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UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME
THE GLORY THAT WAS GREECE
BY J. C. STOBART, M.A.
SOME OPINIONS OF THE PRESS
“Mr. Stobart does a real service when he gives the reading but
non-expert public this fine volume, embodying the latest results of
research, blending them, too, into as agreeable a narrative as we have
met with for a long while.... There is not a dull line in his book. He
has plenty of humour, as a writer needs must have who is to deal with
men from the human standpoint.... It is beautifully produced, and the
plates, both in colour and monochrome, are as numerous and well-chosen
as they are striking and instructive.”--THE GUARDIAN.
“Mr. Stobart has produced the very book to show the modern barbarian
the meaning of Hellenism. He exhibits the latest discoveries from
Cnossus and elsewhere, the new-found masterpieces along with the old.
He criticises and appraises the newest theories, ranging from the
influence of malaria to the origins of drama. He has something for
everybody.... The book is nobly illustrated ... no such collection of
beautiful things of this kind has yet been placed before the English
public.”--THE SATURDAY REVIEW.
“He really helps to make ancient Greece a living reality; and the
illustrations, a conspicuous feature of the book, are good and well
selected, the photographic views gaining much from the reproduction on
a dull-surfaced paper.”--TIMES.
“A more beautiful book than this has rarely been printed.... The
pictures of Greek scenery, sculpture, vases, etc., are exceptionally
good.”--EVENING STANDARD.
“No better guide through the labyrinth of things Hellenic has appeared
in our day, and both brush and camera yield of their choicest to make
the book an enduring joy.”--DAILY CHRONICLE.
THE GRANDEUR THAT WAS ROME
THE GRANDEUR THAT WAS
ROME
A Survey of Roman Culture
and Civilisation: by
J. C. Stobart, M.A.
LATE LECTURER IN HISTORY
TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
LONDON
SIDGWICK & JACKSON LTD.
3 Adam Street, Adelphi
1912
_All rights reserved_
PRINTED BY
BALLANTYNE & COMPANY LTD
AT THE BALLANTYNE PRESS
TAVISTOCK STREET COVENT GARDEN
LONDON
PREFACE
This book is a continuation of “The Glory that was Greece,” written
with the same purpose and from the same point of view.
The point of view is that of humanity and the progress of civilisation.
The value of Rome’s contribution to the lasting welfare of mankind is
the test of what is to be emphasised or neglected. Hence the instructed
reader will find a deliberate attempt to adjust the historical balance
which has, I venture to think, been unfairly deflected by excessive
deference to literary and scholastic traditions. The Roman histories
of the nineteenth century were wont to stop short with the Republic,
because “Classical Latin” ceased with Cicero and Ovid. They followed
Livy and Tacitus in regarding the Republic as the hey-day of Roman
greatness, and the Empire as merely a distressing sequel beginning
and ending in tragedy. From the standpoint of civilisation this is an
absurdity. The Republic was a mere preface. The Republic until its last
century did nothing for the world, except to win battles whereby the
road was opened for the subsequent advance of civilisation. Even the
stern tenacity of the Roman defence against Hannibal, admirable as it
was, can only be called superior to the still more heroic defence of
Jerusalem by the Jews, because the former was successful and the latter
failed. From the Republican standpoint Rome is immeasurably inferior
to Athens. In short, what seemed important and glorious to Livy will
not necessarily remain so after the lapse of nearly two thousand years.
Rome is so vast a fact, and of consequences so far-reaching, that every
generation may claim a share in interpreting her anew. There is the
Rome of the ecclesiastic, of the diplomat, of the politician, of the
soldier, of the economist. There is the Rome of the literary scholar,
and the Rome of the archæologist.
It is wonderful how this mighty and eternal city varies with her
various historians. Diodorus of Sicily, to whom we owe most of her
early history, was seeking mainly to flatter the claims of the Romans
to a heroic past. Polybius, the trained Greek politician of the second
century B.C., was writing Roman history in order to prove to his
fellow-Greeks his theory of the basis of political success. Livy was
seeking a solace for the miseries of his own day in contemplating the
virtues of an idealised past. Tacitus, during an interval of mitigated
despotism, strove to exhibit the crimes and follies of autocracy. These
were both rhetoricians, trained in the school of Greek democratic
oratory. Edward Gibbon, too (I write as one who cannot change trains
at Lausanne without emotion), saw the Empire from the standpoint of
eighteenth-century liberalism and materialism. Theodor Mommsen made
Rome the setting for his Bismarckian Cæsarism, and finally, M. Boissier
has enlivened her by peopling her streets with Parisians. It is, in
fact, difficult to depict so huge a landscape without taking and
revealing an individual point of view. There is always something fresh
to see even in the much-thumbed records of Rome.
Although a large part of this book is written directly from the
original sources, and none of it without frequent reference to them,
it is, in the main, frankly a derivative history intended for readers
who are not specialists. Except Pelham’s _Outlines_, which are almost
exclusively political, there is no other book in English, so far as
I am aware, which attempts to give a view of the whole course of
ancient Roman History within the limits of a single volume, and yet the
Empire without the Republic is almost as incomplete as the Republic
without the Empire. As for the Empire, although nothing can supersede
or attempt to replace _The Decline and Fall_, yet the scholar’s
outlook on the history of the Empire has been greatly changed since
Gibbon’s day by the discovery of Pompeii and the study of inscriptions.
Therefore while I fully admit my obligations to Gibbon and Mommsen (as
well as to Dill, Pelham, Bury, Haverfield, Greenidge, Warde Fowler,
Cruttwell, Sellar, Walters, Rice Holmes, and Mrs. Strong, and to
Ferrero, Pais, Boissier, Seeck, Bernheim, Mau, Becker, and Friedlander)
this book professes to be something more than a compilation, because it
has a point of view of its own.
The pictures are an integral part of my scheme. It is not possible
with Rome, as it was with Greece, to let pictures and statues take the
place of wars and treaties. Wars and treaties are an essential part of
the Grandeur of Rome. They should have a larger place here, were they
less well known, and were there less need to redress a balance. But the
pictures are chosen so that the reader’s eye may be able to gather its
own impression of the Roman genius. When the Roman took pen in hand he
was usually more than half a Greek, but sometimes in his handling of
bricks and mortar he revealed himself. For this reason--and because I
must confess not to be a convinced admirer of “Roman Art”--there is
an attempt to make the illustrations convey an impression of grand
building, vast, solid, and utilitarian, rather than of finished
sculpture by Greek hands. Pictures can produce this impression far more
powerfully than words. Standing in the Colosseum or before the solid
masonry of the Porta Nigra at Trier, one has seemed to come far closer
to the heart of the essential Roman than ever in reading Vergil or
Horace. The best Roman portraits are strangely illuminating.
I have to acknowledge with gratitude the permission given me by the
Director of the Königlichen Messbildanstalt of the Royal Museum at
Berlin to reproduce four of the magnificent photographs of Dr. O.
Puchstein’s discoveries at Ba’albek. I am indebted also to Herr Georg
Reimer, of Berlin, for allowing me to reproduce four of the complete
series of Reliefs from Trajan’s Column published by him in heliogravure
under the care of Professor Cichorius. The coloured plate of the
interior of the House of Livia is reproduced by permission of the
German Archæological Institute from Luckenbach’s _Kunst und Geschichte_
(grosse Ausgabe, erster Teil); and from the same work I have been
allowed to reproduce the reconstruction of the Roman Forum in the time
of Cæsar. Professor Garstang has kindly supplied a photograph, with
permission to reproduce of the bronze head of Augustus discovered
by him at Meroe and recently presented to the British Museum. The
Cambridge University Press has allowed me to give two pictures from
Prof. Ridgeway’s _Early Age of Greece_; and the photograph of the
Alcántara Bridge was kindly supplied by Sr. D. Miguel Utrillo, of
Barcelona. The majority of photographs have been supplied by Messrs. W.
A. Mansell and Co.; but for many subjects, especially of Roman remains
outside Italy, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to a number of
amateur photographers, who not only avoid the hackneyed point of view
but also achieve a high level of technique. Sir Alexander Binnie has
kindly permitted the inclusion of eight photographs and Mr. C. T. Carr
of four; while I must also make acknowledgment to Miss Carr, Mr. R. C.
Smith, and Miss K. P. Blair.
As before, I am much indebted to Mr. Arnold Gomme for his assistance
with the proofs.
J. C. S.
CANTERBURY, 1912
CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xii
INTRODUCTION
THE PERSPECTIVE OF ROMAN HISTORY:
LATINISM: ITALY AND THE ROMAN 1
CHAP
I. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME
THE GROWING REPUBLIC: THE CONSTITUTION:
THE EARLY ROMAN: EARLY RELIGION: LAW 16
II. CONQUEST
THE PROVINCES: THE IMPERIAL CITY 44
III. THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC
THE GRACCHI: MARIUS: SULLA: POMPEIUS
AND CÆSAR: LATE REPUBLICAN CIVILISATION 82
IV. AUGUSTUS
THE SENATE: THE PEOPLE AND THE MAGISTRATES:
ARMY AND TREASURY: THE PROVINCES 160
V. AUGUSTAN ROME
REFORMATION OF ROMAN SOCIETY: AUGUSTAN
LITERATURE: ART: ARCHITECTURE 223
VI. THE GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE
THE PRINCIPATE: IMPERIAL ROME: EDUCATION
AND LITERATURE: ART: LAW:
PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 253
EPILOGUE 305
CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 317
BIBLIOGRAPHY 325
INDEX 329
NOTE
_The cameo on the front cover of this volume is from a sardonyx head of
Germanicus in the Carlisle collection._
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES
HEAD OF AUGUSTUS WITH CROWN OF OAK-LEAVES _Frontispiece_
Engraved by Emery Walker from a photograph by Bruckmann of the
original in the Glyptothek, Munich. An idealised portrait of the
emperor in middle life. He wears the _corona civica_. See p 169
“CLYTIE” 248
Engraved by Emery Walker from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the
original marble in the British Museum. An idealised portrait-bust of
a lady of the imperial family, possibly Antonia, the work of a Greek
artist of the Augustan Age. The name “Clytie” has no authority: the
frame of petals is purely decorative
* * * * *
MAP (IN COLOUR)
THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS FULLEST EXTENT 194
* * * * *
PLATES
1 GENERAL VIEW OF ROMAN FORUM 4
From a photograph by Anderson. The view is taken from the Capitol,
looking S.E. at the Arch of Titus, on the left of which part of the
Colosseum is visible. The background on the right is filled by the
Palatine Hill and the substructures of Caligula’s Palace, in front of which
the walls of the Temple of Augustus are visible. To the right of the
middle are three columns and part of the entablature of the Temple of
Castor. In the centre is the Column of Phocas. The foreground is
occupied by the Arch of Severus (l.) the Temple of Saturn (r.) and two
Corinthian columns of the Temple of Vespasian
2 THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA 6
From a photograph by Anderson. The ruined arches belonged to the
Aqueduct of Claudius. See p. 293
3 VIEW OF SPOLETO 8
From a photograph by Anderson. Modern view showing a typical
hill-town or _arx_. Spoletium is chiefly famous in ancient history for its
gallant repulse of Hannibal in 217 B.C.
4 THE CAPITOLINE WOLF 18
From a photograph by Anderson of the original bronze in the Palace of
the Conservatori, Rome. The wolf herself is ancient, probably of
Etruscan workmanship. See p. 18
5 (Fig 1) ARCHAIC BRONZE “PAN” 20
Primitive Etruscan work. A horned and bearded god
(Fig 2) ARCHAIC BRONZE. “ARTEMIS”
From photographs by Mansell & Co, of the originals in the British
Museum, showing the development of Etruscan bronze-work
6 ETRUSCAN VASE 22
Drawn from Vase F. 488 in the Etruscan Room, British Museum. A
curiously debased design, which like much of Etruscan art suggests
unintelligent copying of Greek models
7 ETRUSCAN TOMB IN TERRA-COTTA 24
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the Terra-cotta
Room, British Museum. The reader will notice the close resemblance
of this work, particularly the relief depicting the battle and
the mourners, to Greek relief-work of the sixth century B.C.
8 VIA APPIA: THE APPIAN WAY 40
From a photograph by Anderson. The remains of Roman tombs may be
seen on each side of the road
9 LAKE TRASIMENE 50
From photographs by C.T. Carr. The scene of the famous battle of
217 B.C., in which Hannibal ambushed the Roman army on the shores
of the lake
10 BRONZE STATUE OF AULUS METILIUS [“THE ARRINGATORE”] 56
From a photograph by Almari of the original bronze statue in the
Archæological Museum, Florence. One of the rare examples of early
republican portraiture, found near Lake Trasimene, a statue of Aulus
Metilius (unknown to history) in the guise of an orator. It is assigned
to the end of the third century B.C., and is said to represent
the transition between Etruscan and Roman portraiture. I think,
however, that it would be true to describe it as a Roman head,
probably copied from a death-mask, upon a Greek body. Where is
the Etruscan element?
11 PUBLIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS 72
From a photograph by Brogi of the original bronze in the Naples
Museum. The authenticity of the portrait cannot be guaranteed, but
it is a fine example of Republican portraiture
12 (Fig. 1) ETRUSCAN WARRIOR: BRONZE STATUETTE 88
Possibly imported from Greece
(Fig. 2) ROMAN LEGIONARY OF THE EMPIRE; BRONZE STATUETTE
From photographs by Mansell & Co. of the originals in the British
Museum. These two bronze statuettes show the essential similarity of
Roman and Etruscan (or Greek) armour, which consists mainly of a
cuirass of leather plated with metal
13 SCABBARD OF LEGIONARY SWORD 98
From photographs of the original in the British Museum. The scabbard
is in the scale of 1:4. The sword was only 21 in. long and 2½ in. at
the greatest breadth. It was found at Mainz. The scabbard is of wood
ornamented with plates of silver-gilt. At the top is a relief showing
Tiberius welcoming Germanicus on his victorious return from Germany
(A.D. 17) In the centre is a portrait medallion of Tiberius. The
relief at the bottom indicates the return of the standards of Varus to a
Roman temple. Below is an Amazon armed with the German battle-axe
14 CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS 104
From a photograph by Tryde of the original marble in the Jacobsen
collection at Copenhagen. There is no sufficient reason to doubt the
authenticity of this famous portrait of Pompey the Great. It closely
resembles a beautiful gem in the Chatsworth collection
15 BUST OF CICERO 108
From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. A fine ancient portrait; but its authenticity cannot be
guaranteed
16 TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS, ROME 112
From a photograph by Anderson. Erected in 78 B.C. Notice the
Ionic columns used purely as ornament
17 TEMPLE OF VESTA, TIVOLI 116
From a photograph by Alinari. Commonly known as “The Temple
of the Sibyl,” but more properly assigned to Vesta. This is considered
to be work of about 80 B.C. The style is Corinthian
18 (Fig. 1) VENUS GENETRIX 120
From a photograph by Alinari of the statue in the Louvre. Described
on p. 156
(Fig. 2) THE MEDICI VENUS
From a photograph by Alinari of the statue in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. This celebrated and once admired statue is now regarded as
typical of the degenerate Greek work produced for the Roman market.
The technique is still admirable
19 JULIUS CÆSAR 136
From a photograph by the Graphic Gesellschaft of the original black
basalt head in the Berlin Museum. Its antiquity is not above
suspicion
20 (Fig. 1) BUST OF JULIUS CÆSAR 138
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Vatican, Rome.
A fine portrait, undoubtedly a close copy of an authentic original, as is
the equally famous example in the British Museum
(Fig. 2) BUST OF BRUTUS
From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Capitoline Museum,
Rome. The authenticity of this has been doubted, but on insufficient
grounds. Evidently a work of about the same period as the “Young
Augustus” (plate 25)
21 ARRENTINE POTTERY 140
Plate from “The Art of the Romans” by H. B. Walters, by kind
permission of Messrs Methuen & Co. Arretine pottery takes its name
from Arretium (Arezzo), the chief centre of this native Italian industry.
It is distinguished by the fine crimson clay of which it is made. The
designs stamped in relief from moulds are generally imitated from
Greek metal-work or Samian ware. The pieces are seldom more than
6 in. in height
22 COIN PLATE (IN COLLOTYPE) 142
1. Coin of Pontus, with head of Mithradates the Great. See pp. 103, 158
2. Silver Tetradrachm, with heads of Antony and Cleopatra. See pp. 122, 155
3. Denarius of Sulla
_Rev_ Q. Pompeius Rufus, consul with Sulla in 88 B.C.
4. Denarius of Julius Cæsar
_Rev_ figure of Victory, with name of L Æmilius Buca, triumvir of
the mint
5. Coin of Tiberius, with head of Livia and inscription SALVS AVGVSTA
23 AUGUSTUS: THE BLACAS CAMEO 144
Collotype plate from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in
the Gem Room, British Museum. Probably the work of Dioscorides,
who had the exclusive right of portraying Augustus
24 AUGUSTUS: THE “PRIMAPORTA” STATUE 148
From a photograph by Anderson of the statue in the Vatican, Rome.
The emperor is depicted as a triumphant general, haranguing his troops.
In the centre of the breastplate is a Parthian humbly surrendering the
standards to a Roman soldier
25 AUGUSTUS AS A YOUTH 150
From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Vatican, Rome. A
distinctly Greek portrait, possibly taken during his early days at
Apollonia; an authentic original bust
26 AUGUSTUS: BRONZE HEAD, FROM MEROË 152
From a photograph supplied by Prof. Garstang of the original bronze,
discovered by him in 1910, at Meroe in Egypt, and since presented to
the British Museum
27 M. VIPSANIUS AGRIPPA 154
From a photograph by Alinari of the bust in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. The design of the bust is inconsistent with the belief that
this is a contemporary portrait. But it resembles the portraits of the
general on the coins
28 (Fig. 1) ROMAN BRIDGE AT RIMINI 156
This fine marble bridge was begun by Augustus and completed by
Tiberius. Ariminum was the northern terminus of the great Flaminian
Road
(Fig. 2) ROMAN AMPHITHEATRE AT VERONA
From photographs by C. T. Carr. The amphitheatre was erected by
Diocletian about A.D. 290 and was restored by Napoleon. It would
contain about 20,000 spectators. Verona was the capital under
Theodoric the Ostrogoth
29 TWO VIEWS OF THE PONT DU GARD 158
This is part of the great aqueduct which supplied Nismes with water.
The bridge has a span of 880 feet across the valley of the Gardon. The
lower tiers are built of stone without mortar or cement of any
kind.
30 (Fig. 1) INTERIOR OF ROMAN TEMPLE, NISMES 160
(Fig. 2) LOWER CORRIDOR OF ARENA, NISMES
The amphitheatre at Nismes is larger than that of Verona. There are
sixty arches on the ground and first floors, with larger apertures at the
four cardinal points
31 THE ARENA, NISMES 162
Notice the consoles in the attic story. These are pierced with round
holes to contain the poles which once supported an awning for the
protection of the spectators from the heat
32 (Fig. 1) TRIUMPHAL ARCH, ST. REMY, ARLES 164
Arles (Arelate) was one of the chief towns of Gallia Narbonensis, and a
colony of Augustus. The upper part of the arch has perished. The
sculptures represent chained captives. There is no inscription and
the date of the monument is uncertain
(Fig. 2) MAUSOLEUM OF JULIUS, ST. REMY, ARLES
This mausoleum was erected by three brothers Julius to the memory
of their parents. Thousands of Gauls took the name of Julius in honour
of Cæsar and Augustus. The style, which is essentially Græco-Roman,
is appropriate to the period of Augustus. The reliefs again represent
captives.
Plates 29-32 are from photographs taken by Sir Alexander Binnie
33 (Fig. 1) ARCH OF MARIUS, ORANGE 166
From a photograph by Neurdein. Apparently erected to the memory
of C. Marius, who defeated the Teutons at Aquæ Sextiæ in 102 B.C.
The neighbourhood of Orange (Arausio) was the scene of a great Roman
defeat three years earlier. But the style of the monument points to a
date at least a century later. The style of the reliefs is dated by the
best authorities in the reign of Tiberius. The name of the sculptor,
Boudillus, appears to be Gallic
(Fig. 2) S. LORENZO, MILAN
From a photograph by Brogi. Remains of a handsome Corinthian
colonnade which formerly belonged to the palace of Maximian. In the
fourth century A.D., Mediolanum was frequently a place of imperial
residence. In this period Milan was larger than Rome
34 BARBARIAN WOMAN, KNOWN AS “THUSNELDA” 168
From a photograph by Almari. This famous statue, which stands in
the Loggia dei Lanzi, at Florence, is popularly called after the wife of
Arminius, who died in exile at Ravenna. It is probably a typical
Teutonic captive and very possibly occupied a place in the niche of a
triumphal arch. Mrs. Strong assigns it to the period of Trajan
35 (Fig. 1) ALTAR OF THE LARES OF AUGUSTUS 172
From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. Augustus introduced Cæsar-worship into Rome by means of
these altars to the Lares (household gods) and the Genius of Augustus.
This altar dates from A.D. 2. Augustus is in the centre, Livia his wife to
the right, and Gaius or Lucius Cæsar to the left. Mrs Strong describes
these reliefs as “a series of singular charm”
(Fig. 2) SACRIFICIAL SCENE, FROM THE ARA PACIS
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Villa Medici,
Rome. An earlier example of the favourite sacrificial theme. The
artist has sacrificed, as usual, the hinder part of his victim to his desire
to introduce as many as possible of the portrait studies. The relief
has been much and badly restored
36 THE “TELLUS” GROUP, ARA PACIS 174
From a photograph by Brogi of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. Discussed on pp. 244-245
37 RELIEF, ARA PACIS 176
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Museo delle
Terme, Rome. The scene is a sacrifice. The majestic bearded figure on
the right is perhaps emblematical of the senate--one of the finest conceptions
of Græco-Roman art and little inferior to the elders on the
Parthenon frieze. Above the attendants on the left is a small shrine
of the Penates
38 SILVER PLATE FROM BOSCOREALE 178
1. A silver mirror-case of exquisite design: the central medallion
represents Leda and the swan
2. One of the beautiful examples of Augustan art in which natural
forms are used with brilliant decorative effect
From photographs by Giraudon of the originals in the Louvre
39 (Fig. 1) GERMANICUS 180
Sardonyx cameo from the Carlisle collection. Photograph by
Mansell & Co.
(Fig. 2) GEM OF AUGUSTUS: CAMEO OF VIENNA
Photograph by Mansell & Co. Sardonyx cameo probably by Dioscorides,
A.D. 13
_Below_: German captives and Roman soldiers erecting a trophy
_Above_: Augustus and Roma enthroned. Behind them are Earth, Ocean,
and (?) the World, who is crowning him with the _corona civica_. Behind
his head is his lucky sign--the constellation of Capricornus. Tiberius
escorted by a Victory is stepping out of his triumphal chariot and
Germanicus stands between
40 AUGUSTUS AND FAMILY OF CÆSARS: CAMEO 182
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris. The largest and finest sardonyx cameo in existence.
It is cut in five layers of the stone so that wonderful effects of tinting
are produced, sometimes at the expense of the modelling. Tiberius and
his mother Livia occupy the centre. Germanicus and his mother
Antonia stand before him. The figures to the left may be Gaius
(Caligula) and the wife of Germanicus. Behind the throne Drusus is
looking up to heaven, where the deified Augustus floats, surrounded by
allegorical figures. Below are barbarian captives
41 (Figs. 1 and 3) STUCCO RELIEFS 184
From photographs by Anderson of the originals in the National Museum,
Rome. Much of the ornamentation of Roman villas was in stucco or
terra-cotta taken from the mould and often tinted. Both the flying
Victory and the Bacchic relief showing a drunken Silenus are extremely
graceful specimens of the art, both essentially Greek
(Fig. 2) DECORATIVE ORNAMENT, ARA PACIS
From a photograph by Anderson of the fragment in the Museo delle
Terme, Rome. A fine example of the naturalistic ornament of the
Augustan period
42 (Fig. 1) FRAGMENT OF AUGUSTAN ALTAR 188
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Museo delle
Terme, Rome. Quoted by Wickhoff as “a triumph of the Augustan
illusionist style” a design of plane-leaves, admirable in fidelity to
nature. Observe the rich mouldings of the framework
(Fig. 2) ROMAN RELIEF
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the British
Museum. From the tomb of a poet. The Muse stands before him
holding a tragic mask
43 ALTAR OF AMEMPTUS 190
From a photograph by Giraudon of the original in the Louvre. The
inscription shows that this altar was dedicated to the spirits of Amemptus,
a freedman of the Empress Livia. It belongs therefore to about A.D. 25.
From the types of ornament employed one may conjecture that
Amemptus was a Greek actor and musician. The decorative effect is
very charming and the detail most beautifully worked out
44 (Fig. 1) THE TEMPLE OF SATURN, FORUM, ROME 192
Eight Ionic unfluted columns with part of the entablature. The
columns stand upon a lofty base. The Temple of Saturn, which contained
the treasury of the senate, was rebuilt in 42 B.C.
(Fig. 2) THE TEMPLE OF MATER MATUTA, ROME
From photographs by R.C. Smith. The most complete example of the
round temple still existing, the Temple of Vesta in the Forum having
disappeared. This is probably a temple of “Mother Dawn.” The
five Corinthian columns of Pentelic marble were probably imported
from Greece. Most authorities assign it to the Augustan restoration,
but others place it among the earliest Republican works. The tiled
roof is of course modern, and somewhat spoils its effect. This little
temple stood in the Forum Boarium (cattle market)
45 PORCH AND INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON, ROME 196
From photographs by Anderson and Brogi. See p. 251
46 MAISON CARREE, NISMES 198
From a photograph kindly supplied by Sir Alexander Binnie. Perhaps
the finest, certainly the most complete example of Græco-Roman
architecture. The style is Corinthian, but characteristic Roman
developments are the high _podium_ or base, and the fact that the surrounding
peristyle is “engaged” or attached to the wall except in
front (pseudo-peripteral). This temple was dedicated to M. Aurelius
and L. Verus. It was surrounded by an open space and then a
Corinthian colonnade. Nismes, once the centre of a flourishing trade in
cheese, is especially rich in Roman remains
47 THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME 200
From a photograph by Anderson. The theatre, built by Augustus in
13 b.c. in memory of his ill-fated nephew, was constructed in three
tiers, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The upper story has disappeared,
and the elevation of the ground floor has been spoilt by the rise in the
level of the ground
48 INNER COURT, FARNESE PALACE, ROME 202
From a photograph by Anderson. The splendid cortile of the Farnese
Palace, designed by Michael Angelo, is copied from the Theatre of
Marcellus, exhibiting the same succession of orders. The juxtaposition
of these two plates should assist the reader’s imagination to re-create
the original splendours of Roman architecture from the existing
ruins
49 (Fig. 1) COLONNADE OF OCTAVIA 204
From a photograph by Anderson. Erected by Augustus in honour of
his beloved sister, who was married first to M. Marcellus then to
M. Antony. She was the mother of Marcellus, great-grandmother of
Nero and Caligula. She died in 11 B.C. The colonnade was probably
built some years before her death. It enclosed the temples of Jupiter
Stator and Juno, it also contained a public library and a senate-house
which was destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus
(Fig. 2) ROMAN BAS-RELIEF
From a photograph by Almari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. A sacrifice, probably a work of the time of Domitian.
The heads, most of them portraits, are of admirable execution, but the
overcrowded design is unpleasing. The architectural background is
typical of the Flavian period. This slab was used by Raphael in his
cartoon of Paul and Barnabas at Lystra
50 COIN PLATE (IN COLLOTYPE): ROMAN EMPERORS 206
1. Nero
2. Trajan
3. Vespasian
4. Hadrian
5. Marcus Aurelius
6. Domitian
7. Vitellius
8. Galba
From originals in the British Museum
51 HADRIAN’S WALL: NEAR HOUSESTEADS (BORCOVICIUM), NORTHUMBERLAND 210
From a photograph by Gibson & Son. See pp. 261-262
52 PORTA NIGRA, TRIER, GERMANY 214
From a photograph by Frith. An example of military architecture, truly
Roman in character. Probably dates from the time of Gallienus (A.D.
260)
53 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN--I 216
On the left, the emperor surrounded by his staff is haranguing his
troops. Observe how the ranks of the army are portrayed in file. On the
right, fortifications are being constructed (Cichorius, plate xi)
54 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN--II 218
On the left, horses are being transported across the Danube, Trajan is
seen steering his galley, sheltered by a canopy. On the right he is
landing at the gates of a Roman town on the river banks. The temples
are visible within the walls (Cichorius, plate xxvi)
55 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN--III 220
A cavalry battle, in which the Romans are charging the mail-clad
Sarmatians. The reader will notice the resemblance between the latter
and the Norman knights of the Bayeux tapestry (Cichorius, plate xxviii)
56 RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN--IV 222
On the left the Romans, in _testudo_ formation, are attacking a Dacian
fortress. In the centre Trajan is receiving the heads of the defeated
enemy (Cichorius, plate li)
Four collotype plates, reproduced by special permission from Prof.
Cichorius’s “Die Reliefs der Traianssaule” (Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1896)
Photographs by Donald Macbeth
57 (Fig 1) RELIEF, FROM A SARCOPHAGUS 224
From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. An example of “continuous narration” in relief-work. The
sarcophagus is ornamented with typical scenes in the life of a Roman
gentleman--the chase, the greeting by his slaves, sacrifice, marriage.
The design is described as “subtly interwoven” or “fatiguing and
confused” according to the taste of the onlooker
(Fig 2) ROMAN AND DACIAN
From a photograph by Graudon of the original relief in the Louvre. The
source of this slab is unknown; it evidently belongs to the beginning
of the second century A.D., and refers to the Dacian Wars of Trajan,
or possibly of Domitian. The contrast between the proud calm Roman and
the wild barbarian is very fine, and recalls similar contrasts in Greek
sculpture. In the background a Dacian hut and an oak-tree are seen
58 RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS 226
From a photograph by Brogi. Shows the emblems captured in Jerusalem
(A.D. 70) being carried in triumph at Rome. We can distinguish the
seven-branched candlestick, the table for the show-bread and the Sacred
Trumpets. The tablets were inscribed with the names of captured cities
59 RUINS OF PALMYRA (VIEW OF GREAT ARCH FROM THE EAST) 230
From a photograph by Donald Macbeth of plate xxvi in Robert Wood’s
“Ruins of Palmyra,” 1753. The city of Palmyra, traditionally founded
by Solomon, at a meeting-point of the Syrian caravan routes, first
rose into prominence in the time of Gallienus, when Odenathus, its
Saracen prince, was acknowledged by the emperor as “Augustus,” _i.e._
a colleague in the imperial power. After his assassination his widow
Zenobia succeeded to his power and ruled magnificently as Queen of
the East until she was defeated and made captive by Aurelian. The
architectural remains are Corinthian in style, embellished with
meaningless oriental ornament
60 BA’ALBEK: THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS 232
Heliopolis or Ba’albek was the centre of a fertile region of Cœle-Syria
on the slopes of Anti-Lebanon. It was always a centre of Baal or Sun
worship, it was a city of priests and its oracle attracted great renown
in the second century A.D. when it was consulted by Trajan. Antoninus
Pius built the great Temple of Zeus (Jupiter), one of the wonders
of the world. The worship was rather that of Baal than of Zeus, and
oriental in character. It included the cult of conical stones such as
that brought to Rome by Elagabalus. The architecture is of the most
sumptuous Corinthian style, with some oriental modifications
61 BA’ALBEK: THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS, INTERIOR 234
Here we observe the oriental round arch forming the lowest course. The
material of the buildings is white granite with decorations of rough
local marble
62 BA’ALBEK: THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS, EAST PORTICO 236
Observe the rather effective juxtaposition of fluted and unfluted
columns
63 BA’ALBEK: THE CIRCULAR TEMPLE, FROM BACK 238
This small circular temple is of a style without parallel in antiquity.
The nature of the cult is unknown
The last four plates are reproduced by special permission of the
Director of the Royal Museum, Berlin, from photographs supplied by the
Königlichen Messbildanstalt. They are plates XVII, XXI, XXII, and XXX
respectively, in Puchstein and Von Lupke’s “Ba’albek,” published for
the German Government by G. Reimer, Berlin
64 (Fig. 1) TIMGAD: THE CAPITOL 240
Timgad (Thamugadi) was founded by Trajan as a Roman colony in A.D. 100.
It is on the edge of the Sahara in the ancient province of Numidia.
It has recently been explored by the French. The photograph shows the
Capitol raised on an artificial terrace. Two of the Corinthian columns
have been re-erected
(Fig. 2) TIMGAD: THE DECUMANUS MAXIMUS AND TRAJAN’S ARCH
A view of the main street, spanned by a triumphal arch in honour
of Trajan. The ruts of the carriage-wheels are still visible as at
Pompeii. From photographs by Miss K. P. Blair
65 POMPEII: THERMOPOLION, STREET OF ABUNDANCE 242
From a photograph by d’Agostino. The new street revealed by the most
recent excavations of Prof. Spinazzola. The photograph shows us a
“hot-wine shop” with the bar and the wine-jars
66 POMPEII: MURAL PAINTING, STREET OF ABUNDANCE 244
From a photograph by Abeniacar. Another of the most recent finds, a
fresco of the Twelve Gods
67 (Fig. 1) THE EMPEROR DECIUS 246
From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Capitoline Museum,
Rome. A splendid example of the realistic portraiture in the third
century A.D.
(Fig. 2) MARCUS AURELIUS
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British Museum.
All the portraits of the virtuous philosopher agree in producing this
aspect of tonsorial prettiness which belies the character of a manly
and vigorous prince
68 (Fig. 1) THE EMPEROR CARACALLA 250
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British Museum
(Fig. 2) THE EMPEROR COMMODUS
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British Museum
69 RELIEFS FROM BASE OF THE ANTONINE COLUMN 252
From photographs by Anderson of the originals in the Vatican, Rome
(Fig. 1) WARRIORS
Represents a military review. The infantrymen with their standards
are grouped in the centre, while the emperor leads a procession of
the cavalry with their _vexilla_, who march past with what Mrs Strong
describes as a “fine and pleasing movement.” Discussed on p. 292
(Fig. 2) APOTHEOSIS OF ANTONINUS AND FAUSTINA
Antoninus and his less virtuous consort are being borne up to heaven
on the back of Fame or the Genius. The youth reclining below bears the
obelisk of Augustus to indicate that he personifies the Campus Martius.
The figure on the right is Rome. The composition of the scene displays
a ludicrous want of imagination
70 TWO VIEWS OF THE AQUEDUCT OF CLAUDIUS 254
From photographs by Anderson. See p. 293
71 (Fig. 1) THE ARCH OF TITUS, ROME 258
See p. 293
(Fig. 2) THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME
The Arch of Constantine is adorned with borrowed reliefs, mainly from
the Forum of Trajan. It is the best preserved of the Roman arches. From
photographs by R. C. Smith
72 THE COLOSSEUM, ROME 260
From a photograph by Anderson. Described on p. 293. In the foreground
is the ruined apse of the Temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian
73 THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN 262
From a photograph by Anderson. The great Forum of Trajan was
constructed by the Greek architect Apollodorus between A.D. 111 and
114. The base of the column formed a tomb destined to contain the
conqueror’s ashes. At the top was his statue, now replaced by an image
of St. Peter. The story of the Dacian war is told on the spiral relief
about 1 metre broad. See plates 53-56
74 DETAIL OF THE ANTONINE COLUMN 264
From photographs by Anderson. The Antonine Column was constructed on
the model of the Column of Trajan, seventy-five years later, and thus
affords an insight into the progress of relief sculpture at Rome. The
later work shows more attempt at individual expression, not always
successful, and the scenes are less crowded. They depict episodes from
the German and Sarmatian wars of A.D. 171-175, (_a_) represents the
decapitation of the rebels and (_b_) the capture of a German village:
the huts are being burned while M. Aurelius serenely superintends an
execution
75 ANTINOUS 266
(Fig. 1) from a photograph by Giraudon of the Mondragore bust in the
Louvre
(Fig. 2) from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British
Museum
The significance of the artistic cult of Antinous in the age of Hadrian
is discussed on p. 293. It is probably only the diffidence of our
native archæologists which has allowed the colossal Mondragore bust its
supremacy. The British Museum portrait represents him younger and in
the guise of a youthful Dionysius, the expression far more human, and
the treatment of the hair far less elaborate and effeminate
76 ANTINOUS: FROM THE BAS-RELIEF IN THE VILLA ALBANI, ROME 268
From a photograph by Anderson
77 RELIEFS OF MARCUS AURELIUS 270
(Fig. 1). Marcus Aurelius accompanied by Bassæus Rufus, prætorian
prefect, is riding through a wood and receiving the submission of two
barbarian chiefs. In my judgment this scene, and especially the figure
of the foot soldier at the emperor’s side, is the _chef-d’œuvre_ of
Roman historical relief-work
(Fig. 2). Marcus and Bassæus are sacrificing in front of the temple of
the Capitoline Jove. These panels probably belonged to a triumphal arch
erected in honour of the German and Sarmatian wars of A.D. 171-175.
From photographs by Anderson of the originals in the Conservatori
Palace, Rome
78 TWO VIEWS OF THE ARCH OF TRAJAN, BENEVENTUM 274
From photographs by Alinari. This splendid monument at Beneventum on
the Appian Way was erected in A.D. 114 in expectation of the emperor’s
triumphant return from the East, where, however, he died. It is
constructed of Greek marble and once carried a quadriga in bronze. The
reliefs on the inside (Fig. 1) depict the triumph of Trajan after his
Parthian campaign. Those on the outside (Fig. 2) represent the Dacian
campaigns
79 ALTAR DISCOVERED AT OSTIAv 276
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the National Museum,
Rome. A fine example of decorative art. The motive of the garlanded
skull is a favourite one. This altar was, as the inscription shows, a
work of Hadrian’s time
80 TOMB OF THE HATERII 278
From a photograph by Alinari of the fragments in the Lateran Museum,
Rome. Monument to a physician, and his family of about a.d. 100. The
scheme is ugly and barbaric, but it includes some very fine decorative
work. The facades of five Roman buildings are shown--the Temple of
Isis, the Colosseum, two triumphal arches, and the Temple of Jupiter
Stator. The temples are open and the images visible
81 BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA, SPAIN 282
From a photograph by Lacoste, kindly supplied by Sr. D. Miguel Utrillo.
This superb bridge over the Tagus is 650 feet long. The design exhibits
a rare combination of grace with strength
82 TOMB OF HADRIAN, ROME 284
From a photograph by Anderson. The Castel S. Angelo, restored as
a fortress by Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia), consists mainly of the
Mausoleum of Hadrian; the bridge leading to it was also constructed
for the emperor’s funeral. The circular tower was formerly ornamented
with columns between which were statues. The famous Barberini Faun was
one of them. There was a pyramidal gilt roof, and a colossal quadriga
at the top. The whole building was formerly faced with white Parian
marble. Besides Hadrian, all the Antonines, and Septimius Severus and
Caracalla were buried here. The castle has had a stirring history in
mediæval times also. The building is modelled upon the Mausoleum of
Caria
83 TWO VIEWS OF HADRIAN’S VILLA, TIVOLI 286
From photographs by R. C. Smith. See p. 296
84 TWO MOSAICS (COLOUR-PLATE) 288
(Fig. 1) SACRIFICIAL RITES, PROBABLY AT A TOMB
(Fig. 2) PREPARING FOR A SACRIFICE
From the originals in the British Museum, after photographs by Donald
Macbeth
85 MURAL PAINTING: FLUTE-PLAYER (COLOUR-PLATE) 290
From the original in the British Museum, said to have been found in a
_columbarium_ on the Appian Way
86 POMPEII: TWO VIEWS OF THE RUINS 292
From photographs by R. C. Smith. The upper picture shows how the buried
city has been dug out of the ashes from Vesuvius which form the subsoil
of the surrounding country. The lower picture is a general view,
showing Corinthian columns which formed a colonnade round the open
_impluvium_
87 POMPEII: HOUSE OF THE VETTII CUPID FRESCOES 294
From photographs by Brogi. The upper picture shows the Cupids engaged
as goldsmiths; the lower shows them as charioteers, Apollo and Artemis
below. Two examples of the elegant mythological style of the Greek
decline, but extremely effective for the purpose. This art is held to
have originated in Alexandria
88 POMPEII: FRESCO OF THE SACRIFICE OF IPHIGENIA 296
Collotype plate from a photograph by Brogi. Probably a copy of one
of the great pictures of the old Greek masters, Timanthes, about 400
B.C. If so it is the most important example of early painting in
existence. The psychological motive of the composition is a study of
grief. Calchas the prophet is grieved with foreknowledge, Ajax and
Odysseus are sorrowfully obeying commands which they do not understand.
Iphigenia herself shows the fortitude of a martyr, but Agamemnon’s
grief, since he was her father, is too great for a Greek to exhibit.
Hence his face is hidden. Above appears the deer which Artemis allowed
to be substituted for the maiden
89 HOUSE OF LIVIA: INTERIOR DECORATION (COLOUR-PLATE) 300
Reproduced by permission of the German Institute of Archæology, from
Luckenbach’s “Kunst und Geschichte” (grosse Ausgabe, Teil I, Tafel IV),
by arrangement with R. Oldenbourg, Munich
90 THE ALDOBRANDINI MARRIAGE, VATICAN, ROME 302
From a photograph by Brogi of the fresco now in the Vatican. In the
centre is the veiled bride, Venus is encouraging her, Charis is
compounding sweet essences to add to her beauty, Hymen waits on the
bride’s left seated on the threshold stone, outside is a group of three
maidens, a musician, a crowned bridesmaid, and a tire-woman. At the
other side the bride’s family is seen. This is without question the
most charming example of ancient painting
91 BRONZE SACRIFICIAL TRIPOD 304
From a photograph by Brogi of the original, discovered at Pompeii, now
in the National Museum, Naples. An example of Hellenic metal-work of
the Augustan age
92 MITHRAS AND BULL 308
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the statue in the British
Museum. Represents the Mithraic sacrament of Taurobolium in which
the worshippers received new life by bathing in the blood of a bull.
Mithras wears a Phrygian cap, for the Mithraic religion, though it
arose in Persia, only began to form artistic expression when it passed
through the art region of Asia Minor. This motive constantly recurs in
the monuments of the second and third century all over Europe
93 MAUSOLEUM OF PLACIDIA, RAVENNA 312
From a photograph by Alinari. This little church which contains the
tombs of the Emperor Honorius, her brother, and of Constantius III.,
her husband, as well as a sarcophagus of the Empress in marble,
formerly adorned with plaques of silver, is eloquent of the shrunken
glory of the Western Empire in the fifth century. It was founded about
A.D. 440. It is built in the form of a Latin cross, and is only 49 ft.
long, 41 ft. broad. The interior contains beautiful mosaics. Ravenna
contains many other relics of this period when it was the seat of the
Roman government
94 THE BARBERINI IVORY 314
From a photograph by Giraudon of the original in the Louvre. In the
centre Constantine is represented on horseback with spear reversed
in token of victory. Round him are Victory, a suppliant barbarian,
and Earth with her fruits. To the left is a Roman soldier bearing
a statuette of Victory. Below the nations of the East bring their
tribute. Above two Victories, in process of transition, into angels,
support a medallion of Christ, still of the beardless type associated
with Apollo and Sol Invictus. The emblems of sun, moon, and stars show
that Christian Art is not yet severed from paganism
95 (Fig. 1) THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATO 316
From a photograph by Miss Carr. Diocletian planned this great palace,
which is more like a city or fortress, at Spalato (Salonæ) on the
Dalmatian coast, for his place of retirement. Its external walls
measured 700 ft. by 580 ft. It was fortified on three sides and entered
by three gates. The arcading in which the oriental arch springs from
the Roman column is the most interesting architectural feature of the
extensive ruins now existing
(Fig. 2) RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE; THE BATTLE OF THE MILVIAN
BRIDGE
From a photograph by Anderson. Shows the really degenerate art of the
fourth century A.D. In this battle (A.D. 312) Constantine defeated his
rival Maxentius, who was drowned with numbers of his men in the Tiber.
The relief shows the drowning
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
ROMAN _As_: BRONZE (FULL-SIZE) WEIGHT 290 g. 18
The style of the design points to about 350 B.C., and we have no real
evidence of a coinage any earlier. The design is not primitive though
it is clumsily cast. The head of Janus is often found on Greek coins
and so is the galley prow. The weight of the _As_ sank from 12 to 1 oz.
in the course of republican history
ETRUSCAN FRESCO: HEAD OF HERCULES 21
An example of Etruscan painting which does not differ from Greek.
This is probably a head of Hercules, whose name is found on Etruscan
inscriptions
PREHISTORIC ETRUSCAN POTTERY 22
From Ridgeway’s “Early Age of Greece.” Black ware decorated with
incised ornament: hippocamps or sea-horses on one: found at Falern in
Tuscany. Pottery of this type is found on prehistoric sites all over
the Mediterranean
THE ROMAN TOGA 23
The woollen toga was the official dress of the Roman citizen. It was
generally worn over a tunic, though antiquarians, like Cato, wore
the toga alone. It was worn in the natural colour of the wool, but
candidates for office wore it specially whitened, and magistrates had a
purple border
MAP OF ITALY, SHOWING GROUND OVER 1000 FEET HIGH 69
PLAN OF INFANTRY MANIPLES 97
GALLIC POTTERY 114, 115
It is clearly only a provincial development of the Arretine ware which
is itself imitated from the Samian ware of Greece
COIN, SHOWING SURRENDER OF THE PARTHIAN STANDARDS 199
COIN. PORTRAIT OF P. QUINTILIUS VARUS 217
ROMAN _LIMES_ 264