing workers, efforts to avoid, 80.
Conference of Working Class Associations, 218.
Construction work, employment of women in, 42.
Control of workers: controlled establishments, 55;
under Munitions Acts, 92;
prohibition against strikes, 92;
leaving certificates, 93.
Copper works, employment of women in, 42.
Core makers, employment of women as, 42.
Cork cutters: employment of women as, 42.
Corn Production Act, 117.
Cost of living, effect of, on wages, 112.
Cotton trade, dilution in, 61, 67.
Crane drivers, employment of women as, 42.
Cranes, electric, employment of women on, 38.
Currying, employment of women in, 67.
Delinquency, juvenile, 9, 188.
Dilution, 50-74;
made possible by Munitions Act, 6, 51;
“Treasury Agreement” concerning, 52;
attitude of trade unions toward, 90;
complete, 122;
group, 123;
dilution bulletins, 153;
children used in, 175;
return of soldiers to former positions, 221;
postwar results of, 215;
table showing processes on which women were employed, 232;
extent of, in December, 1915, and April, 1916, 235;
numbers substituted, April, 1916-April, 1918, 236;
table of direct substitution, January and April, 1918, 238;
table showing average weekly earnings, 239;
list of trades in which women have been substituted
but which appear unsuitable in normal times, 248.
_See also_ Substitution.
Diseases, occupational: munitions work, 154.
Distress, Central Committee for Prevention and Relief of, 21.
Distribution of young persons between different employments
in July, 1914, October, 1917, and January, 1918, 245.
Docks, employment of women at, 37.
Domestic service: employment of women in, 3, 14, 29, 36, 38, 42;
postwar problems of, 213;
wages, 213.
Donation system for unemployed after the war, 10, 208, 211.
Dressmaking trade: employment of women in, 14, 36, 38;
wages, 118.
Dyeing industry, employment of women in, 61.
Earthenware making, employment of women in, 38, 61.
Educational work: employment of women in, 29, 47;
National Federation of Women Teachers, 88.
_See also_ Schooling.
Effects of war work:
signs of injury to health not generally apparent, 8;
on children, 9, 167, 190;
on home life, 9, 199;
increase in juvenile delinquency, 9, 188;
on women, 191-203;
development of personality, 9, 200.
Efficiency, relative, of men and women workers, 120.
Efforts, organized, to recruit women’s labor, 50.
Electric motor building, employment of women in, 38.
Electric welding, employment of women in, 42.
Engine cleaners, employment of women as, 42.
Engineering industry: employment of women in, 30;
restrictions against employment of women, 51;
dilution introduced in, 56-61;
Committee on Production in Engineering, 51.
Equal pay question, 119;
postwar problems regarding, 215.
Extension of employment of women, 28;
tables showing, 29, 236;
voluntary registration, 65.
Fabian Society, 21.
Fabian Women’s Group, 214.
Factory work, employment of women in, 29.
Farm and Garden Union, Women’s, 73.
Farm work. _See_ Agriculture.
Federation of Women Workers, 96.
Fisher, Herbert, 2, 169-170.
Fisher Education Act, iv, 12, 226.
Flour making, 67.
Food industry, employment of women in, 35, 38.
Food Production, Department of, 73.
Forge works, employment of women in, 42.
Foundry work, employment of women in, 42.
Furniture manufacturing, employment of women in, 38.
Gardeners, employment of women as, 42.
Garrod, H. W., 161.
Gas meter inspectors, employment of women as, 42.
Gas works, employment of women in, 40.
Gauging tools, employment of women in, 38.
General Federation of Trades Unions, 20.
Girls, employment of. _See_ Children, employment of.
Glass decorating, employment of women in, 61.
Glass making, employment of women in, 38, 42.
Government work, employment of women in, 14, 29, 39-40, 47-48.
Grain milling, employment of women in, 37.
Health Insurance Medical Research Committee, 198.
Health of women war workers, 191;
legislation protecting, 7, 16, 19.
_See also_ Safety, health and comfort.
Health of Munition Workers Committee, 8, 82, 135, 146-147,
178, 182-183, 191.
Hat making, employment of women in, 61.
Hay balers, employment of women as, 42.
Home life, effects of war work on, 199.
Hosiery industry, employment of women in, 30, 61.
Hotels, employment of women in, 29, 45.
Hours: legislation concerning, 7, 16;
for children, 19, 178;
in workrooms established to relieve unemployment, 26;
chapter on, 126-145;
prewar legislation regarding, 126;
demand for overtime, 126;
in munitions industry, 127;
working hours in 1915, 129;
establishment of shifts, 130;
complaints against overtime, 131-134;
report on effects of overtime, 134-135;
control of, by Ministry of Munitions, 139;
recommendations concerning, of Committee
on Women’s employment, 145;
improvement in working conditions necessitated by, 146;
increase in accidents attributed to long, 193;
modification of laws concerning, 241.
Housing conditions: establishment of hostels, 163;
Billeting of Civilians Bill, 165.
Howard Association of London, 9.
Hutchins, B. L., 30.
Illegal employment of children, 174.
Improvement in working conditions, plans for, 39.
Increase of women in industry, 2, 28.
Industrial Courts Act, 217.
Industry, employment of women in, 2, 28-29.
Independent Labour Party, 21.
Insurance agents, employment of women as, 42.
Insurance offices, employment of women in, 33.
Interdepartmental Hours of Labour Committee, 138.
Interim Court of Arbitration, 217.
Joint Committee of Industrial Women’s Organizations, 117.
Juvenile employment: increase of delinquency due to, 9, 188;
Committee on, 170, 177, 185.
_See also_ Children, employment of.
Keeling, Frederic, 17.
Kent, A. F. Stanley, 134.
Kitchener, Lord, 28, 129.
Labor: control of, by Munitions Acts, 7;
removal of Trade Union restrictions, 6, 50, 55;
child, 17;
attitude at outbreak of war, 20;
attitude of women’s labor organizations toward war, 20;
protest against substitution, 31;
agreements concerning dilution, 50-61;
organized efforts to recruit women’s, 50;
Women’s Labor Department, 73;
number of orders modifying labor laws, 240;
unions, _see_ Trade Unions.
Laboratory assistants, employment of women as, 42.
Labor Advisory Committee, 54.
Labor Regulation Department, 56.
Labor Supply Department, 56.
Labor Party, attitude of, at outbreak of war, 20.
Lace making, 61.
Lamplighters, employment of women as, 40.
Land Army, 73-74, 85, 117.
Laundry work, employment of women in, 38.
Lawrence, Susan, 104.
Leather industry, employment of women in, 30, 61-62, 67.
Leaving certificates, 7, 93;
injustice of, to workers, 94;
opposition of trade unions to, 96;
amendments regarding, 97.
Leeson, Cecil, 9, 188.
Legislation: Fisher Education Act, iv, 12;
Munitions Acts, 7, 50-51, 54-55, 92;
restricting hours, 7;
providing safety, health and comfort, 7;
Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, 11, 216;
prewar protection through, 16;
prewar, concerning child labor, 17;
providing compulsory schooling, 18;
to avoid competition in securing workers, 80, 89, 126;
Corn Production Act, 117;
affecting hours, 139;
Police, Factories, etc., Act of 1916, 147-150;
Billeting of Civilians Bill, 165;
relaxation of child labor and compulsory education laws, 170;
Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill, 217;
Industrial Courts Act, 217;
Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 1919, 223;
number of orders modifying labor laws, 240;
modification of hour laws, 241-243.
Lift attendants, employment of women as, 42.
Lockouts prohibited by Munitions Act, 92.
Lloyd George, David, 52, 54, 58-59, 101, 122.
Lorry drivers, employment of women as, 42.
Macarthur, Mary, 24, 89.
Machinists, employment of women as, 42.
Maharajah Sandia of Gwalior fund, Prince of, 166.
Manufacturing industries, number of women engaged in
before the war, 14.
Married women, entry of, into industry, 76.
Marine engineering, employment of women in, 42.
Markham, Violet, 69.
Messengers, employment of women as, 40.
Metal trades, employment of women in, 34-35, 37, 42, 60.
Military hospitals, employment of women in, 47.
Military supplies, employment of women in manufacture of, 42.
Millers, wages of, 118.
Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, 11.
Mining, employment of women in, 38.
Mistresses League, 214.
Moulders, employment of women as, 42.
Munitions Acts: of July 2, 1915, 54;
First Munitions Amendment Act, 7, 55, 139;
abrogation of trade union restrictions through, 50-51;
control of women workers under, 92.
Munitions work: employment of women in, 30, 32, 35, 37, 42, 49;
organized efforts to recruit women’s labor for, 50;
efforts to increase production, 51-52;
dilution, 56-61;
training for, 84;
governmental regulation of wages, 99;
wages, 108-113;
criticism of governmental fixing of wages, 110-113;
hours, 127-128;
diseases contracted in, 154;
employment of children in, 168.
Munitions tribunals, 7, 92, 97.
National Advisory Committee, 56.
National Federation of Women Teachers, 88.
National Federation of Women Workers, 24, 87-89, 104-105.
National Service Department, 68.
National Union of Women Workers, 86.
Night work, effects of, on women, 196.
Nonessential industries, transfers of workers from, 75.
Nonindustrial occupations, employment of women in, 33, 39.
Nurses, demand for, 47.
Optical instruments, women engaged in skilled work on, 38.
Overtime work: demand for, 126;
effect of, on women, 196;
general order regulating, 243.
Oxy-acetylene welders, employment of women as, 88.
Painters, employment of women as, 42.
Pankhurst, Mrs, 101.
Pankhurst, Sylvia, 100.
Paper industry, employment of women in, 35, 42.
Parks, employment of women in, 40.
Peace and reconstruction, problems of, 204-227.
Phillips, Marion, 203.
Pipe plasterers, employment of women as, 42.
Police, Factories, etc.
(Miscellaneous Provisions) Act of 1916, 147-150.
Police women, employment of, 40.
Postwar conditions: prevention of unemployment, 205;
unemployment, 206;
adjustments, 215;
approved trades for women, 219;
employment of children, 224;
table showing postwar employment, 246.
Postwomen, employment of, 33, 42.
Power machine operating, training courses in, 85.
Power stations, employment of women in, 40.
Prewar conditions: number of women and children employed, 14.
Prewar legislative protection, 16.
Prince of Wales, The, 21.
Printing industry, employment of women in, 35, 42, 61.
Professions, number of women engaged in, 14, 45, 47.
Quarrying, employment of women in, 38.
Queen’s Work for Women Fund, 24.
Railway service: employment of women in, 33, 39, 42, 46;
agreements as to wages by unions, 115.
Reconstruction, problems of, 204-207.
Recruiting of new workers, 5.
Red Cross hospitals, employment of women in, 47.
Registration, voluntary, 63-64, 69.
Relief, Central Committee for, 21.
Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 1919, 223.
Rhondda, Lady, 222.
Rowntree, B. Seebohm, 149, 156.
Royal Ordnance Factories Trade Lads’ Association, 184.
Safety, health and comfort: legislation providing for, 7, 16;
organized efforts for, 147;
Police, Factories, etc., Act of 1916, 147-150;
occupational diseases contracted in munitions work, 154;
welfare supervision, 155;
attack on welfare movement, 158;
improvements in conditions outside factory, 161;
provisions for children, 182.
Sawmill laborers, employment of women as, 42.
Scavengers, employment of women as, 40.
Schooling: Fisher Education Act, iv, 12, 226;
legislation providing compulsory, 18;
relaxation of compulsory education laws, 170.
Schools, training, establishment of, 84.
Scientific instrument making, employment of women in, 61.
Sewage farms, employment of women at, 40.
Sheet metal working, employment of women in, 42.
Shipbuilding, Committee on Production in Engineering and, 51.
Ship engineering, employment of women in, 42.
Shipyards, employment of women in, 38, 42.
Shoe trade: employment of women in, 30;
training courses in, 85.
Shops Committee, 69.
Smith, Constance, 186.
Society of Incorporated Accountants, 47.
Solderers, employment of women as, 42;
voluntary registration, 63-64, 69.
Sources of workers: transfers from non-essential industries, 75;
transfers between districts, 79.
Special Arbitration Tribunal, 104, 106, 109, 125.
Spelter works, employment of women in, 42.
Steel works, employment of women in, 38.
Stokers, employment of women as, 38.
Street cleaners, employment of women as, 40.
Street traders, child, 4.
Strikes prohibited by Munitions Act, 92.
Substitution: in munitions work, 3;
“equal pay” principle, 5;
protest of labor unions against, 31;
total number of women substituted for men workers, 40;
objections to, 41;
substitution officers, 68.
_See also_ Dilution.
Sweated labor, government provision against, 101.
Sweated trades, wage fixing in, 113.
Tables: extension of employment of women
during four years of war, 29;
increase or decrease in number of women
employed since July, 1914, 39;
extension of employment of females in industry
during four years of war, 44;
number of women engaged on government orders
in private concerns, April, 1917, and April, 1918, 45;
increase in employment of women in commerce, July, 1914-April,
1918, and percentage of firms reporting a shortage
of female labor in April, 1918, 46;
number of females employed by steam railways, 46;
number of females employed by government departments, 48;
prewar occupations of 44, 137;
females insured against unemployment in January, 1917, 79;
number of Women Trade Union members, 88;
_see also_ “Appendices,” 229-249.
Tailors’ pressers, employment of women as, 42.
Teachers, women, 47;
National Federation of, 88.
Technical schools, establishment of, 84.
Telephone repairers, employment of women as, 42.
Tennant, Mrs. A. J., 69.
Testing dynamos, employment of women in, 38.
Textile industry: employment of women in, 14, 35, 38, 42, 61, 65;
organized workers in, 87.
Theaters, employment of women in, 29, 45.
Tinsmiths, employment of women as, 42.
Tobacco industry, employment of women in, 61.
Toy making, training for, 85.
Trades, approved, for women after the war, 219.
Trades Boards: Minimum Wage Act, 11, 216;
wage fixing by, 113.
Trade League, Women’s, 87, 105.
Trade Unions: General Federation of, 20;
restrictions of, removed, by Munitions Acts, 50, 55;
“Treasury Agreement,” 52-53;
agreements allowing dilution, 61;
women and the, 87;
women not admitted to some, 87;
increase of women members, 87;
number of women members in, 88;
reasons for growth of women members in, 89;
difficulties to interest women in, 89;
postwar effect on
number of women members in, 91;
opposition of, to leaving certificates, 96;
agreements effecting wage changes, 114.
Trades Union Congress, 20.
Training: establishment of training centers, 84;
for unemployed women, 210.
Tramway service, employment of women in, 39, 42.
Transferred workers, 81-82.
Transfers of workers: from non-essential industries, 75;
from domestic service, 76;
between districts, 79.
Transport work, employment of women in, 29, 39-40, 45.
Transportation problems of workers, 162.
“Treasury Agreement,” 52-56;
wage regulations contained in, 100, 110;
arrangements for fulfilment of pledges in,
by Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 223.
Tuberculosis, increase in, among women, 198.
Unemployment: postwar, 10;
donation system, 10, 208, 211;
proportion of occupied to unoccupied women before the war, 14;
at outbreak of war, 21;
efforts to relieve, 23;
prewar occupations of women insured against, 79;
of children, 167, 225;
prevention of postwar, 205;
training courses to relieve, 210.
Violations of Munitions Acts, penalties for, 55.
Vocational courses, establishment of, 85.
“Waacs,” 4, 48, 69.
Wages: raises in, due to war conditions, 4;
“equal pay” principle, 5, 100, 119;
effects of peace on, 11;
Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, 11, 216;
prewar, 15, 18;
legislation governing prewar, 16;
of children, 18, 117;
in workrooms established to relieve unemployment, 26;
fear of trade unions that employment of women would
undercut rates of, 31-32;
in agriculture, 34, 72, 117;
dilution, 62, 64;
chapter on, 99-125;
fixing of, 99, 102-104, 106-108, 113;
governmental provision against sweated labor, 101;
Special Arbitration Tribunal, 104;
for woodworkers, 108;
effect of cost of living on, 112;
changes under trade union agreements, 114;
settlement of disputes, 125;
postwar, 209, 215;
Interim Court of Arbitration, 217;
Industrial Courts Act, 217;
Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill, 217;
recommendations concerning postwar, 220;
table showing average weekly earnings, 239;
table showing average wages of women and girls in
nonmunitions trades, 249.
Waiters Union, admission of women to, 90.
War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry, iv.
War Emergency Workers National Committee, 23, 26, 63.
War Register, 64-65.
Webb, Sidney, 15, 18.
Webb, Mrs. Sidney, iv, 110, 113, 116, 169, 220.
Welfare work: “outside welfare officers,” 6;
legislation providing for, 8;
for transferred workers, 81-83;
improvements in working conditions result of, 146-166;
welfare supervision, 155;
attacks on, 158;
supervision of children, 176;
outside of working hours, 199.
“Whitley” industrial councils, 222.
Woman’s Freedom League, 63.
Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps, 48.
Women’s Cooperative Guild, 65.
Women’s Industrial Council, 214.
Women’s National Land Service Corps, 73.
Woodcutting, employment of women in, 42.
Wood trades, employment of women in, 42.
Woodworking industry, employment of women in, 34-35, 37, 61;
wage awards, 108.
Woolen and worsted industry, employment of women in, 30, 61.
Woolwich Arsenal, employment of women in, 60;
welfare work in, 66.
Working Class Associations, conference of, 218.
“Wrafs,” 4, 48.
“Wrens,” 4, 48.
Young Women’s Christian Association, 65.