SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
There were then about 1,100 or 1,200 Indian convicts in Singapore,
divided into six classes, and employed in various ways as already
narrated, but the following extract from _The Anecdotal History_ is
worth quoting verbatim:
"Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein were the Sydneys of
India. There are upon an average about 1,100 to 1,200 native
convicts from India constantly at Singapore. These are employed
making roads and digging canals; and, undoubtedly, without them
the town, as far as locomotion is concerned, would have been
now but a sorry residence. They are secured within high walls,
and although a few now and then escape, they meet with such
rough treatment from the Malays on the Peninsula, that they
find it commonly the most prudent course to return, or allow
themselves to be brought back. The native of India accommodates
himself more easily to banishment than a European does, because
his ideas lead to predestination, and his habits are simple.
In former days, when convict discipline was not so well
understood as it is now, the convicts transported from India
used to traffic and amass money; banishment was in some cases,
perhaps, sought for, and crimes were, it is feared, sometimes
committed by natives to obtain it; but the felon must now
expect to be kept in his place and hard at work. Still, the
convict whose period is short, contrives to save something out
of his allowance, and on the expiration of his term he
generally sets up as a keeper of cattle, or a letter-out of
carriages and horses; and undoubtedly some of these men are as
well, if not better behaved than many of their native
neighbours of higher pretensions. There are regulations by
which the convict is encouraged by certain rewards, or
remission short of emancipation, to orderly conduct."
When Mr. Coleman resigned, the duties of Superintendent were taken up by
Captain Stevenson of the 12th Madras Native Infantry, who carried out
the system then in force, and somewhat added to the strength of the
convict warders; for we find in his annual report for 1845 the following
remarks: "Convict peons are selected from the second class for general
good conduct and intelligence, and they continue to receive $3 each per
mensem, in addition to provisions and clothing. Free peons were, I hear,
formerly tried, but found not to be so well suited for the peculiar
duties required of them; besides, the prospect of gaining a belt--a
mark of authority--is a strong inducement to good conduct on the part of
the convict, and conduces much towards lightening, in the well disposed,
the feeling of hopelessness that ever accompanies a sense of
imprisonment and slavery for life."
At this time (1840 to 1845), Singapore was more than ever before
infested with tigers--it is supposed that they swam across the narrow
part of the Old Straits, from Johore to Kranji. The number of natives,
principally Chinese, employed on gambier and pepper farms, that were
carried off or destroyed by them annually was considerable, and it was
said at the time that not a day passed without one man being killed by
wild animals. Whether it was actually so or not, there are no police
statistics to prove, but as many as five in eight days were reported at
that time, and in later years, about 1860, as many as 200 deaths were
notified to the police in one year, and probably a great number never
were brought to notice, because the difficulty of obtaining coolies to
work in the thick jungle, as it then was, was a great inducement to the
"Towkays," or Head Chinese, to keep the number of deaths as much as
possible from being known. In those days a reward of one hundred dollars
was offered by Government for every tiger brought to the police station,
whether alive or dead; and this sum, owing to their continued ravages,
was subsequently increased to one hundred and fifty dollars.
One seizure of a man-eater is worth recording here; it is taken from
_The Singapore Free Press_ of the year 1840, and runs as follows:--
"The news of the capture and death of a tiger last Saturday
night on a Chinaman's plantation, close to that of Mr.
Balustier, the American Consul, gave general satisfaction,
being the first of these destructive animals which the Chinese
had succeeded in catching alive. A pit was dug where his track
had been observed, the mouth of which was covered lightly over,
and two or three dogs tied as bait. The ruse luckily took
effect, and, when advancing to his imagined prey, he was
himself precipitated into the pit head foremost, where he was
very soon despatched by the natives, who pounded him to death
with stones. He was a large animal for the Malay type,
measuring 9 ft. 3 in. from the nose to the tip of the tail,
which was 35 inches long, the circumference round the forearm
being 21 inches. The captors have claimed and obtained from the
local authorities the promised reward of one hundred dollars,
besides having sold the flesh of the animal itself to the
Chinese, Klings, and others for six fanams a catty (a fanam is
about three halfpence), by which they realized about seventy
dollars more."
It is singular how all natives believe that by eating the flesh of the
tiger they absorb the essence or distinctive features of the animal.
Balfour says that "the clavicle or collar-bone of the tiger is
considered of great virtue by many natives of India. The whiskers are
supposed by some to endow their possessor with unlimited power over the
opposite sex." Tiger bones are often sold in China to form an ingredient
in certain invigorating jellies, made of hartshorn, and the plastron of
the terrapin or tortoise. Burmese and Malays eat the flesh of the tiger,
because they believe that by eating it they acquire the courage and
sagacity of the animal. Tigers' claws are used as charms, and the most
solemn oath of one of the aboriginal tribes of India, the "Santals," is
sworn when touching a tiger's skin; handsome brooches and earrings are
also made from tigers' claws mounted in gold. In 1854 no less than six
persons were killed within the space of a few days not far from the
town, and in April of that year the Government, alarmed for the safety
of the people, sanctioned a considerable expenditure for the
construction of tiger pits over many parts of the island. In August of
the same year the following article appeared in _The Singapore Free
Press_:--
"The attention of His Honour the Governor having been directed
to the continued deplorable ravages committed by tigers on the
island, he has expressed himself ready to adopt any measures
which may tend to remove the evil. It has been suggested that
persons are to be found in the vicinity of Calcutta trained for
the purpose of destroying tigers; and His Honour has written to
the Bengal Government requesting that half a dozen of these
'shikarries' should be sent to the Straits for a limited
period, to be employed in the destruction of these animals. The
Governor has also directed that in the meantime, should it be
deemed expedient, a certain number of volunteers from convicts
of the third class should be permitted to beat the jungle once
every month with tom-toms (native drums), horns, etc., which,
if they do not lead to the destruction of the tigers, may
frighten them away from the island, to which they come from the
neighbouring state of Johore."
Later, in 1859, finding that the number of tigers on the island, and the
number of people killed by them, were still increasing, the Governor,
General Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, discussed the matter with the then
Superintendent of Convicts (Major McNair), who informed him that he had
good shikarries amongst the Indian convicts, and it was arranged to
organize parties of convicts for their destruction. Three parties, of
three men in each party, were selected, and armed with the old
muzzle-loading muskets and ball ammunition. One party was sent to the
Bukit Timah or Central district, another to the Serangoon and Changi or
Eastern district, and the third to the Choo Choo Kang or Western
district. These parties were generally successful in killing half a
dozen or so in the course of the year, chiefly in the Central or garden
district. Recourse was also had to trapping them in cleverly-constructed
deep pits, built cone-wise, and by heavy beams of timber suspended from
tree to tree over their tracks, connected on the ground with springes;
but only upon rare occasions were they successful in this way. We had in
our possession several skins and skulls from those destroyed by
convicts. Some castes amongst these convicts from India, when employed
on this duty, were also very expert in catching such venomous snakes as
cobras and craits. They appeared not to possess the slightest dread of
them, and would stealthily follow them to their burrows, then grasp the
tail, and by a rapid movement of the other hand along the body to just
below the head, grip the snake firmly at the neck and allow it to coil
round their arm. During the construction of Fort Canning, later on, many
were so caught and brought down to the jail for the reward. They were
then destroyed, the convicts at the time always asking pardon of the
snake for so betraying it to their masters. It is worth mentioning here
that in the jail there were so many different races of India, and men of
so many occupations and artifices, that what a man of one caste did not
know, another would be sure to volunteer to perform. This collection of
such a variety of races in a jail under the association system had
another and more important advantage, for it was at once a safeguard
and protection against any possible combined revolt against the
authorities, for one caste would invariably "split" against another.
It was in the year 1841 that it was decided to erect a jail for the
Indian convicts on a site near the Brass Basa Canal on the east of the
town, and immediately below Government Hill, now known as Fort Canning.
The boundary wall was first built, and then a brick building within,
which was subsequently used as a convict hospital. This is shown in the
plan of the whole prison made in 1872, a copy of which is given later.
In this brick building the defaulters and those in irons were placed on
one side, and the local prisoners on the other. The remainder of the
convicts were lodged in temporary structures inside the enclosure wall;
and those employed in positions of trust were allowed to erect small
huts for themselves in the style of a native village just outside the
wall, in which they were allowed to have their wives and families. There
was but one entrance to this enclosure, where convict warders were at
all times stationed as a gate guard. It will be readily understood that
discipline could not well be maintained under such circumstances, while
no records appear to have been kept of any kind, relating to their daily
employment or occupation, so there is nothing to show whether the
convicts were employed in the erection of this boundary wall; but it is
more probable that they were only used as labourers, and not as
artisans, for it was not until a later date that they were organized and
trained as skilled workmen.
It may be well for us to indicate here the progress made in the
Singapore town up to 1842, as given by _The Free Press_ newspaper in
that year. It runs thus:--
"A stranger visiting Singapore cannot fail to be struck by the
signs everywhere exhibited of the settlement being in a high
state of prosperity and progressive improvement. If he lands on
the side next the town he beholds the pathway in front of the
merchants' 'godowns' or warehouses cumbered with packages, and
if he glances inside one of the 'godowns' he will see it filled
with packages and bales of goods from all parts of the world.
If he goes among the native shops he finds them filled with
clamorous Klings (natives of the Coromandel Coast of India) and
Chinese, all busily engaged in driving bargains. Passing on, he
comes to where, near the jail, the swamp is being filled up and
covered with shops, which are seen in every stage of progress,
some with the foundations newly laid, and others nearly
completed. If he wishes to leave the town he crosses the
Singapore River by a new bridge, which was built two years ago.
The scene now undergoes a change: in place of the narrow and
crooked streets the stranger finds himself amongst rows of neat
villas, each standing in its own enclosure. The Governor's
residence is to the left upon a small hill commanding a fine
view of the town and harbour. The flag-staff is also placed
there, and at all hours of the day may be seen covered with
flags, announcing the approach of ships from every quarter of
the globe. If he should go into the country, the many thriving
plantations of spices and other tropical productions (amongst
which are to be noted one or two sugar estates) present an
equally pleasing sight, and give promise of a long continuance
to the well-being of the settlement."
In this year, 1842, or it may perhaps have been in the previous year,
Mr. J. T. Thompson came to Singapore in the capacity of Government
Surveyor; whereupon the Government called upon all holders and occupiers
of land to point out to him their boundaries, preparatory to the issue
of proper leases. Under his direction there was a systematic survey made
of all allotments upon the island; and intelligent Indian convicts were
provided him to act as his survey party, being preferred for that duty
over freemen to be obtained in the town. These convicts formed the
nucleus of a regular native staff for this department of the Government;
and, indeed, up to the time of the abolition of the jail they continued
to be employed as chainmen and survey assistants.
When Mr. Thompson visited Malacca, to inquire into the system pursued
there, he found it to be of the most primitive type. For the linear
measurements the surveyor had for a chain, rattans jointed together, and
this, with a ten-foot rod and a common compass, formed their whole
equipment. When he tested however the measurements of the fields and the
town lots, he was surprised to find to what approach to accuracy they
had arrived with their rude implements. Indian convicts were also there
employed as land measurers and assistants.
Upon his return to Singapore, Mr. Thompson designed a European hospital,
and adjoining it a pauper hospital, erected mostly at the cost of a
benevolent Chinese gentleman of the name of Tan-Tock-Seng. They were
built on a plateau of Pearls Hill facing the town. Some years later
these buildings were required for military purposes, and were adapted
for the purposes of a Commissariat and Ordnance Department respectively.
A new building, in which was incorporated a general hospital, was
subsequently erected facing the Bukit Timah Road, and the Tan-Tock-Seng
hospital for paupers was built further outside the town on the Serangoon
Road. In the erection of these buildings convict labour was very largely
utilised, and in the front elevation of Tan-Tock-Seng's hospital they
had some rather difficult mouldings to execute.
In the year 1844, owing to the amount of building that was then going on
in the town, there was a great dearth of bricks; so much so, that the
Chinese brick-kilns could not supply the immense demand, and the price
per laksa of 10,000 rose more than fifty per cent. This led to the
determination on the part of the Government to make their own bricks,
and an order was issued to the Public Works Department to arrange for
their manufacture by the convicts. This was subsequently done; and a
suitable site having been found upon the Serangoon Road, a large
establishment was started, an account of which will be given in detail
when we come to deal with the industrial occupations of the Indian
convicts. The first Government brick-field, however, was started at
Rochore, under Captain Faber, but was given up after only a short trial.
He employed free labour.