SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
During the year 1845 the Bukit Timah Road was opened up by convict
labour between Bukit Timah and Kranji, so that the produce hitherto
carried by water to Singapore from the neighbouring country of Johore
could now be brought into town by road, while at the same time land was
thus opened up for cultivation. The convicts were also employed in this
year in constructing a road to the summit of Telok Blangah Hill, now
called Mount Faber, for the purpose of building there a signal station,
that upon the island of Blakan Mati having proved unhealthy, due, as it
was said at the time, to malaria from the enclosed marsh at the back of
the island, and to the tainted air from decaying pine-apple leaves,
which were left by the Malays, who cultivated the fruit upon all the
available soil. Pine-apple growing has been largely extended in this
island, as is now generally known at home; and as it is a source of some
wealth to the colony, it may be incidentally mentioned in this running
history of the place, and more particularly in reference to the fact
that the Indian convicts upon ticket of leave have been often employed
in its culture in order to earn a daily wage. The plant that produces
the pine-apple known as the "ananas," or by the Malays as "nanas," grows
literally wild upon the hills on Blakan Mati Island, and other islands
round about Singapore. It delights in a moist climate, and here it has
it to perfection, with just enough heat to help its growth. There is
little or no trouble in its propagation, for after the apple is
sufficiently ripe and cut, the crown that surmounts the fruit is
planted, and a new plantation soon springs up. There is, however, some
difference in the sweetness and flavour of the fruit, according to the
exposure to which it is subjected, those having the benefit of the sun
being preferred.
The first to export the tinned fruit to Europe was a Frenchman named
Bastiani,[5] who succeeded far beyond his expectations, and the industry
has since been taken up largely by the Chinese in Singapore and Johore.
[Footnote 5: He was known to both of us when he commenced the
undertaking.]
Yet another of the important public works of the colony, upon which the
labour of Indian convicts was employed some five years earlier, was at
the construction of the lighthouse on "Pedro Branca," called the
"Horsburgh," after the celebrated hydrographer of that name. The design
was by Thompson, and the selection of the site by Sir Edward Belcher,
R.N., and most of the detail work was under the direct supervision of
Mr. J. Bennett, a civil and mechanical engineer, who afterwards, as we
have said, played a prominent part in the direction and control of the
labour and industrial training of the Indian convicts in the Singapore
jail. He had, as an assistant, Mr. Magaelhaens of the Convict
Department, and both the officers and the convicts lived on board of a
"Tonkong," or a large boat, which was anchored close to the rock. The
convicts were chiefly employed in the capacity of blasters and dressers
of stone. The foundation stone was laid with masonic honours by the
Worshipful Master Brother M. F. Davidson, on the 24th May, 1850, in the
presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and a large party from
Singapore; and the work was completed and the lamps lighted on the 27th
September, 1851.
The _Free Press_ spoke of it as an edifice of which Singapore might well
be proud. "The granite blocks which form the walls were quarried and
shaped at Pulo Ubin, the timber used in the building was the growth of
our island, the brass rails of the staircases were moulded and turned in
this settlement, and last, not least, the architect and engineer
acquired the skill and experience which enabled him to erect so rapidly
the chaste and stately building during a long and useful career as
Government Surveyor at Singapore." Both the quarrying of the stone at
Pulo Ubin, and the felling of the timber required in the erection of
this lighthouse, were by the work of Indian convicts.
In 1845 the foundation stone of a second lighthouse was laid on a reef
near a small island at the eastern entrance to the Straits of Malacca
called "The Coney." It was also laid with masonic honours by the
Worshipful Master and Brethren of the Lodge Zetland in the East, No.
748, in the presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and many of
the British and foreign residents at Singapore. This lighthouse was
named after the eminent founder of the settlement, Sir T. Stamford
Raffles, and was completed in 1856. It was built by free labour, but
many convicts were employed, as at the "Horsburgh," as stone cutters,
blasters, and as labourers, under the charge of an officer of the
Convict Department.
We have referred elsewhere to the rules that had from time to time been
framed for the control of these Indian convicts, but now we are able to
state that in 1845-46 what may be called the most complete code of rules
was permanently established. Colonel Butterworth, who was then Governor
of the Straits Settlements, in consultation with the Superintendent of
the Convicts, collected all that had been previously issued, together
with those that subsequent experience had shown to be necessary, and
working on the principles laid down by Sir Stamford Raffles, the new set
of "Rules and Regulations for the Management of the Indian Convicts"
was formally sanctioned, and put in force under the title of the
"Butterworth Rules."
These rules practically recognised the total abolition of free warders
in the control of the convicts, and the substitution entirely of petty
officers, raised from amongst the convicts themselves, together with the
division of the convicts into six distinct classes, according to their
date of arrival in the prison, and their general subsequent behaviour;
holding out to one and to all by exemplary conduct during their
probationary period a certain progressive reward and promotion.
Added to these "Butterworth Rules" were several others of importance,
introduced by Major McNair in 1858-59, and sanctioned by the Government
from time to time as additions to this code. Later, Captain, now
General, J. G. Forlong came to Singapore, as we have stated, to study
the convict system in force; and from the rules in use and the numerous
standing orders that had been issued at various times, he prepared a
valuable digest of the whole, which he duly submitted to the Government
of India, in which he said, "I have but lately visited most of the
convict prisons of England, living for some time with the Governor of
the Dartmoor jail, and I have seen many Indian prisons, and can state
for the Singapore system and establishment, that it is not inferior to
those of England, and quite unequalled by any I have seen in India."
It is to Captain, the late General, Man that the initiation of several
handicrafts is due, and he commenced by starting all kinds of carpenter
work. The old Guthrie's timber bridge across the Singapore River, for
instance, was entirely their work. They were also then taught
brick-laying and blacksmith work; and so valuable was this trained
labour to the State, even at that time, that the Superintending Engineer
of the station wrote to Government in 1849 as follows:--
"I can most confidently, and without fear of refutation, assert
it to be simply impracticable to induce and obtain from Chinese
carpenters that accurate, close, substantial, and lasting
workmanship which not only can be, but is derived from the
convict artificers under the absolute control of the present
able and zealous Superintendent, Captain Man."
We must here not forget to refer to another public building, in the
erection of which the Indian convicts took their part, viz. the New
Civil Jail at Pearls Hill, the foundation stone of which was laid by
Captain Faber, the Superintending Engineer of the Straits Settlements.
Below the stone a brass plate was deposited with the following
inscription, which we give in full as of some peculiar interest, and
evidence of the progress of the settlement up to 1847.
This Foundation Stone
of
H. M. Gaol, at Singapore,
was laid by Captain Faber, Madras Engineers,
Superintending Engineer, Straits Settlements,
on the 6th February, 1847,
the 27th Anniversary of the Foundation
of a British Settlement
on this Island.
The Hon'ble Colonel W. J. Butterworth, C.B.,
being Governor of Prince of Wales Island,
Singapore, and Malacca,
and
the Hon'ble T. Church,
Resident Councillor at Singapore.
VICTORIA,
Queen of Great Britain and Ireland,
the Right Hon'ble Lord Hardinge, G.C.B.,
Governor-General of British India.
God save the Queen.
In a bottle, likewise placed below the stone, the following statistical
information relative to the Straits Settlements, written on parchment,
was enclosed.
The trade for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island, Singapore, and
Malacca aggregated the sum of Company's Rs. 52,190,685 in merchandise,
and Company's Rs. 9,606,061 in bullion and treasure, making a grand
total of Rs. 61,796,746 (exclusive of the trade between the three
settlements) as follows:--
Imports. Exports. Total.
P.W. Island Rs. 6,614,794 6,528,452 = 13,143,246
Singapore " 26,616,448 21,162,987 = 47,779,435
Malacca " 509,872 364,193 = 874,065
__________
Grand total, Company's Rs. 61,796,746
----------
W. J. BUTTERWORTH, Governor.
SINGAPORE, _6th February, 1847_.
The revenue and charges for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island,
Singapore, and Malacca, including Civil, Military, Marine, Judicial,
Convicts, etc., were as follows:--
_Charges._
P.W. Island Co.'s Rs. 402,783 15 11
Singapore " " 497,186 14 5
Malacca " " 231,158 12 5
-------------Rs. 1,131,129 10 5
_Revenue._
P.W. Island Co.'s Rs. 185,443 2 9
Singapore 530,040 15 7
Malacca 64,408 9 11
-------------Rs. 779,893 12 3
---------------
Total deficit at three settlements Rs. 351,236 14 6
===============
W. J. BUTTERWORTH, Governor.
SINGAPORE, _6th February, 1847_.
In the year 1848 we find that the Indian convicts were employed in
blasting some considerable part of a mass of rock known to the Malays as
Batu Belayer, or "Stone to sail to," and by Europeans as "Lot's wife."
It was a dangerous obstruction to navigation, being situated on the
Singapore side of the western entrance to the New Harbour.[6] It is
reported as known to the old navigators of those seas, and was shown on
old charts over two hundred years ago.
[Footnote 6: This entrance to Singapore was called New Harbour
after the construction there of Cloughton's Dock, now the much
improved New Harbour Dock. Singapore can now boast of another
fine dock at Tanjong Pagar, constructed some forty years ago,
and an additional dock is reported to be in contemplation.]
In following _The Anecdotal History_ it may be well to mention here, as
showing the steady progress of Singapore, that a census was again taken
in 1849, which gave the total population at 59,043--Europeans being
given at 198, Eurasians at 304, Chinese at 24,790; and the remainder was
made up of Malays and other nationalities of the Indian Archipelago, and
from the Coromandel Coast. This was recorded as only a trifling increase
on 1848 amongst the Chinese, and was attributed to the decrease in the
Chinese coolies working in the interior of the island, owing to the
exhaustion of much soil, and the low price of produce, which had caused
many of the planters to open new plantations in Johore.
As an evidence of the variety of the employments to which these Indian
convicts were turned by the Government, it should be remarked that
during the Chinese riots in 1851, when the Chinese Hwuys began to
distrust their countrymen who had become converted to Christianity by a
Roman Catholic mission in the interior of the island, these convicts
were sent out in gangs to follow the rioters into the jungles and
disperse them. These riots lasted for over a week, and it required the
presence at last of the military to quell them. As it was, over 500
Chinese were killed, and among them many of the well-to-do Christian
converts who had become planters.
Utilized as the services of these convicts from India were by the
Government of that day, and their being wholly different in their
habits, customs, and language from the Chinese who formed the bulk of
the town population, it is not to be wondered at that the Chinese felt
themselves estranged from them, and kept themselves ever aloof. There
were, however, some Chinese of the lowest class who sought to embroil
themselves with them, so as to bring the convicts into trouble, but the
convicts always avoided a quarrel. They therefore sought other means,
and in 1852 they gave out and placarded over the town that the Governor
and all the Europeans had left worshipping in St. Andrew's Church, owing
to the number of evil spirits there, and had gone to worship in the
Court House, and that in order to appease the spirits the Governor
required thirty heads, and had ordered the convicts to waylay people at
night and kill them.
These placards created quite a panic in the place, so that people were
for some days afraid to leave their houses after dark. In order to allay
the fears of the people the Governor issued a proclamation saying that
St. Andrew's Church had been struck by lightning and was unsafe (which
was the fact), and he called upon the people not to believe the reports
of evil men. Moreover, he offered a reward of $500 for the discovery of
any person propagating such reports. This had no effect however, so the
leading Chinese merchants were called upon to address their countrymen,
which they did in a long appeal, assuring them of the benevolence of the
Christian Government, and urging them to have no fear and not believe in
foolish reports. In two days the fears of the Chinese population were
thus dispelled. In 1875 a similar "head scare" occurred during the
construction of the "puddle trench" for the new impounding reservoir.
This was a work of considerable difficulty, and some superstitious
natives circulated a report that it could not be done without "human
sacrifice," and that the Government were looking for "heads" to put into
the trench, and the alarm for days was so great that people would not
pass along Thompson's Road adjoining the reservoir after dark; and even
the "dhobies," or washer-men, in the stream adjoining the puddle trench,
hastened into town before dusk. Similar so called "head scares" have
occurred in Singapore up to even the present time. It is not easy to
define what has led to this superstition in the native mind, and it is
made more complicated from the fact that it is shared alike by Chinese
and natives of India. In many of the Polynesian Islands the practice of
human sacrifices we know exists even in our own days, and that chiefs,
when they build a house or a war-canoe, offer up a human being; and the
Polynesians and Indonesians resemble one another very closely. But such
a superstition has not come to us through the Malay race, and we must
rather seek for its origin from the Aryan Hindus of India; and as the
Chinese took most of their tradition and folk-lore from the cradle of
the Aryan races, the belief might thus be common to both peoples.[7] The
Rev. Mr. Ward, writing early in this century, refers to the human
sacrifices at Bardwan, in Bengal, and says of them: "The discovery of
murders in the name of religion was made by finding bodies with the
heads cut off, and placed near the images of 'Durga' and 'Kali.'" Also
at Serampur, before the temple of the goddess "Jara," a human body was
found without a head. Whatever the origin of the superstition may be
traced to, the municipality at Singapore were wisely advised, and we
think very properly declined to take any notice of the recent "head
scare" of this year, and we can only hope that these apprehensions will
gradually cease to stir the minds of the people as they become more
instructed and advanced in civilization.
[Footnote 7: The old mystic symbol of the Swastika of India,
for instance, [Illustration: A clockwise Swastika] is common
amongst the Mongolian races, and other signs of an early union
between these races might be given.]
Among the many works of utility carried on by convict labour during the
tenure of the office of Superintendent of Convicts by Captain Man was
the widening and improving of the Bukit Timah Canal, in order to drain
the adjacent low lands, and render them capable for cultivation by
market gardeners. In the cutting of these artificial channels the
convicts from India had great aptitude, and some of them had been
employed on similar work in their own country. The largest work,
however, commenced in Captain Man's time, was the erection of the whole
of the permanent buildings required for the location of the then large
number of Indian convicts. They were built within the surrounding wall
of the jail, near the "Brass Basa" or "Wet Rice" Canal, and entirely by
the labour of the convicts themselves. The estimate for the work made by
the Superintending Engineer for their execution by free labour was
100,000 rupees, but the money cost to the Government was only 12,000
rupees, when executed by convict labour and with convict-made materials.
To effect this, the convicts were trained to make the bricks, to dig and
burn coral for lime, to quarry stone for foundations, and to fell the
timber in Government forests in the island, and to dress it for roof
timbers, door and window frames, and so forth.
When Captain Man went to Malacca as Resident Councillor, Captain Ronald
Macpherson, of the Madras Artillery, succeeded him as Superintendent of
Convicts, Singapore, and carried on the works in progress at the time.
This was in the year 1855. The most prominent work commenced by the
convicts in his time, and subsequently carried to completion, was the
erection of the new church, now the cathedral of the diocese. It must be
acknowledged that it was a courageous act on the part of Captain
Macpherson to have designed a church in the early English style of
architecture, and to have pledged himself to the Government that he
would undertake to construct it wholly by convict labour. We think it
showed both confidence in himself and in his convict workpeople, and
nothing could more clearly have proved to what perfection their skilled
labour had advanced than that he felt himself able to embark on so
elaborate a work.
It was in May of this year, 1855, that the Bengal Government approved of
the project, and sanctioned the expenditure in cash of 47,000 rupees
upon its construction. The Bishop of Calcutta laid the foundation stone
during next year before a large concourse of the merchants and residents
of the place, and the inscription below the stone ran as follows:--
The first English church of Singapore, commenced A.D. 1834, and
consecrated A.D. 1838, having become dilapidated, this stone of
a new and more commodious edifice, dedicated to the worship of
Almighty God according to the rites and discipline of the
Church of England, under the name of St. Andrew, was laid by
the Right Reverend Daniel Wilson, D.D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta
and Metropolitan, on the 4th March, 1856, in the twenty-fourth
year of his episcopate.
The Hon'ble Edmund Augustus Blundell being the Governor
of the Straits Settlements.
The Hon'ble Thomas Church being Resident Councillor of
Singapore.
Lieut-Col. Charles Pooley, of the Madras Army, Commanding
the Troops.
The Rev. William Topley Humphrey being Chaplain.
And Captain Ronald McPherson of the Madras Artillery being
the Architect.
The Building to be erected at the charge of the Hon'ble East
India Company.
Full Estimate of cost: Co.'s Rupees 120,932, or with Convict
Labour Rupees 47,916.
In May, 1857, Captain Man proceeded from Malacca to Penang as Resident
Councillor of that settlement, and Captain Macpherson took his place at
Malacca. Captain Purvis, also of the Madras Artillery, was appointed to
succeed Captain Macpherson in the combined duties of engineer and
Superintendent of Convicts; but, to the regret of the Government, he
relinquished the appointment at the close of the year, and Lieutenant
McNair, another Madras Artillery officer, succeeded him. Lieutenant (now
Major) McNair was a passed interpreter in the Hindustani language, which
was spoken by the bulk of the convicts in the jail, and he subsequently
qualified as a civil engineer. He remained in charge of the convicts
until the jail was abolished in 1873.
Upon his assuming charge, the foundations of the new church had been
laid and the masonry built up to nearly three feet above ground. The
work was steadily carried on in accordance with the plans of Captain
Macpherson, with the single exception that it was found necessary, owing
to the weakness of the foundations, to abandon the heavy tower, and to
place a light steeple instead. In the building of this church, Mr. John
Bennett afforded most material assistance as Assistant Superintendent of
Convicts. To his oversight and careful attention to the variety of
details incident to such a work may be ascribed its satisfactory
completion in January, 1862, when the edifice was consecrated by the
then Bishop of Calcutta, Dr. George Cotton, who so unfortunately met his
death in 1866 by being drowned in the Ganges. Further details in
connection with this work will also be given under the heading of
"Convict Industries and Public Works."